University – age learner’s preferences for foreign language motivational strategies

In adopting motivation definition as a process of continuous interaction between learner and context, the purpose of the study was to seek in-depth insights into motivation of students o

UNIVERSITY-AGE LEARNERS’ PREFERENCES FOR FOREIGN

LANGUAGE MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

NGUYEN TRUONG SA

Industrial University of Ho Chi Minh City nguyentruongsa@iuh.edu.vn

Abstract In adopting motivation definition as a process of continuous interaction between learner and context, the purpose of the study was to seek in-depth insights into motivation of students of English as a foreign language in relation to teachers‟ in-class motivational strategies and how learning proficiency and experience affect their preferences Cohort of this study was 90 freshman-year and 90 senior-year students in a bachelor in English language program in Vietnam Triangulation method combining questionnaire and group interview was adopted Different from findings in other research studies, there were evidences of both negative and positive effects of the strategies; and there were significant correlations between the learners‟ preferences for the motivational strategies and their level of proficiency

as well as learning experience The result suggested that the use of any motivational strategies should be put under consideration of both individual and group competence, their experience in the program, and their on-going perception of the learning goals

Key words: language learning motivations, learning experience, situated motivation, motivational strategies

1 INTRODUCTION

Motivation has been widely accepted as one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second/foreign language (L2) learning [1], [2], [3],[4], [5] Motivation is seen as not being permanent inner forces and static mental or emotional state; rather motivation is the individual's thoughts and beliefs, emotions that are transformed into the way learners behave and act in their learning process [6], [7] Because motivation is highly situated in different learning contexts [8], and temporal dimension of motivation and students‟ beliefs of his/her self-efficacy must be acknowledged [9], [10],[11], [12], this study examined how learners would react to on-going motivational strategies adopted by the teacher and how learning experiences might affect their preferences

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Motivational research provides insights into the variables influencing human behavior Gardner [1] defined L2 motivation as “the extent to which an individual works or strives to learn the language because

of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity” Early motivational theories were dominated by quite a mechanistic view of motivation; the emphasis on either the instinctive or reflexive side of human behavior is vividly depicted through the “man as a machine” metaphor In the 1990s, Dornyei [8] proposed a motivation framework that included three independent levels: language level (integrative/instrumental), learner level (need for achievement, self-confidence in terms of anxiety and self-awareness), and learning situation level (course-specific components, teacher specific components, and group specific components) The most elaborate part of the framework is the learning situation level, which is associated with situation-specific motivation rooted in various aspects of language learning in a classroom setting However, this early motivational model only clusters key variables concerned with L2 motivation rather than elaborates on the relationship between them Then, Williams and Burden‟s [10] explicitly addressed the interactive relationship between context, individual, and the temporal nature of motivation The model distinguishes between a) the decision to do something b) the reasons for doing something and c) sustaining the effort or persisting; all three aspects are connected in an interactive fashion and influenced by the social context Regrettably, both Dornyei [8] and Williams and Burden [10] did not describe how situated classroom events might shape learners‟ motivation and/or their reactions to

teacher‟s motivational strategies In a longitudinal design that tested the proficiency gains in relation to different learning situations and motivation of 1,682 learners over a 2‐year foreign language program, Kozaki and Ross[13] found that the mediating effects of class context on the relation between the L2 proficiency growth and individual motivational factors exert both positive and negative influences In this study, however, the correlation between different learning situations and learners‟ motivation, and between different levels of proficiency and motivation, was not tested More recently, the importance of self-efficacy beliefs has been pointed out and the importance of students‟ capability beliefs for their motivated engagement has been discussed particularly in language educational contexts [11], [14], [15]; [16], [17], [18] Busse [19] argues that “yet self-efficacy beliefs undergo changes over time, thereby influencing changes in the other motivational factors as well” (p 68) Hence, L2 motivation is currently being re-conceptualized into students‟ sense of who they are, how they relate to the social world and what they want to become in the future This theoretical shift in focus to the internal domain of self and identity has a more relevant and helpful implications for how we as language teachers engage the motivation, interests and identities of our students [20], [21],[17], [22] For a better understanding of the ups-and-downs of motivation of students studying German during one academic year, Busse [19] administered questionnaires at the beginning and at the end of the year, and students were interviewed five times over the course From Busse‟s [19] argument under possible-self theory [23],[24] beliefs about who one might become in the future may be particularly important in phases of drastic change, such as the transition from high school to university When individuals contemplate changed, they generated various possible selves, which served as important guidance to students to pursue or, alternatively, abandon the chosen path Busse‟s [19] results suggested that considerable changes took place during the course of the year Importantly, students‟ intrinsic motivation significantly decreased and so did self-efficacy beliefs for speaking and listening, a trend concomitant with decreasing effort to engage with language learning The past research studies, so far, have not described how learners at different level of proficiency would react to motivational strategies It is supposed that when a learner gets more L2 learning experience and becomes more competent, he/she would be able to define his/her self-efficacy and/or possible-self constructs more explicitly As a result, it would be worth studying how their motivational arousal would be formulated and stated Besides, in the literature, whether there is any negative effect of teacher‟s motivational strategies on learners was not clearly discussed Therefore, the purpose of this study is to seek in-depth insights into motivation of students of English as a foreign language in relation

