Exploring teacher learning through their involvement in course design a case study

ABSTRACT The present study used a case study approach in order to explore how the participation in course design impacts teachers of English as a foreign language EFL, or how teachers l

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ CHI

EXPLORING TEACHER LEARNING THROUGH THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN COURSE DESIGN: A CASE STUDY

(Điển cứu về hoạt động học chuyên môn của giáo viên qua việc

tham gia thiết kế khóa học)

Major: English teaching methodology

Code: 9140231.01

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION:

ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY

Hanoi, 2020

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

EXPLORING TEACHER LEARNING THROUGH THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN COURSE DESIGN: A CASE STUDY

(Điển cứu về hoạt động học chuyên môn của giáo viên qua việc

tham gia thiết kế khóa học)

Major: English teaching methodology

Code: 9140231.01

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION:

ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY

Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Lê Văn Canh

Hanoi, 2020

Signature of the candidate:

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My deepest appreciation goes to Dr Le Van Canh, my supervisor at University of Languages and International Studies Without his extensive expertise, professional guidance, and caring encouragement, this thesis would have never been completed

It has been my privilege to work with him over a three-year learning process, and he plays a crucial role in my professional growth during my Ph.D journey

I also owe the completion of this research to the ten teachers who participated in this study for their time devotion and enthusiasm I am indebted to the judging panels who gave constructive comments and suggestions whenever I delivered a presentation on

my thesis at the Faculty of Postgraduate Studies

I owe thanks to many people who cared for me, encouraged me, and supported me both at work and in my daily life in the past few years My special thanks go to Dr Duong Thu Mai and Mrs Thai Ha Lam Thuy who made a significant contribution to

my determination to take up Ph.D studies and to the initiation of this research project

I also give my sincere thanks to my colleagues and friends who patiently consoled

me whenever I was under stress and pressure

Finally yet importantly, my wholehearted appreciation goes to my husband, Mr Pham Ngoc Quang, two children, Pham Nguyen Bao Lam and Pham Nguyen Bao Lan, and my parents, Mr Nguyen Van Co and Mrs Tran Thi Luong Anh I am truly grateful for their understanding, encouragement and endless love, which has been a major source of motivation for me to reach this stage

ABSTRACT

The present study used a case study approach in order to explore how the participation

in course design impacts teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL), or how teachers learn professional knowledge and skills during their participation in course design The study employed teachers’ narratives as the data collection method and Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987, 2015) as the theoretical framework Additionally,

in order to enhance the credibility of the study, document analysis and interviews with two informants were conducted The information collected from the relevant documents and the informants enriched the context of the study and helped the researcher to elicit more details from the teacher participants The collected data were analyzed following the central tenets of the Activity Theory By positing the study within the Activity Theory perspective, thereby highlighting teacher learning as a mediated activity, the study revealed the knowledge and skills the teachers learned from their participation in the design activity as well as the factors that affected their learning The findings of the study indicate that course design can be considered as a meaningful activity for teacher professional development; however, whether it is effective depends on many factors It is suggested that a learning activity could lead

to a good outcome if the following factors are guaranteed: (1) the object is meaningful

to inspire the subject to take right actions, (2) the subject is an agent who is willing

to learn, has abilities to utilize the givens, and practices reflection regularly, and (3) the mediational means need to be appropriate and sufficient The study contributes to the understanding of course design as an activity in relation to the professional development for university EFL teachers

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF CANDIDATE i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Aims of the study and research questions 3

1.3 Research methodology 4

1.4 Scope of the study 5

1.5 Significance of the study 6

1.6 Structure of the thesis 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Teacher professional development 7

2.2 Theoretical perspectives on teacher professional development 13

2.2.1 Behaviorism 13

2.2.2 Cognitivism 14

2.2.3 Cognitive and social constructivism 15

2.3 Studies on teacher professional development 18

2.3.1 Studies on teacher professional development in other countries 19

2.3.1.1 Activities for teacher professional development 19

2.3.1.2 Factors affecting teacher professional development 27

2.3.1.3 Methods used in research on teacher professional development 32

2.3.1.4 Frameworks used in research on teacher professional development 35 2.3.2 Studies on teacher professional development in Vietnam 44

