THE FRONTIERS OF FOREIGN FOODS

2 However, the infl uence of Chinese food and the Chinese themselves ran afoul of American xenophobia when Congress yielded to public pres-sure and passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which

THE FRONTIERS OF

FOREIGN FOODS

When Samuel Clemens (a.k.a Mark Twain) visited Europe in 1878

he complained bitterly about the food, comparing it most unfavorably with American fare Before returning home, he composed a wish list

of comestibles he desired upon his return including Virginia bacon, soft-shell crabs, Philadelphia terrapin soup, canvas-back duck from Baltimore, Connecticut shad, green corn on the ear, butter beans, as-paragus, string beans, American butter (he complained that European butter had no salt); predictably apple pie, and curiously, frogs

Leslie Brenner (1999) 1

WITH APOLOGIES to Samuel Clemens there was no such thing as

“American fare” north of Mexico when he wrote, nor had there been for close to two centuries, the remnants of pre-Columbian foodstuffs and cook-ing techniques notwithstandcook-ing Since the seventeenth century, American cuisine has been a work in progress, kneaded, shaped, and reshaped by African, Asian, and European immigrants The African contribution was in place by the time of the Civil War, as was that of Northern Europe though somewhat distorted by Native American infl uences

But following the war, millions of southern and eastern Europeans, along with a relative handful of Asians, arrived to take their turn at stir-ring America’s culinary melting pot The new immigrants settled on both coasts in large numbers but some, lured by the promise of free land in the

1862 Homestead Act, spread out into the interior, planting seeds of food globalization as they went

Railroads were even more effective in scattering migrants about During the war, the Lincoln government had authorized the construction of two railroads One of these, the Central Pacifi c, extended eastward from California while the other, the Union Pacifi c, ran westward from Omaha When joined with a golden spike at Promontory Point, Utah in 1869, the nation’s fi rst transcontinental railroad was completed, and by then two foreign cuisines – Chinese and Italian – had also become transcontinental

TSAP SUI: CHINESE INFLUENCES

The Chinese had been West Coast settlers since the 1820s With the begin-ning of the Gold Rush, many more arrived and some got into the San Fran-cisco restaurant business to feed hungry miners They later stayed in busi-ness by catering to more arriving Chinese: laborers to work in California canneries and agriculture, and those who laid track for the railroads This clientele was mostly male – single men hoping to put together enough money to return to China, take a wife, and buy some land Since the con-struction crews hired by the Central Pacifi c were mostly Chinese who wanted the same food they had eaten in San Francisco restaurants, Chinese cooks were employed to provide it

And still more Chinese immigrants came to California seeking jobs so that the 7,500 counted in the 1850 census had increased to 105,000 by 1880 As

a rule they were Cantonese, from southern China, whose dishes were based

on rice and vegetables quickly cooked The art of stir-frying, the use of spices such as raw or preserved ginger, ingredients like bean sprouts, and dishes such

as fried rice, along with “Americanized” chow mein and chop suey (from the

Cantonese tsap sui meaning “miscellaneous things”) began to move east 2 However, the infl uence of Chinese food and the Chinese themselves ran afoul of American xenophobia when Congress yielded to public pres-sure and passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which took effect in 1882 and was not repealed until 1946 With neither new arrivals nor fresh ideas to invigorate it, Chinese food in America became an increasingly poor rendi-tion of the dishes of Canton

SPAGHETTI AND RED WINE: ITALIAN INFLUENCES

In Omaha, it was European laborers and some Civil War veterans who began laying track in the opposite direction The Irish were the most numerous among them but they were joined by a signifi cant number of

Italians, who had been arriving in the United States since 1850 Like the Chinese, the Italians were from the southern part of their country, and from Sicily, which meant a diet based on pasta, olive oil, cheese, tomato sauce, and wine; and these foods were furnished by the railroad after the Italians rebelled at consuming any more potatoes, beans, bully beef, and whisky, the diet favored by Irish workers

Some of the Italians never left Omaha, and a “little Italy,” one of the nation’s fi rst, sprang up with restaurants that served meatballs and mari-nara sauce over spaghetti, and red wine from straw-thatched bottles of Chianti atop checkered tablecloths Other Italians continued west from Utah to open more restaurants, transform themselves into truck garden-ers, cultivating cherished old country vegetables like artichokes, zucchini, and broccoli (California now grows 90 percent of the nation’s broccoli crop), and become movers and shakers in the burgeoning California wine industry