to teachers‟ strategies and how motivational preference may be shaped by level of proficiency and learning experience The questions that guide this research study are:

1 How do university-age students evaluate situated motivation strategies adopted by their teachers?

2 How do experience and self-efficacy factors affect their reaction to these strategies?

3 METHODOLOGY

To choose participants by means of purposive sampling, analyze self-reports of motivational concepts, and provide an overview of the cohort, triangulation method was adopted Questionnaire was

used as the researcher is searching answers to attitudinal questions considering motivation [25]; the

participants were also old enough to fill in the questionnaire so it was suitable for the target group Cohort

of this study were all students studying with the author; theywere90 freshman-year and 90 senior-year students in a4-year- bachelor in English language program (all ethical guidelines had been followed) The program aims at training students to work in language education and translation-related jobs The questionnaire was adapted from Dörnyei‟s [26] list of 35 most popular motivational strategies used by English teachers The first category concerns basic motivational conditions created by adopting appropriate teacher behaviors, having a good relationship with learners, maintaining a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroom, and providing group norms to promote a cohesive learner group The second category focuses on generating learner motivation by enhancing language-related values and attitudes, increasing goal orientation, making the curriculum relevant and creating realistic learner beliefs The third and fourth of Dörnyei‟s categories are related to increasing learner self-confidence and encouraging positive self-evaluation For the participant to get a full understanding of the concepts and ideas, the questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese language, re-worded, explained, and sent to them

in 2018 via Google survey tool The respondents were asked to rate their evaluation of the strategies against 4 scales: 1 (not necessary, boring), 2 (I do not care whether my teacher is employing this strategy

or not), 3 (this strategy may work to me), 4 (I believe that I am highly motivated by this strategy).After that, qualitative data was analyzed from 6 semi-structured group interviews with totally over 90 students from the 180 surveyed respondents; they are the most convenient students that the author can meet in-person after class The interviewees were asked to give in-personal comments and explanations for their evaluation of the strategies Then, content analysis technique was used to analyze the interview data, and the most relevant results were employed to explain for the qualitative outcomes discussed in the next section

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 How do university-age students evaluate situated motivation strategies adopted by their

teachers?

Results analyzed from 180responds to the 35 teaching strategies showed that most of the strategies

were highly evaluated by the respondents (Chart 1) Of all 6300 values across the tabulated data sheet

only 6% and 11% values were counted as “1” (not necessary, boring) and “2” (I do not care whether my teacher is employing this strategy or not) respectively Meanwhile, 41% (2599 counted values) of the responses goes to the scale “3” (this strategy may work to me) and the total number for “4” (I believe that

I am highly motivated by this strategy) contributes 42% (2627 counted values) to the chart

Figure1 Students‟ evaluation of the motivational strategies Cross tabulation analysis also showed that, based on total number of choice “4” (table 1) compared

to the other 3 choices in each strategy, there was a group of strategies particularly preferred by the respondents In descending order, the students‟ most favorite motivational strategy was “the teacher creates a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroom” (strategy 5); the strategy was highly evaluated by 77.8% respondents The students also reported that they would feel highly motivated when teacher increases the attractiveness of the tasks, helps them to recognize „integrative‟ values of L2 learning, builds up confidence by teaching various learner strategies, provides regular encouragement, administers tasks in motivating ways, and organizes stress-free learning activities in class Besides, the students also highly appreciated it when teacher can help them to acquire an intrinsic passion in learning English and teaches them “both personal success and failure learning experiences”

Table 1: Students‟ (N=180) most favorite motivational strategies

Motivational Strategies

Choice

1

Choice

2

Choice

3

Choice

4

5) The teacher creates a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the

18) The teacher increases the attractiveness of the tasks 3.3% 34.4% 62.2%

11) The teacher helps you to recognize „integrative‟ values by

encouraging a positive and open-minded disposition towards the L2

and its speakers, and towards foreignness in general

2.8% 2.8% 35.6% 58.9% 26) The teacher builds your confidence in learning abilities by