2.3.2.1 Activities for teacher professional development 44

2.3.2.2 Factors affecting teacher professional development 47

2.3.2.3 Methods and frameworks used in research on teacher professional development 48

2.4 Course design as a professional development activity 50

2.4.1 Course and course design 50

2.4.2 Course design as a professional development activity 54

2.4.3 Studies on course design as a professional development activity 56

2.5 Chapter summary 61

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 63

3.1 Theoretical framework used in the present study 63

3.2 The research methodology 71

3.2.1 The research context 71

3.2.1.1 English language teacher education and development in Vietnam 71

3.2.1.2 Course design project in an English Faculty 74

3.2.2 The study design 76

3.2.3 The participants 80

3.2.4 Methods and procedures of data collection 83

3.2.4.1 Data collection methods 83

3.2.4.2 Data collection procedures 86

3.2.5 Method and procedures of data analysis 92

3.2.5.1 Data analysis method 92

3.2.5.2 Data analysis procedures 93

3.2.6 The role of the researcher 97

3.2.7 Evaluating qualitative research 99

3.2.6.1 Credibility 99

3.2.6.2 Transferability 101

3.2.6.3 Dependability 101

3.2.6.4 Confirmability 102

3.3 Chapter summary 102

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS 103

4.1 The participant teachers as subjects of the activity systems 103

4.2 Objects of the course design activity systems 112

4.3 The tools in the course design activity systems 115

4.3.1 Available resources 115

4.3.2 INSET trainings 118

4.3.3 Team meetings 120

4.3.4 Teachers’ prior knowledge and experience 122

4.4 The communities in the course design activity systems 124

4.5 Division of labor in the course design activity systems 127

4.6 Rules in the course design activity systems 129

4.6.1 Institutional cultural norms 129

4.6.2 Organizational rules 131

4.6.3 Collaborative rules 135

4.6.4 Teachers’ personal obligations 141

4.7 Outcomes 145

4.7.1 Knowledge of curriculum development 145

4.7.1.1 Curriculum development process 145

4.7.1.2 Approach to curriculum development 147

4.7.1.3 Material selection and development 150

4.7.2 Knowledge of subject matter 153

4.7.3 Knowledge of testing and assessment 156

4.8 Chapter summary 159

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 161

5.1 Course design as a learning experience for participating teachers 162

5.2 Conditions for course design as a professional development activity 167

5.2.1 Interaction between subject and mediating artifacts 167

5.2.2 Interaction between subject and community 171

5.2.3 Interaction between subject and division of labor 173

5.2.4 Interaction between subject and rules 175

5.3 Chapter summary 176

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 178

6.1 Summary of key findings 178

6.2 Implications for teacher professional development 182

6.1 Implications for teacher participants 182

6.2 Implications for professional development design 182

6.3 Limitations of the study 184

6.4 Recommendations for future research 186

LISTS OF PUBLICATIONS/ PRESENTATIONS 187

REFERENCES 188 APPENDIX A: RESEARCH INFORMATION AND CONSENT FORM I APPENDIX B: GUIDELINES FOR WRITTEN NARRATIVE 1 IV APPENDIX C: GUIDELINES FOR WRITTEN NARRATIVE 2 V APPENDIX D: TENTATIVE GUIDELINES FOR ORAL NARRATIVE VI APPENDIX E: INFORMATION ABOUT THE PARTICIPANTS VIII APPENDIX F: SAMPLE WRITTEN NARRATIVE 1 XI APPENDIX G: SAMPLE WRITTEN NARRATIVE 2 XIII APPENDIX H: SAMPLE NARRATIVE INTERVIEW XVI APPENDIX I: SAMPLE TIMELINE FOR SIMULATED RECALL XXVIII

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Professional development activities 19

Table 2.2: Categories of learning activities in the workplace learning of teachers 21

Table 2.3: Trend and focus of professional development research worldwide 24

Table 2.4: Data collection methods in previous studies 34

Table 2.5: Components of course development process 52

Table 3.1: Hierarchical levels of the activity of course design 65

Table 3.2: Terms associated with research paradigms 77

Table 3.3: Participant profile 82

Table 3.4: Basic phases of the narrative interview 89

Table 3.5: A process of data collection 91

Table 3.6: Coding example 95

Table 3.7: Codes and subcategories to identify course-design activity system 96

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Interrelated dimensions of teacher development 9

Figure 2.2: Individual level of analysis 36

Figure 2.3: Individual and community levels of analysis……….37

Figure 2.4: Analysis layer of individual, community, and policy……….37

Figure 2.5: Hierarchical levels of an activity 42

Figure 2.6: Human activity system 43

Figure 2.7: The process of course design for teachers 52

Figure 3.1: Four levels of contradictions within the human activity system 69

Figure 3.2: Course-design activity system 71

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

CEFR: Common European Framework for Reference

EAP: English for Academic Purposes

ESoP: English for Social Purposes

FCE: Cambridge First Certificate in English

IELTS: International English Language Testing System

PET: Preminilary English Test

OnX: Oral narrative number X (e.g On1: oral narrative 1)

WnX: Written narrative number X (e.g Wn1: written narrative 1)

[…] Explanation for a vague noun/ pronoun based on the previous part of

the narrative Thu, Hue… pseudo names

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

In this part, the reason why the present study was conducted is revealed through a story about my professional life Then, the aims, the methods, the scope, the significance and the structure of the study are presented

1.1 Background of the study

The primary reason for this study was derived from my curiosity about whether or not the teachers participating in the course design project in my Faculty could learn from the project Following is part of my story that led to this study In 2012, the curriculum innovation was initiated, and a task force was involved in designing English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses At the beginning, the task force included a number of senior teachers in the Faculty, and then when more members were involved, the task force was divided into three teams: Team 1 in charge of two courses for the first academic year, Team 2 in charge of a course for the first semester

of the second academic year, and Team 3 in charge of a course for the second semester

of the second academic year In one Division meeting in 2014, I suddenly heard my name mentioned as a member of Team 2 I had no strong feelings for that; to me, it was just a routine that anyone in the Division might need to fulfill I did not remember exactly what I did as “a course designer” at that very first time as the tasks seemed to

be trivial It was more like retyping and reordering the already-chosen contents What has remained in my mind was how I struggled to understand the principles of the designing process and the philosophy of the course itself I could not teach the course without figuring out the logic of the given materials and the relationship between them and the assessment tasks, especially when two strands of English courses ran simultaneously (i.e English for Academic Purposes, or EAP, and English for Social Purposes, or ESoP) Then I earned the trust from my team leader and some other teachers in the Division who came to me for course clarification

My professional life turned to a new page when the leader of Team 3 involved me in designing the 4B course That leader said she needed me in her team because, as a

member of Team 2, I could help her link the 4B course with the 3B course By then,

I still had little knowledge and experience in course design, but after participating in the whole design process, I did gain new knowledge of curriculum development, of testing and assessment, as well as improve my critical thinking skills That was the reason why I got curious about what other team members could gain from their participation

Some of my team members shared that they found the process invaluable when they worked within a community for the aim of professional growth They appreciated what they learned from the other members and from the process itself For those statements and my own experiences, I did believe that the teacher-as-course-developers, more or less, could learn useful knowledge from their doings even though course design was not an activity planned by the Faculty Board for teacher professional development This idea is in line with many researchers’ and scholars’ belief that course design can engage the teachers in a professional experience for their ongoing learning and development (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Cochran-Smith

& Lytle, 1999; Desimone et al., 2002; Hill, Beisiegel, & Jacob, 2013; Knight, Tait,

& Yorke, 2007) For example, Borko (2004, as cited in Desimone, 2009, p.182) notes:

For teachers, learning occurs in many different aspects of practice,

including their classrooms, their school communities, and professional

development courses or workshops It can occur in a brief hallway

conversation with a colleague, or after school when counseling a troubled

of them For such an incident, I wondered whether this member learned anything from the process while she did not seem to make any changes in her thoughts from

the beginning until the end It was assumed that she learned quite little since teachers’ thought processes, according to many authors, influence and determine their behaviors (Borg, 2003, 2006; Clark and Peterson, 1986, Freeman & Richards, 1996; Moon, 2004; Shulman & Elstein, 1975) On the other hand, Borg (2006) emphasizes that behavioral changes do not imply cognitive changes, and changes in teacher cognition do not surely lead to changes in behaviors as contextual factors have a role

to play in between That member’s idea along with the researchers’ view caused me

to question more about my team members’ participation and learning How did the teachers participate in the course design project? Did their way of participating affect their learning? In what ways were my team members and I different? Did such differences lead us to learning different knowledge from the process of course design? These questions drove me to do search on teacher learning and development and explore teacher learning through their involvement in course design

1.2 Aims of the study and research questions

As revealed through my professional life story, course design can be a professional activity through which the involved can learn certain knowledge Like me, a group

of other teachers in the English Faculty were involved in designing English language courses for all the teachers in the Faculty to teach However, these teachers did not know much about curriculum development and could not imagine what the course would look like Therefore, to complete the course design activity, they read the references, discussed with their team members and/ or the other classroom teachers, and attended certain workshops or trainings Theoretically, by doing so, they would have opportunities to learn professionally The matter is how much the teachers can learn through their participation is not explicitly shown during the process Moreover, many scholars list this activity as a form of professional development (e.g Desimone, 2009; Guskey, 2000), but details about this professional development form have not been clearly presented Therefore, this study is conducted with the aim of exploring what the involved teachers gain for their professional development and why teachers gain professionally through their involvement in course design the way they do

In reference to Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987, 2015), the theoretical framework of the study, it is indicated that the teachers’ motive(s) or the object of the activity system drives the activity towards the outcome(s) It is also postulated from the framework that the participating teachers as the subjects of the activity systems can individually and collectively construct the new knowledge with the help of the social mediational tools In consideration of the nature of the course design activity in the present context and the tenets of the chosen theoretical framework, the overarching research question was answered by means of coding and analyzing the collected data in accordance with the elements shown in the framework and the interaction among those elements

1.3 Research methodology

The present study adopted qualitative case study approach The data consisted of teachers’ written narratives (either in English or Vietnamese) about their life and work in general and their experiences of designing course(s) in particular and oral narratives (after the quick analysis of the written narratives) All the oral narratives were recorded and transcribed verbatim Besides, information from the two Heads of

1.4 Scope of the study

As the study explored how the participation in course design influences the professional development of each teacher involved, it is an exploratory case study (Yin, 2014) Moreover, it is assumed that the involved teachers and the social factors (e.g their collaboration and the institutional support) both contributed to the construction of their knowledge during their participation in a goal-directed activity (i.e course-design activity) This assumption is in line with sociocultural perspective that knowledge is socially mediated and personally constructed (e.g Vygotsky, 1978; Leont’ev; 1981; Engeström, 1987; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998) As such, this study is conducted from the lens of sociocultural perspective Noticeably, Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987, 2015) was built upon Vygotsky’s idea about the relationship between subject, his/her object, and cultural mediation tools It is stated

to concentrate on activity systems which are “enacted in the form of individual directed actions” (Engeström et al., 1995, p.320, as cited in Fuller, 2005, p.54) as well

goal-as a framework for studying different kinds of human practices goal-as development processes, “with both individual and social levels interlinked at the same time” In other words, Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987, 2015) is part of sociocultural theory

It was adopted as this study’s theoretical framework to uncover the theoretical and experiential knowledge the teachers gained through their participation and the influence of many cultural and historical factors on the teachers’ learning

1.5 Significance of the study

The study is significant in the way that its findings are likely to help conceptualize course design as a professional development activity for EFL teachers in a specific context Although no generalization of the findings is intended or expected, transferability of the findings to other similar contexts is possible Such conceptualization is hoped to facilitate individual teachers in their professional learning

as well as institutional managers in designing professional development activities

1.6 Structure of the thesis

This thesis is organized in six chapters Chapter 1 introduces the background of the study and the research purpose Chapter 2 reviews the literature relevant to the study It focuses

on the construct of teacher learning, course design as a professional development activity, and studies on teacher professional development It also provides the review on the approaches to research on professional development By means of reviewing these issues, the theoretical framework for the study was selected and discussed Chapter 3 presents the methodological choices for the study, in which the study design, the data collection method, and the approach to data coding, analysis, and interpretation are revealed Information about the context of the study, including the situation of English language teacher education and development in Vietnam and the specific context in which the course design project was implemented, as well as information about the participating teachers’ background is also provided in this chapter Chapters 4 presents the findings of the study, including seven sections corresponding to the elements of the activity system: (1) the participating teachers as subjects of the activity systems; (2) objects of the course design activity systems; (3) the tools in the course design activity systems; (4) the communities in the course design activity system; (5) division of labor in the course design activity system; (6) rules in the course design activity system; (7) outcomes (i.e what teachers learn professionally) Chapter 5 discusses the findings with the relevant literature and conceptualizes course design as a professional development activity in relation to Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987, 2015) Finally, Chapter 6 summarizes the study as a whole, discusses the implications of the study, and points out the limitation of the study as well as the suggestions for further research

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature attempts to uncover the concept of teacher learning and course design, the previous studies on teacher professional development, and the approaches to research on professional development This review, to a certain extent, reveals the research gap on which the present study was built up as well as serves as the basis for the decision on the theoretical framework and the research method

2.1 Teacher professional development

According to Richards and Farrell (2005), training and development are two broad kinds of goals within teacher education While training aims at a short-term and immediate goal and focuses directly on teachers’ responsibilities (e.g adapt the textbook to match the class or use effective question techniques), development refers

to activities that “facilitate teachers’ understanding of their teaching and of themselves as teachers” (p.3) Development, in this sense, is not limited to pre-service and in-service training sessions and should go beyond personal observation and reflection In this part, different concepts of development, including “teacher development”, “teacher professional development”, “continuing professional development”, and “teacher learning” are reviewed, thereby specifying the view on teacher learning in the present study as well as the focus of the research