America’s new transcontinental railroad made it possible to ship California produce to the east in less than a week – lightning fast when compared to

a 120-day voyage around Cape Horn – and immense wheat farms sprang

up in the Livermore and San Joaquin valleys Their production of 16 mil-lion tons in 1870, although just a fraction of the nation’s total 1869 crop (of almost 300,000 million bushels), represented nearly a quarter of its

70 million bushels produced in 1866 3 In like fashion, California wine pro-duction, which totaled around 4 million gallons in 1870, increased to over

20 million gallons by 1890

CHILLIES AND GARBANZOS: HISPANIC INFLUENCES

The real estate acquired through war with Mexico abruptly made Americans out of many Mexicans, and both Spain and Mexico continued to exert a vast infl uence over the cuisine in a belt running from southern California

to Texas From Louisiana to Florida, Spain’s infl uence continued along the Gulf Coast Hispanic cuisine is bean based, utilizing New World legumes like pintos and black beans, along with the Old World chickpeas (garban-zos).4 It is also tortilla based, with their preparation (before masa harina

and tortilla presses) claiming many of a woman’s waking hours even before the tortillas were metamorphosed into tacos, tostados, and enchiladas Chilli peppers, tomatoes, tomatillos, pumpkin seeds, pine nuts, garlic, onions, squashes, cheeses, and spicy sausages also fi gured into meals for

many in Texas and the desert Southwest, with beef, often barbequed, cen-tral to the diets of practically everyone But why not beef, with Texas send-ing an average of some half-million head of cattle a year up the Chisholm Trail to Abilene? 5 These were longhorn cattle, descendents of the same breed still raised along the Guadlaquiver River in Spain They were fi rst brought to America in 1493 and, as in Spain, tended by mounted cow-boys 6 The fi rst serious cattle drive north of Mexico took place during the last years of Spain’s tenure in Louisiana, when a large herd was driven from Texas to help feed Spanish troops during the American Revolution Beef also entered the diet in chilli con carne, a dish popular in Texas while it still was a territory of Mexico The “Bowl of Red” has suffered from the allegation that it was a Texas invention and not truly Mexican But this is a defi nitional argument Stews containing chilli peppers, beans, and assorted bits of animal protein have been eaten in Mexico for thousands

of years So the charge must be because the Texas contribution has often been to eliminate the beans and base the dish almost solely on beef, the one ingredient the Aztecs and their predecessors did not have Chilli con carne lies at the heart of Tex-Mex cuisine that is also disparaged in some quarters, but is a part of a fusion cuisine that represents an early triumph of globalization, in the case of chilli, Old World animal fl esh and New World plants with or without the beans

Given today’s popularity of buttery guacamole, it seems strange that avocados, until recently, were not a part of the fusion They were fi rst used

by pre-Columbian Americans, then by the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Central America In 1651, a Spanish priest, Bernabé Cobe, described three kinds – Mexican, West Indian, and Guatemalan, and a century later, George Washington, then a nineteen year old visitor to Barbados, tasted the West Indian variety (he didn’t like it) By 1825, American avocados were growing in Africa, Polynesia, and the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), but

it was not until 1871 that the Mexican variety was commercially culti-vated in California and, later still, that the Mexican and the Guatemalan varieties were combined to become the Hass avocado 7 Toward the end of the nineteenth century avocados were popular in New York, and the West Indian variety was growing in Florida by the early twentieth century Yet, only belatedly did avocados become an integral part of the “Hispanic” food infl uences 8

Spanish infl uences, of course, were not limited to Texas and the American southwest Much of the cuisine of coastal Florida was Spanish Caribbean

in orientation, and Cuban cuisine could be found from Tampa to Key West

to St Augustine on the Atlantic seaboard Black beans and rice (“Moors and Christians” when the rice is not yellowed with saffron) are at the core

of Cuban-American cooking So are soups made from black beans or gar-banzos (chick peas), chicken and rice, roast pork, fi sh and shrimp, bol-litos (deep-fried nuggets of mashed black-eyed peas and garlic), olive oil, Cuban bread, and Cuban coffee