24) The teacher builds your confidence by providing regular

20) The teacher presents and administers tasks in a motivating way 3.9% 40.0% 56.1% 25) The teacher provides you with stress-free learning activities in

10) The teacher raises your intrinsic interest in L2 learning (you feel

like L2 learning without any external reason) 2.2% 6.1% 39.4% 52.2% 23) The teacher provides you with regular experiences of success 2.2% 46.1% 51.7% These findings are closely correlated with the literature which suggested that motivation is situated in the classroom events The findings also seemed to be similar to most recent research findings of motivation in other contexts such as Japanese EFL learners [27], Chinese EFL Classroom [28],[29], EFL learners in Korea, China, and Japan [30], Indonesian high school [31], Saudi English as a foreign language [32], Hong Kong community college English teachers[33], Bangladeshi secondary school English teachers and students [34] However, different from other research studies, findings in this study also demonstrated that the strategies may even cause negative effects, or a student may not care with the

strategies that his/her teacher is employing (Appendix A)

Table 2.Students‟ (N=180) least favorite motivational strategies

1

Choice

2

Choice

3

Choice

4

4) The teacher develops a collaborative relationship with the

9) The teacher helps you to learn from your classmates 25.6% 11.1% 28.9% 34.4% 29) The teacher promotes learner autonomy 17.2% 16.1% 41.1% 25.6%

As shown in table 2, a considerable number of students (52.8%) believed that it is demotivated when

“the teacher develops a collaborative relationship with parents” In the follow-up interviews, they explained that they were mature enough to take responsibility for their learning and they did not wish to bother their parents Interestingly, the strategy “learning from classmate” was also rated as not necessary and boring as they “prefer to interact and learn from our teacher” They noted that “peer learning may be beneficial, but such activities can be organized by ourselves at home We should take advantage of the class time to interact and learn from our teacher” Besides, the strategy “teacher promotes learner autonomy” was also claimed as “not being helpful for their motivation because it sometimes causes anxious and stressful for the learners They perceived that autonomy was “organizing self-learning automatically”, thus, they felt “hard and not confident to be autonomy learners” The learner would prefer

it when “teacher teaches us how, guides us closely, and gives us feedback in our self-learning process”, and they added that “encouragement without closely guides will make us feel anxious sometimes” Beside recognizing the strategies as motivation or de-motivation factors in class, a large there were also evidence to show that a large number of students would not care much whether their teachers was employing the strategies This results were reported convincingly in the strategies 4, 14, 19, 22, and 32 in Appendix A For another group of students, although they were not very interested in some particular motivational strategies, they were still willing to experience with or they believed that a teacher had better employ the strategies rather than not because “they are the compulsory attributes of a teacher and

taken-for-granted duties teaching job” (table 3) For instant, they were willing to participate in group work and

follow the norms agreed with and observed by the teacher They also “feel easier to study in class” when the teacher uses grades in a motivating manner and helps them to maintain their positive image

As reported and discussed, although students need to be motivated when learning, it is suggested that when a teacher employs any motivational strategy in a particular lesson, he/she should be aware of different ways students may react to the strategy Students perceive the strategies with different attitudes, thus, a “good” strategy can also be not effective or even cause negative effect to some students in class

Table 3: Group of strategies that students were willing to cooperate with teacher (N=180)

1

Choice

2

Choice

3

Choice

4

8) The teacher has the group norms consistently observed 3.9% 7.8% 53.3% 35.0% 35) The teacher uses grades in a motivating manner, reducing as

2) The teacher takes your learning very seriously 3.9% 52.2% 43.9% 6) The teacher promotes the development of group cohesiveness 0.6% 8.9% 51.1% 39.4% 27) The teacher allows you to maintain your positive image while

4.2 How do experience and self-efficacy factors affect their reaction to these strategies?

In defining motivation as a contextually situated dynamic state of arousal, and strongly shaped by self-efficacy beliefs, task/situational sensitivity, and temporal factor, data from the participant was examined and compared at the freshman-year and senior-year students level to check the reaction of the

two sub-cohort groups (Appendix B) Pearson Correlation of cohort was calculated and a number of

interesting differences related to the 2 groups Table 4a shows strategies that more preferred by the senior-year students while strategies chosen as being effective by more freshman-year ones is listed in the table 4b

Table 4a Students‟ evaluation of the strategies (N = 180)