Teacher development

Lange (1990, as cited in Bailey, Curtis, & Nunan, 2001) defines “teacher development” as “a process of continual intellectual, experiential, and attitudinal growth for teachers” (p.4) The definition implies the focus on the outcomes of the development process Bell and Gilbert (1994, as cited in Evans, 2002, p.126), on the other hand, do not define the term but describe what it looks like:

Teacher development can be viewed as teacher learning, rather than as others

getting teachers to change In learning, the teachers were developing their

beliefs and ideas, developing their classroom practice, and attending to their

feelings associated with changing (p 493)

Bell and Gilbert’s (1994) description implies that it is an active learning process done

by teachers themselves rather than by any other stakeholders Bell and Gilbert’s (1994) definition seems to specify the meaning of intellectual growth (i.e teachers’ beliefs and ideas), experiential growth (i.e teachers’ classroom practice), and attitudinal growth (i.e teachers’ feelings associated with changing) in Lange’s (1990) definition In other words, what teachers can develop as the result of their learning process are their cognition and behaviors; particularly those related to teaching Besides, Bell and Gilbert (1994, as cited in Evans, 2002, p.127) emphasize that teacher development is built upon two elements; it can be inadequate for teachers to grow if any of two elements is missing These two elements include input, which is theoretical knowledge provided, and teaching experiences in which the theoretical knowledge is tried out, evaluated, and reused appropriately They state:

Teacher development can be seen as having two aspects One is the input of

new theoretical ideas and new teaching suggestions… The second is trying

out, evaluation, and practice of these new theoretical and teaching ideas over

an extended period of time in a collaborative situation where the teachers are

able to receive support and feedback, and where they are able to reflect

critically… (p.494)

The above quote reveals that these authors emphasize theoretical knowledge and experiments of such knowledge as the content of teacher development Meanwhile, Freeman (2001) postulates that the content of teacher development is derived from their experiences as teachers-learners and that teachers should be involved in some form of “sense-making or construction of understandings out of what they already know and can do” for the sake of their development In other words, not only theoretical knowledge (Bell & Gilbert, 1994) but teachers’ experiential or practical knowledge (Freeman, 2001) can also be considered as the input for the development process Leithwood (1992) shares the same opinion with Bell and Gilbert’s (1994) and Lange (1990) on the dimensions of teacher development – psychological development and development of professional expertise Besides these two dimensions, this author mentions career-cycle development as another dimension of teacher development (see Figure 2.1)

Figure 2.1: Interrelated dimensions of teacher development

(Leithwood, 1992, as cited in Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992, p.88)

This author also adds that psychological development and career-cycle development exert certain impacts on teacher development of professional expertise Specifically, reaching the highest stage of psychological development, teachers become more open

to divergent thinking and multiple possibilities in a variety of situations This is useful for decision-making within their teaching career For example, “teachers at the highest stage understand the reasons behind rules, so they can be wiser in their application: they maintain a broad perspective and are able to cope with inner

5 Contributing to the growth of colleagues’

instructional expertise

4 Acquiring instructional expertise

3 Expanding one’s instructional flexibility

2 Becoming competent

in the basic skills of instruction

1 Developing survival skills

DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL EXPERTISE

5 Preparing for retirement focusing

4 Reaching a professional plateau

3 New challenges and concerns

2 Stabilizing: developing mature commitment

1 Launching the career

CAREER-CYCLE DEVELOPMENT

conflicts as well as conflicting needs and duties The classrooms of these teachers are controlled in collaboration with students and the emphasis is on meaningful learning, creativity and flexibility” (Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992, p.91) Career-cycle development refers to the degree of teachers’ professional commitments in different periods of their career It is believed that teachers’ career-cycle development possibly fosters or inhibits the growth of professional expertise at each stage (Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992, p.92)

Teacher professional development and continuing professional development

Figure 2.1 (Leithwood, as cited in Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992) shows that cycle development is part of teacher development, but it is not the development of their profession-related expertise In line with Leithwood’s (1992) perspective, Day (1999) states that teachers’ development occurs both in personal and professional lives and that the meaning of teacher development is located in a variety of settings and contexts He, as a result, uses the term “teacher professional development” or

career-“continuing professional development” to refer to teachers’ development in their teaching career:

The nature of teaching demands that teachers engage in continuing

career-long professional development, but particular needs and the ways in which

they may be met will vary according to circumstance, personal and

professional histories and current dispositions Growth involves learning

which is sometimes natural and evolutionary, sometimes opportunities and

sometimes the result of planning Continuing professional development

(CPD) … is inclusive of these different kinds of learning” (Day, 1999, p.15)

Moreover, Day (1999) posits that most definitions of professional development emphasize its primary goals as teachers’ acquisition of content knowledge and teaching skills (Hoyle, 1980; Joyce & Showers, 1980, as cited in Day, 1999, p.18), and then he put forward another definition that includes but is not limited to such goals:

Professional development … is the process by which, alone and with others,

teachers review, renew and extend their commitment as change agents to the

moral purposes of teaching; and by which they acquire and develop critically

the knowledge, skills and emotional intelligence essential to good

professional thinking, planning and practice with children, young people and

colleagues through each phase of their teaching lives (Day, 1999, p.18)

In this definition, the author specifies a number of actions within teachers’ learning process for their development in teaching profession These include reviewing, renewing, and extending their commitment to teaching goals, hence acquiring and developing the knowledge, skills, and emotional intelligence in a critical way Implicitly, like Bell and Gilbert (1994), Day (1999) emphasizes the active role of teachers as learners rather than passive recipients of knowledge