CREOLE AND CAJUN: FRENCH AND AFRICAN INFLUENCES

In 1533, Catherine de Medici moved from Florence to France to become the Queen of Henri II Her love of spinach brought forth the still-used the designation of spinach dishes as “Florentine.” These dishes were prepared

by the entourage of Italian cooks who accompanied Catherine, and her cooks profoundly altered French cooking techniques and ingredients,

lead-ing later on to the famous French haute cuisine.9 In some ways these events infl uenced Louisiana cookery, but French infl uences also arrived from the French Caribbean and French Canada, and it is sometimes forgotten that many other cultures took part in its creation

Among them were German culinary traditions, thanks to thousands of farmers, mostly from Alsace-Lorraine, who were lured to Louisiana early

in its history with the promise of free land Spanish cuisine was well-established during Spain’s three decades or so of rule and, just before it ended at the turn of the nineteenth century, Sicilian settlers arrived to be joined by some 25,000 Irish refugees from the potato famine by the middle

of that century 10 Arguably, however, the greatest infl uence was that of West Africa because both slaves and free blacks seem to have been in the fore-front of fashioning those cuisines that are now called Cajun and Creole 11 The French Revolution impelled refugees from the “Terror” and its guil-lotine to Louisiana at the same time that it touched off the slave insurrec-tion in San Domingue That revoluinsurrec-tion evicted thousands of whites, many

of whom relocated in Louisiana along with their slaves and free colored retainers to continue sugarcane cultivation under old management in a new locale 12 But in addition to sugar-making skills, the slaves and free coloreds carried with them the cuisine that had been elaborated in a now independent Haiti – a blending of French and African infl uences that relied heavily on local seafood (especially oysters, shrimp, and crayfi sh), along with sausages and rice

The Spanish word criollo, employed to mean “born in America,” was

used in Louisiana to connote roughly the same thing and therefore “Creole” cooking, by defi nition, had an American birth even if the midwives were foreign In New Orleans’s Vieux Carrè, which burned in 1788 but was rebuilt under Spanish rule, Haitian cookery was infused with Asian rice, brought to Louisiana in 1718 by the British; chicory from southern Europe; American plants such as tomatoes, potatoes, red beans, squash, chayote (called a mirliton in New Orleans); chilli peppers, introduced from Mexico; okra and cowpeas from Africa; and fi lé powder (dried sassafras leaves) from the Choctaw Indians As in San Domingue, however, the foundation of the cuisine was constructed of fi sh and crustaceans

So was the cuisine of the Acadians whose exile from Acadia in French Canada had transplanted around 5,000 “Cajuns” (a corruption of Acadian) settlers to south central Louisiana by 1800 Cajun cookery employs roughly the same ingredients as Creole cookery and is often called “Creole,” which

it is, because it too was born in America Historically, at least one distinc-tion has been that Creole is city cooking and Cajun its rural counterpart Either way, Cajun with its hot and spicy fl avors is typical of everyday Caribbean meals Crawfi sh (crayfi sh, crawdads, mudbugs) which arguably characterize Cajun as opposed to Creole cooking, are found all over the hemisphere, but are seldom eaten outside of Louisiana They are eaten hot and boiled, inhabit gumbos, and when deep-fried are known as “Cajun popcorn.”

Gallic cooking did some migrating from Louisiana Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century settlers carried it up the Mississippi and its tributar-ies to infl uence the cuisine of St Louis, Terre Haute on the Wabash, and Louisville on the Ohio The introduction of the steamboat – the fi rst was

the New Orleans in 1812 – transformed the city it was named for into a

major port, and thereafter river traffi c, including that of luxury steamboats, ensured the reinforcement of Creole cookery in all river towns 13

GRITS, GREENS, AND BEANS: AFRICAN INFLUENCES AGAIN

Along coastal Florida, Hispanic hands often guided food preparation, but inland the diet was that of the Old South, shaped around the “hog and hominy” core of southern cooking that fi rst took root in Virginia Save for

a few sections of the south, beef was rare and fresh milk even more so The Old South enjoyed a cuisine that, like its Creole counterpart, was crafted

largely by African cooks They worked with familiar foods from Africa, like okra, yams, collard greens, cowpeas, and watermelons to feed their own families or, on some plantations, all of the slaves These were comple-mented by molasses, corn bread, grits (similar to millet porridge in Africa), chitterlings, fried fi sh, salt pork, fat pork, and the occasional ham The African cooks for the big house, however, also put together dishes of greens and beans and cornbread to go with the roasted pigs, turtle soups, steaks, boiled mutton, deep-fried turkeys, fried chicken, chicken and dumplings, and sherbets As in the southwest, during warm weather much of the meat was barbequed outside to escape the heat of the kitchen