9) The teacher helps you to learn from your classmates P Correlation 0.667

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 15) The teacher makes the curriculum and the teaching materials relevant to you P Correlation 0.599

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 23) The teacher provides you with regular experiences of success P Correlation 0.440

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 17) The teacher breaks the monotony of classroom events and allows flexible learning

in class

P Correlation 0.439 Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 1) The teacher demonstrates and talks about his or her own enthusiasm for the course

material, and how it affects him or her personally

P Correlation 0.354 Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 10) The teacher raises your intrinsic interest in L2 learning (you feel like L2 learning

without any external reason)

P Correlation 0.338 Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 11) The teacher helps you to recognize „integrative‟ values by encouraging a positive

and open-minded disposition towards the L2 and its speakers, and towards foreignness

in general

P Correlation 0.170 Sig (2-tailed)

0.023 34) The teacher offers rewards in a motivational manner P Correlation 0.397

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 30) The teacher helps you know how to find self-motivation in learning activities P Correlation 0.291

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 24) The teacher builds your confidence by providing regular encouragement P Correlation 0.278

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 35) The teacher uses grades in a motivating manner, reducing as much as possible their

demotivating impact

P Correlation 0.191 Sig (2-tailed) 0.010

Table 4b.Students‟ evaluation of the strategies (N = 180)

14) The teacher increases your goal-orientedness by formulating explicit class goals

accepted by all of you

P.Correlation -0.648 Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 28) The teacher promotes cooperation among the learners in your class P Correlation -0.623

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 7) The teacher formulates group norms explicitly, and has them discussed and accepted

by all of you

P Correlation -0.605 Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 19) The teacher enlists you as an active task participant P Correlation -0.515

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 8) The teacher has the group norms consistently observed P Correlation -0.489

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 6) The teacher promotes the development of group cohesiveness P Correlation -0.472

Sig (2-tailed) 000 22) The teacher uses contracting methods with your class to formalize their goal

commitment

P Correlation -0.430 Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 32) The teacher provides you with positive information feedback P Correlation -0.418

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 21) The teacher uses goal-setting methods in his or her classroom P Correlation -0.385

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 4) The teacher develops a collaborative relationship with the parents P Correlation -0.311

Sig (2-tailed) 0.000 18) The teacher increases the attractiveness of the tasks P Correlation -0.220

Sig (2-tailed) 0.003 33) The teacher increases your satisfaction with your results P Correlation -0.217

Sig (2-tailed) 0.003 13) The teacher tries to make you try harder and help you succeed in the assigned tasks P Correlation -0.195

Sig (2-tailed) 0.009 The interview data supports and explains for these correlation results in the light that more experience in the program and longer time observing how the teacher had taught and how the students had developed strongly shaped how the senior evaluated the strategies While the seniors became more confident in working with their partners, the freshman felt that their partners‟ proficiency was “not reliable and good enough” for them to learn from (strategy 9) Self-efficacy was also the key reason for the difference in learners‟ beliefs in the value of autonomy (strategy 29), group and individual activities (strategies 6, 7, 8, 28), and flexible learning in class (strategy 17) It was explained that the more mature the learners were, the more independent learning they were seeking for To the freshmen, they need teacher to encourage them to assign them more active roles in classroom tasks (strategy 17), but the senior students noted that they were able to adapt to different tasks and adjust the roles themselves Moreover, once the students got more proficient, they tended to be more willing to take risk and opened to new learning experience They were also more interested in listening to teacher‟s experiences of failure and success (strategy 23), teacher‟s analysis and uses of teaching and learning materials (strategies 1, 15) and

of motivation categories (strategies 10, 11);the senior students believed that such lessons would be very helpful for them in real working environment after graduation In other words, they tended to develop an

instrumental preference to copy and learn professional tips of their teachers On the other hand, the

freshman-year learners preferred to be “more explicit” (strategies 14, 7, 21) and more consistent (strategies 8, 6) They felt “safer if there is a clear goal to achieve and what teacher‟s expectations are”, they wanted “to be observed more closely and receive frequent feedback from teachers” Thus, positive feedback from teacher (strategy 32) and good achievement (strategy 33) were reported as effective motivational sources to them