Teacher learning

While the concepts of teacher development, teacher professional development, and continuing professional development have prevailed in educational research, the concept of teacher learning has not been seen in many studies On the one hand, according to Freeman & Richards (1996) teacher learning has been a core concept since 1975 but under-researched (p.351) On the other hand, as revealed in the above definitions, teacher learning is incorporated in teacher development or professional development Put it differently, research on teacher development or professional development may involve the content or process of teacher learning Moreover, Freeman and Richards (1996) recommend that the nature of teacher professional development and how it takes place be derived from different conceptualizations of teacher learning, including (1) teacher learning as skill learning; (2) teacher learning

as a cognitive process; (3) teacher learning as personal construction; and (4) teacher learning as reflective practice (Richards & Farrell, 2005, pp 6-7)

Teacher learning, in the first view, refers to mastering a set of skills or competences that contribute to effective teaching Accordingly, teacher learning centers on imitating the modelled skills which teachers are expected to master Meanwhile, according to cognitive approach (Anderson, 1983; Wenger, 1987; Hutchins, 1995, as cited in Kelly, 2006, p.506), teacher learning refers to a process in which “individuals acquire skills, knowledge and understandings in one setting, often specifically designed for that purpose, and are subsequently able to use these skills, knowledge

and understandings elsewhere” Such a definition in cognitive perspective implies that teacher knowledge resides entirely in individuals’ minds, neglecting the knowing process as well as the social contexts in which the acquisition occurs Termed as

“personal construction”, the third view does not center on learning outcomes, nor thinking process, nor the results of that process, but emphasizes that a learner is the agency who actively participates in the learning and construct essential knowledge in his learning Finally, the fourth view emphasizes reflection - the process of critical examination of experiences in order for better understanding This view implicitly acknowledges the importance of experiences in the learning process

Apparently, there hardly is a consensus on defining these concepts Nonetheless, it can be noticed from the above review that different definitions of teacher development, professional development, continuing professional development, and teacher learning seem to emphasize different aspects in the same process Some of the definitions focus on the outcomes of the learning process (Bell & Gilbert, 1994; Lang, 1990; Leithwood, 1992; Richards & Farrell, 2005); some focus on the actions teachers do during the process (Day, 1999; Richards & Farrell, 2005); some emphasize the input and conditions for the development (Bell & Gilbert, 1994; Freeman, 2001; Richards & Farrell, 2005)

In consideration of how similar and different these terms are defined, teacher learning and teacher professional development, in the present study, can be used interchangeably without any semantic difference Specifically, teacher learning or teacher professional development refers to teacher participation in a social activity, which involves both teachers’ actions and their social and cultural experiences and which results in their growth in professional expertise Even though different outcomes of the learning process are mentioned in the reviewed definitions, the present study just focuses on the teachers’ development in professional knowledge Additionally, the development was not limited to theoretical knowledge but included the teachers’ understanding of practical knowledge as well as their awareness of the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge

2.2 Theoretical perspectives on teacher professional development

There have been many different perspectives on learning and development so far (i.e behaviorism, cognitivism, cognitive constructivism, and social constructivism), each

of which emphasizes different aspects of learning According to Wenger (1998), “to some extent, these differences in emphasis reflect a deliberate focus on a slice of the multidimensional problem of learning, and to some extent they reflect more fundamental difference in assumptions about the nature of knowledge, knowing, and knower, and consequently about what matters in learning” (p.4) It means that no theory seems to be superior or inferior to the others, but the purposes for which it is employed matter Following is the discussion on the key features of each perspective and the arguments to justify the appropriateness of social constructivism, which focuses on the interdependence of social and individual processes in the construction

of knowledge, to the present study

2.2.1 Behaviorism

Behaviorist tradition stresses that learning is the formation of a desired behavior in response to the given stimulus (e.g rewards and/ or punishments) In this theoretical perspective, learning occurs when there are changes in “either the form or frequency

of observable performance” (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p.55) and the learned behaviors are expected to be repeated However, little attention was given to the acquisition process of those behaviors – that is, how they are stored and recalled in the future With stimulus-response relationship model, behaviorism acknowledges the important role of reinforcement or external motivation in learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993; Weegar & Pacis, 2012) instead of the active role of an individual learner (Alissa,

2003, as cited in Budiman, 2017) Following this view, teacher professional development activities hold primary attention to teachers’ change in behaviors They were the focus of process-product research during the period of 1960s and 1970s, in which teaching was viewed as behaviors and classrooms were effective when teachers could apply learned behaviors to “condition their students’ mastery of language forms” (Freeman, 2001, p.74) Nonetheless, it is argued that there may be confusion about the effects of reinforcement on behaviors (Gallistel 1990, as cited in

In reality, the teachers did not do exactly as informed; put it differently, the form of performance did not change, and according to behaviorism, learning did not occur However, without looking into the teachers’ thought process, the reasons for not following the principles and steps of backward design, teacher learning could not be fully understood, not to mention the social factors that may affect their decision It means that it could not be said for sure whether learning occurred in this case and that behaviorism principles seem to be insufficient to analyze teacher learning in the present study

2.2.2 Cognitivism

In cognitivism, learning occurs when there is a change in knowledge rather than in behaviors Researchers following cognitivism perspective focus on addressing the issues of how information was received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind Learning is not only associated with what learners do but with what they know and how they know it (Jonassen, 1991, as cited in Ertmer & Newby, 1993) According to Dwivedi (2016), cognitive learning requires the use of memory, thinking, abstraction, metacognition, and motivation Therefore, in order for learning to take place, educators need to create the conditions that can facilitate the connection between the known information and the new information Through such a connection, the new

knowledge is transmitted to and restored in the mind Noticeably, all of the elements required for cognitive learning are believed to be in the minds of individuals In other words, cognitivism emphasizes the active role of individuals as learners, but it does not recognize the possible interactions between the individual and her world, which

is considered as a natural and dynamic relationship serving as a basis of constructing meaningful knowledge (Marton & Booth, 1997, as cited in Moon, 2004, p.20, 37) One example in the present study that could illustrate this point was the teachers’ use

of the CEFR and identification of course objectives The teachers did not know about the CEFR before they were asked to use it for objective identification; in other words, the can-do statements presented in the CEFR were new information to them When they selected the can-do statements in the CEFR as course objectives, they employed their existing knowledge of and experience with the students they had been teaching This process could be considered to be a cognitive process in which they connected the old information (i.e knowledge of their students) and the new information (i.e a content in the CEFR) so that the new information could be restored in their mind Importantly, besides organizing and connecting different types of information in their minds, the teachers interacted with each other to clarify their understanding of the can-do statements or considered the context(s) in which the course was implemented

in order to select statements that are more appropriate In essence, the teachers’ doings were much more than just cognitive thinking, and explaining their learning in this case just by means of cognitive process cannot be sufficient