In Africa, foods were highly seasoned with native melegueta peppers

as well as American chilli peppers, and southern dishes were equally well seasoned but mostly with red peppers The slaves also employed sesame oil, peanut sauce, walnuts, and Jerusalem artichoke pickles as condiments

In and around Charleston, rice has been used since its introduction in the seventeenth century – a classic Charleston dish is “Country Captain,” a curried chicken dish that blends African cooking with the spices of India served over steamed rice Other slave-inspired favorites of the Carolina Low Country include red rice (rice cooked with tomatoes and season-ings), rice pilaf (pronounced perloo from the English pilau), and she-crab soup, which counted among the “fancy foods” as did that grand dessert,

“syllabub.”

Southern cooking depends heavily on the frying pan (with lard or oil and cornmeal for breading) This is where catfi sh are fried, okra turned into fritters, and corn-batter deep-fried (the results were later called “hush puppies”); where cowpeas, pork, and peppers become “Hopping John,” and batter is transformed into corn bread or, when cracklings are added, crackling bread

BRATWURST AND BEER: GERMANIC INFLUENCES

In the north, by contrast, people relied more on the oven and baking than on the stove top and frying Stovetop cooking had the advantage

of keeping houses cooler in summer, whereas baking helped to warm a house in cooler weather It was an advantage much appreciated by the Dutch in New York, who introduced cole-slaw (kool ⫽ cabbage, sla ⫽ salad), the baked cookie (koekje), and waffl es In Pennsylvania, baking, which had often been done in three-footed redware, became more of

a science after the fi rst American iron cook stove was cast in 1762 – a stove put to good use by immigrants from Germanic Europe, mostly from the Rhineland, who had begun arriving during the last years of the seventeenth century These were the Mennonites who, along with their cooking, were erroneously labeled “Pennsylvania Dutch” instead of

“Pennsylvania Deutsch.”

That cookery focused on the pig – all of it – from the ears and snout for head cheese, to the feet for souse Leftover scraps were mixed with corn-meal, shaped into a loaf, and called “scrapple,” one of Pennsylvania’s most famous dishes, rivaled only by “Philadelphia Pepper Pot,” also a Pennsylvania Dutch creation This cuisine is distinctive, among other things, because of its seasonings, which have always featured sage and coriander for sausages but became a trinity after the autumn crocus, whose stamens yield saffron, was introduced by the Schwenkenfelders from Silesia in 1736 14

For Europeans sugar was still dear, but in America it was cheap, and the term “Pennsylvania Dutch” is nearly synonymous with sweet baked goods Cakes, cookies, and pies were inevitable at every meal So, too, were their renowned cinnamon buns, puddings, apple butter, and applesauce, all good reasons why the Pennsylvania Dutch are said to bear much of the respon-sibility for America’s sweet tooth Pickles, also generally sweet, are another

of the Pennsylvania Dutch specialties – everything from beet pickles to bread and butter pickles to watermelon rinds

This was the cuisine carried west to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois by the Amish Mennonites Other Germans also moved west – on fl atboats down the Ohio River to Cincinnati, southern Indiana, St Louis, and Missouri’s interior – and via the Erie Canal and the Great Lakes to Wisconsin and northern Indiana Iowa, equidistant from both Missouri and Wisconsin, got German settlers from both directions

At Cincinnati many Germans left the river to help transform the town into “Porkopolis” – the place where mast-fed pigs from the Appalachian Mountains arrived on Ohio River fl atboats Their fl esh was packed into brine-fi lled barrels for long-distance marketing, and their fat became the foundation of Cincinnati’s soap manufacturing empire 15

The German taste for pork also spawned the Wisconsin and Indiana sausage industry, which turned out Thueringer blood sausage, summer sau-sage, liver sausau-sage, knackwurst, beerwurst, and bratwurst Still another of their sausages was the frankfurter wurst reminding us that the Germans gave America its two most famous sandwiches – the hot dog named for