As mentioned earlier in the literature review, Williams and Burden‟s [10] framework suggested that motivational research may need to distinguish between three motivational stages: students‟ decision to do something, their reasons for doing something, and the factors influencing their sustained effort One year

later, Dörnyei and Ottó [6] described motivation as a sequence of three discrete stages of action; the pre-actional, actional and post-actional stages The first stage refers to the choices people make in setting goals The actional stage deals with how motivation is maintained and efforts are sustained in the pursuit

of goals The post-actional stage describes the period after the goal has been achieved or the action ended and involves the individuals‟ evaluation of the particular tasks In shaping these both ways of categorizing

of the stages, this study suggests that there must be a central effect of self-factors and time and context Moreover, Ushioda [17] suggested that the learning experience is relevant in forming students‟ first wish

to engage with a foreign language at university level; future goals may not be immediately important for students but appear to become more relevant over time Tseng‟s [35] findings also showed that there was

a significant interaction between self-efficacy and experience The results of this study added new evidences to the literature by showing that experience in a program and level of competence strongly learners‟ preference over motivational strategies adopted by teacher Moreover, senior students tended to

be more explicit and practical in their evaluation of the strategies

5 CONCLUSION

Although motivation as a process of continuous interaction between learners and contexts is not a new theoretical thinking in mainstream motivation literature, this study contributes both practical and theoretical values Practically, the study‟s results will help teachers teaching bachelor of English language program in Vietnam and other similar contexts to enhance their effectiveness in employing motivational strategies for different groups of student It is suggested that the use of any motivational strategies should

be put under consideration of both individual and group competence, their experience in the program, and their on-going perception of the learning goals Therefore, some groups of strategy may be effective for different groups of students, but some other groups of strategies would be as not effective as we expected Theoretically, this study will contribute to the current literature by investigating on how learners in an undergraduate degree program react to situated strategies to motivate them and how these preferences would be different in different groups of learners Besides, the results showed that learners‟ preferences can be categorized into different levels from the most negative to the most positive effects; and these levels of motivational preferences and the attached reasons can be adjusted continuously

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Received on February 1 st , 2019 Accepted on March 25 th , 2019

APPENDIX A

35 strategies in the questionnaire and the students’ feedback (N = 180)

Choice 1 (not necessary, boring),

Choice 2 (I do not care whether my teacher is employing this strategy or not),

Choice 3 (this strategy may work to me),

Choice 4 (I believe that I am highly motivated by this strategy)

Motivational Strategies

Choice

1

Choice

2

Choice

3

Choice

4

1) The teacher demonstrates and talks about his or her own enthusiasm

for the course material, and how it affects him or her personally 2.2% 11.7% 47.2% 38.9% 2) The teacher takes your learning very seriously 3.9% 52.2% 43.9% 3) The teacher develops a personal relationship with you 5.0% 16.7% 39.4% 38.9% 4) The teacher develops a collaborative relationship with the parents 52.8% 23.9% 21.7% 1.7% 5) The teacher creates a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the

6) The teacher promotes the development of group cohesiveness 0.6% 8.9% 51.1% 39.4% 7) The teacher formulates group norms explicitly, and has them

8) The teacher has the group norms consistently observed 3.9% 7.8% 53.3% 35.0% 9) The teacher helps you to learn from your classmates 25.6% 11.1% 28.9% 34.4% 10) The teacher raises your intrinsic interest in L2 learning (you feel

like L2 learning without any external reason) 2.2% 6.1% 39.4% 52.2% 11) The teacher helps you to recognise „integrative‟ values by

encouraging a positive and open-minded disposition towards the L2

and its speakers, and towards foreignness in general

2.8% 2.8% 35.6% 58.9% 12) The teacher promotes your awareness of the instrumental values

associated with the knowledge of an L2 (the teacher explains how your

L2 competence empowers you and brings you benefits in your life)

2.8% 7.8% 43.3% 46.1% 13) The teacher tries to make you try harder and help you succeed in

14) The teacher increases your goal-orientedness by formulating

explicit class goals accepted by all of you 12.2% 23.9% 28.9% 35.0% 15) The teacher makes the curriculum and the teaching materials

16) The teacher helps you to formulate realistic beliefs 1.7% 6.7% 43.3% 48.3% 17) The teacher breaks the monotony of classroom events and allows

18) The teacher increases the attractiveness of the tasks 3.3% 34.4% 62.2% 19) The teacher enlists you as an active task participant 8.3% 25.0% 38.9% 27.8% 20) The teacher presents and administers tasks in a motivating way 3.9% 40.0% 56.1% 21) The teacher uses goal-setting methods in his or her classroom 7.8% 19.4% 49.4% 23.3% 22) The teacher uses contracting methods with your class to formalize

23) The teacher provides you with regular experiences of success 2.2% 46.1% 51.7% 24) The teacher builds your confidence by providing regular

25) The teacher provides you with stress-free learning activities in