2.2.3 Cognitive and social constructivism

Constructivism views learning is equated with creating meaning from experiences (Ertmer & Newby, 1993, p.62) In this sense, constructivism is similar to cognitivism

in that learning is viewed as a mental activity However, the emphasis of constructivism was that learners do not transfer the knowledge from the external world into their memories but make personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and social interactions According to Kanselaar (2002, as cited

in Amineh & Asl, 2015, p.10), there are two major strands of constructivism:

cognitive constructivism being derived from ideas of the developmental perspective

by Jean Piaget (1969) and of the cognitive psychology by Jerome Bruner (1966) and social constructivism being derived from Vygotsky’s (1978) theories of language, thought, and their mediation by society Piaget presented four stages of children’s cognitive development, including sensory motor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage In the first stage, a child, from birth

to about two years old, constructs understanding of the world through environment

In the second stage, the child, roughly from two to seven years old, can use symbols like language or gestures to convey ideas or represent objects, but he is not able to understand complex concepts In the third stage, the child can solve problems related

to actual objects and events but not abstract concepts In the final stage, the child can think abstractly to solve problems Piaget also proposes three interrelated processes

of cognitive development: schemata, adaptation (assimilation and accommodation), and equilibration which is the back-and-forth process of assimilation and accommodation (Kouicem & Kelkoula, n.d., pp.66-67) According to Piaget,

“children’s schemas are constructed through the process of assimilation and accommodation, when going through four different stages of development” (Wadsworth, 2004, as cited in Powell & Kalina, 2009, p.242) The description of the four stages and the three processes reveals that what a child can absorb is constructed through personal process rather than mediated by the society where he is in This is the core feature of cognitive constructivism Another contributor to cognitive constructivism is Jerome Bruner who argues that children represent their world through three modes (i.e physical movements, images, and language) and that the use of these modes is linked to the level of experience the children have He places great emphasis on discovery learning in which children are provided with purposeful and meaningful opportunities to utilize their resources and learn by exploration In other words, learning in Bruner’s view is a process of sense-making of experiences This view is similar to Dewey’s view on the role of experience in learning Dewey (1915, as cited in Aedo, 2002) maintains:

An ounce of experience is better than a ton of theory simply because it is only

in experience that any theory has vital and verifiable significance An

experience, a very humble experience, is capable of generating and carrying

any amount of theory (or intellectual content), but a theory apart from an

experience cannot be definitely grasped even as theory It tends to become a

mere verbal formula, a set of catchwords used to render thinking, or genuine

theorizing, unnecessary and impossible (Dewey, 1915, p.144)

Importantly, according to Dewey, not every experience is educative, and an educative experience has to meet the criteria of continuity and interaction The principle of continuity means that one experience should be meaningful enough to benefit the later experience, and the principle of interaction refers to individuals’ belonging to a community The evolution of this notion leads to the development of experiential and reflective learning approaches Dewey (1938) and Kolb (1984) define experiential learning as “the cyclical process by which learners transform their experiences into meaningful knowledge Each experience builds on previous experiences and lays the groundwork for future experiences Learning occurs as students reflect on their experiences and build connections with previous knowledge” This definition emphasizes the outcomes of experiential learning process (meaningful knowledge and/ or future experiences) and the action leading to the outcomes (reflecting) In other words, experiences cannot make up learning themselves but it is human beings who need to make attempts to figure out the meaning of experiences Although both Bruner and Dewey emphasize the importance of experiences in human learning, they just present the personal process of internalizing the experiences without mentioning the possible impacts of social factors on that process This feature is opposed to that

of social constructivism, according to which knowledge is individually constructed and socially mediated Putting differently, social constructivists believe that both the individual factors (e.g cognitive process) and social factors (e.g the rules of the activity

or the community in which the individual participates) contribute to the construction of knowledge through the participation in a goal-oriented activity Vygotsky (1978), who postulates historical-cultural theory of development, is considered to be the founding father of this strand (Powell & Kalina, 2009, p.243) He says:

Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice; first, on the

social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people

(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological) This

applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation

of concepts All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between

individuals (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57)

Until now, Vygotsky’s theory has been known as one of the popular sociocultural theories in which learning can be defined as an internalization process in which the knowledge and skills are transformed from the external society into internal system through the participation in goal-directed activities within specific social contexts In this sense, sociocultural theories emphasize the order of the transformative process; that is, only after people socially interact with the others in a community does their cognition develop within their inner self The examples presented 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 could illustrate this feature and serve as evidence for the appropriateness of social constructivism, or sociocultural theories, as the theoretical perspective for this study

2.3 Studies on teacher professional development

Although a number of authors have presented the difference between formal learning within educational institutions and outside informal learning (e.g Eraut, 2004; Lohman, 2000; Marsick & Watkins, 1990; Tynjälä; 2008), it is still common for many

to think that learning just refers to structured activities of education programs A lot

of research on teacher learning so far has been related to pre-service teachers’ learning activities in their practicum (e.g Carter, 2001; Dang & Marginson, 2012; Dang, 2013; Nguyen & Hudson, 2012; Bloomfield & Nguyen, 2015) Meanwhile, most of the research related to in-service teacher learning seem to be tagged with

“professional development”, either it is carried out at the work settings or it takes place in the outside (e.g national and international workshops/ conferences) The review in this part is for an attempt to understand the current trend as well as the focus

of professional learning and development research

2.3.1 Studies on teacher professional development in other countries

2.3.1.1 Activities for teacher professional development

Table 2.1 summarizes a number of professional development activities that have been commonly organized These activities have received considerable attention of the researchers and scholars over the past fifteen years (Table 2.3)