Frankfurt in Germany, and the hamburger, named for Germany’s port city

of Hamburg

The Germans also raised dairy cattle, made butter and, in collaboration with their Swiss immigrant cousins, began the Wisconsin cheese indus-try Until then cheese in America had been produced under an English infl uence which meant that most varieties were versions of cheddar But Limburger, and brick (an American milder version of Limburger) were among the fi rst German cheeses produced, and as the Italians entered the business, Wisconsin began duplicating most all of the famous Old World cheeses

Dumplings, sauerkraut, schnitzel, sauerbraten, rye and pumpernickel breads were still other German specialties that were blended into cuisines originally introduced by the English – the whole accelerating a European-izing of American cuisine

German beer, yet another specialty, was welcome in a country where beer (actually ale) had fallen on hard times In the absence of barley malt, English settlers had from the beginning of their residence in North America brewed ale from persimmons, pumpkins, maize, maple sugar – just about anything they could get their hands on that would ferment That the result was not always satisfactory can be discerned from the great quantities of English ale they imported But whether homemade

or imported the ale was made the English way – a top-fermented brew that was heavy, dark, and cloudy 16 Hard cider, therefore, was always

a serious competitor of ale, or at least it was until the techniques of brewing lager beer (also called pilsner) reached America with German immigrants 17

Lager was a bottom-fermented brew (“top” and “bottom” signifying where yeast collects in the vat) that turned out light, clean, and crisp – well suited to America’s warm summer temperatures, and a beverage that spar-kled when served in glasses the consumer could see through This was a much different experience from heavy, opaque tankards containing heavy, opaque ale But to produce lager and store it (lager means to store), cold temperatures were required In fact, because bottom fermentation needed ice for the kegs to rest on while the bubbles worked and because the fi nal product required caves and tunnels to keep it cool, the brewing season did not include the summer months Milwaukee and St Louis both satisfi ed these beer brewing requirements and became its early centers, as well as centers of German populations

Milwaukee had three rivers – the Milwaukee, the Kinnickinnic, and the Menominee All converged on Lake Michigan to provide water, ice, and cav-erns Tunnels could also be bored into bluffs along the lake In 1844, Jacob Best took note of what seemed to be an ideal location and founded breweries that a few years later became the property of Frederick Pabst and Frederick Miller respectively A third brewery was founded by August Krug who died

in 1856, whereupon a young bookkeeper of the fi rm, Joseph Schlitz, took the helm Together, Pabst, Miller, and Schlitz made Milwaukee famous Meanwhile, in St Louis, the Busch brothers, Adolphus and Ulrich, had each married daughters of brewer Eberhard Anheuser Adolphus, who worked for Anheuser, ultimately gained control of the brewery, and in

1879 it was named the Anheuser-Busch Brewing Association, launching another goliath in the brewing business More fi rms followed as Copenha-gen’s Carlsberg brewery developed a pure brewer’s yeast that brought an end to brewing failures, and ice machines were invented so that brewer-ies were not necessarily tied to rivers and lakes that froze 18 Cincinnati, Detroit, and Chicago – also centers of German immigrants – began to boast of their breweries and from this Midwest beginning, lager brewing spread across the land to both coasts

There was a concomitant spread of barley and hop cultivation Prior to the brewing boom, hops were either imported from England, cultivated

in small plots, or gathered in the wild But supply uncertainty ultimately stimulated commercial growing New York State was the big hop producer until the 1940s, when its cultivation spread to California, Washington, and Oregon Now the latter two states and Idaho account for most of the U.S hops, and North Dakota leads the nation in barley production

None of this is to say that German foods and culture were always enthusiastically received by mainstream America – not after warring with Germany twice in the fi rst half of the twentieth century In fact, altering food appellations became part of the confl icts The name “sauerkraut” was temporarily changed to “victory cabbage” during the fi rst of these wars, and

“German toast,” became (permanently) “French toast.”

TEA AND BOILED PUDDING: ENGLISH INFLUENCES

Despite foreign culinary intrusions, a stubborn adherence to English foods and English ways of preparing them continued to dominate – especially in New England The colonists had brought a British sweet