Table 2.1: Professional development activities

Workshops an intensive short-term learning activity to introduce specific

knowledge and skills Mentoring an activity in which a more experienced teacher helps the others to

improve teaching practice Coaching a cyclical process in which peers study the rationale of the new

skills, see them demonstrated, practice them, and learn to provide feedback to one another

Teacher support

groups

an activity in which group of teachers plans to address the needs

of teaching and learning (e.g sharing new practices, modifying curriculum, or developing lessons and materials)

Team teaching a process in which two or more teachers are simultaneously

responsible for teaching a class from planning the lesson, teaching

it to any follow-up related work Teaching portfolios a collection of documents and artifacts that illustrate a teacher’s

performance and help her to self-assess what she has done and achieve

Teacher journals an ongoing written account of observation, reflections, and other

thoughts about teaching Self-monitoring a systematic approach to observing, evaluating, and managing

one’s own behavior to understand and control the behavior better Reflective teaching an activity in which the teacher thinks about what happens in classroom

lessons and about alternative means of achieving goals or aims Action research a systematic investigation into classroom issues or problems by a

teacher or a group of teachers for a resolution Online discussion

forums

an activity in which a group of teachers use a computer-based platform to discuss problems and solutions in their teaching practice

The review of the previous studies on professional development activities also reveals that there exists more than one way to distinguish learning activities The activities presented in Table 2.1 represents one way of categorization These activities can be identified as individual and collaborative learning activities (Alvalos, 2011; Desimone, Porter, Garet, Yoon, & Birman, 2002) Besides, teacher learning activities can be grouped as formal and informal activities (Alvalos, 2011; Borko, 2004; Eekelen, Boshuizen & Vermunt; 2005; Lohman, 2000; Meirink, Meijer, and Verloop, 2007; to name but a few) Recently, a certain amount of research has focused on teacher learning at workplace with an attempt to explain the difference between formal and informal learning Informal learning involves the activities implemented

in the work settings that can lead to professional development Formal and informal learning are distinguished in that the former refers to education programs while the latter can be either planned or unplanned, structured or unstructured (Eraut, 2004; Lohman, 2000) Meanwhile, Tynjälä (2008), based on her review on perspectives into learning at workplace, postulates that workplace learning is both informal and formal Although agreeing that the most typical feature of workplace learning is probably informality, she argues some activities can be considered formal, for example on-the-job professional trainings She adds that there should be a distinction between informal and incidental learning Reviewing Marsich and Watkins (1990), she said

“informal learning is experiential and takes place outside educational institutes but can be planned, while incidental learning depicts unplanned learning that takes place

as a side effect of other activities” (p.10) On these above grounds, Tynjälä proposes

at least three modes of workplace learning: (1) incidental and informal learning, which takes place as a side effect of work, (2) intentional, but non-formal learning activities related to work, for example, mentoring, intentional practice of certain skills

or tool use, (3) formal on-the-job and off-the-job trainings In line with Tynjälä’s (2008) view, Borko (2004, as cited in Desimone, 2009) emphasizes that learning can happen incidentally or through teachers’ social experiences either consciously or unconsciously She gives a number of examples of situations in which teachers learn:

For teachers, learning occurs in many different aspects of practice, including

their classrooms, their school communities, and professional development

courses or workshops It can occur in a brief hallway conversation with a

colleague, or after school when counseling a troubled child To understand

teacher learning, we must study it within these multiple contexts, taking into

account both the individual teacher-learners and the social systems in which

they are participants (p.4)

Borko’s (2004) examples of learning situations imply the dynamic nature of professional development as ongoing, continuous and possibly embedded in teachers’ daily lives Meirink, Meijer, and Verloop (2007) synthesizes more informal and/ or incidental learning activities through their review a variety of teachers’ individual learning in collaborative settings (Table 2.2)

Table 2.2: Categories of learning activities in the workplace learning of teachers

Learning from reflection

Learning from one’s regular job

Learning from the application

of something new during one’s job

Learning from social interaction with colleagues

(Meirink, Meijer & Verloop, 2007)

It is evident that teacher professional development activities can be formally organized or incidentally occur at teachers’ work place Up to now, some formally structured professional development activities as reflective teaching, action research, team teaching, and online discussion forums have received more research attention

in which the term “knowledge” can be used in teacher cognition research In the first sense, “knowledge” is used as a classifying term, in which other constructs, such as beliefs and conceptions, can be grouped under it “Awareness”, therefore, can be considered as one construct under “knowledge” in this sense

However, the terms “awareness” and “knowledge” sometimes appear to have different intended meanings; specifically, “knowledge” can refer to something factual while “awareness” can be associated with something that is personal relevant According to Wilson, Shuman and Richert (1987, as cited in Borg, 2006, pp.18-19), teachers have both theoretical knowledge (i.e knowledge that teachers get from education or training) and practical knowledge of the subject matter “that informs and

is informed by the teaching” and that “any portrait of teacher knowledge should include both aspects” In this sense, “awareness” seems to be similar to practical knowledge that is defined by Elbaz (1981) as both knowledge of practice and knowledge mediated by practice (p.46) Connelly and Clandinin (1988, as cited in

Meijer, Verloop, & Berjaard, 1999, p.1) add that personal practical knowledge is “a particular way of reconstructing the past and the intentions of the future to deal with the exigencies of a present situation” (p.25) Another way to understand the term

“knowledge” is to distinguish explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge According

to Ellis (2004, as cited in Andrews, 2007, p.13), explicit knowledge is declarative knowledge of “the phonological, lexical, grammatical, pragmatic and socio-critical features of an L2 [second language]” (p.244) Meanwhile, implicit knowledge, according to Krashen (1981), is acquired in a subconscious process that takes place only when the learner focuses on conveying meaning Implicit knowledge is also understood as the application explicit knowledge (Johnson, 1996; Dekeyser, 1998, as cited in Andrews, 2007, p.15) In either way of understanding, implicit knowledge is hard to be described as compared to explicit knowledge, and it can become skills transferrable from one context to another context Awareness, as something that is conscious agreed by the 1982 Language Awareness Working Party, can refer to explicit knowledge, rather than implicit knowledge It is noticeable that the terms

“awareness” and “knowledge” in the literature focus more on language learning Nonetheless, the meaning of these terms can be extended to awareness and knowledge of any object that learners work on, and language is just one of objects that they deal with

24

Table 2.3: Trend and focus of professional development research worldwide

Workshops Cronin & Connolly (2007), Doppelt et al

(2009), Haegele et al (2016)

- Impacts of teachers’ participation in workshops targeting the teaching practice (curriculum reform at the classroom level) on teacher behavior and student achievement

- Impacts on teachers’ attitudes

- Integration of workshops and the other professional development form Mentoring Hudson (2013), Lee & Feng (2007), Lopez-

Real (2006), Moak (2014), See (2014), Weasmer & Woods (2010)

- Qualities of a successful mentor

- Mentors’ reflection on their involvement in mentoring

- Opportunities to learn (from the mentor/ mentee, self-reflection, mutual collaboration)

- Enhancement of communication skills

- Development of leadership roles

- Improvement of pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge Coaching Cantrell & Hughes (2008), Jao (2013) , Lee

(2011), Zwart et al (2008)

- Development of a model

- Development of pedagogical content knowledge

- Learning activities and situations within peer coaching

- Relationships between learning activities within peer coaching and learning outcomes

- Needs and challenges of peer coaching

- Development of teacher efficacy Teacher support

groups

Gersten et al (2010), Herner-Patnode (2009), Meirink et al (2007), Stanley (2011), Vescio et al (2008)

- Development of a model

- Facilitating and inhibiting factors of study groups

- Changes in cognition and behaviors (reported more changes in cognition than in behaviors: value others’ methods, value the opportunities to participate in collaborative learning, be aware of own shortcomings)

- Changes in teacher practice and student learning

Team teaching Carless & Walker (2006), Crow & Smith

(2006), Higgens & Lizenberg (2015), Mastropieri et al (2005), Scruggs et al

(2007), Shaffer & Thomas-Brown (2015), Shibley (2010), Smith & Winn (2017), Solis et al (2012); Tsai (2015),

- Development of a co-teaching model

- Responsibilities and emotions in co-teaching

- Opportunities for experience sharing

- Development of professional identity

- Interdisciplinary team teaching

- Gains in content knowledge and corresponding pedagogical strategies

- Development of teaching styles and collegial relationships

- Teacher learning of knowledge and skills (i.e language knowledge and skills, knowledge of culture, teaching skills, understanding of students and schooling) Teaching

portfolios

Hall (2006), Chetcuti et al (2011), Liu (2009) Pyörälä (2014), Simon & Johnson (2008)

- Guidelines for developing teaching portfolios

- Teachers’ understanding of and attitudes to the use of teaching portfolios

- The roles of teaching portfolios to different stakeholders

- Effects of reflective practice while keeping teaching portfolios Reflective

teaching

Afshar & Farahani (2015), Liu & Zhang (2014), Ma & Ren (2011), Mathew et al

(2017), Minott (2006), Minott (2010), Ratminingsih et al (2017), Wolfensberger

et al (2010), Qing (2009)

- Examination of contents, process and operational methods of reflective teaching

- Examination of teachers’ teaching beliefs and practice

- Improvement of self-awareness and self-monitoring abilities

- Improvement of work-related knowledge (i.e how to encourage students’ participation, how to differentiate instructions and learning, how to collaborate with colleagues)

- Teachers’ reflection on the use of reflective teaching

- Factors impacting the effects of reflective teaching

Action research Ado (2013), Cabaroglu (2014), Capobianco

& Allan (2006), Doig & Groves (2011), Castro Garcés & Martinez Granada (2016), Goodnough (2011), Hathorn & Dillon (2018), Hine & Lavery (2014), Kim (2005), O’connor, Greene, & Anderson (2006), Shanks, Miller, & Rosendale (2012)

- Improvement of problem-solving skills

- Changes in classroom practice Online discussion

forums

Boyarko (2009), Chen et al (2009), Ching

& Hursh (2014), Conrad (2005), Howell (2007), Duncan-Howell (2010), Garbin et al (2015), Hanewald (2013), Sari (2012)

Duncan Perception of the term “community”

- Learning goals

- Facilitating and inhibiting factors of an effective online learning platform

- Opportunities of sharing experiences and practices

- Professional relationships

- Desires to change teaching practices

- Responsibility for learning and teaching Improvement

processes

(curriculum

development)

Graves (1996), Handler (2010), Mackenzie

et al (2009), Malebye (1999), Nunan (1987), Shawer et al (2009), Shawer (2010a, 2010b, 2017), Zeegers (2012)

- Course development process

- Assessment of knowledge and skills of teachers as curriculum developers

- Difficulties and solutions when implementing self-designed curriculum

- Curriculum approaches

- Degree of teachers’ contributions to curriculum development

- Integration of curriculum development and other PD activities

27

2.3.1.2 Factors affecting teacher professional development

Previous research findings indicate that teacher learning can be affected by many factors One affecting factor can be teachers’ professional roadmap, during which teachers may experience success and/ or pain while working with different groups of students and on different tasks (Leithwood, 1992, as cited in Fullan and Hargreaves, 1992) This roadmap plays a certain role in facilitating or inhibiting the teacher learning and development As reported by the researchers (Huberman, 1988; Sike, Measor, and Woods, 1985; as cited in Fullan and Hargreaves, 1992) on career-cycle development, the degree of commitment might increase or decrease in the later stage; accordingly, the teachers intentionally make or stop their professional effort respectively In other words, the degree of commitment, or attitude, can be considered

as a factor that affects the process of teacher learning and development The other authors (Day, 1999; Curtis, 2001, as cited in Bailey, Curtis, & Nunan, 2001; Freeman, 1989) also mention this factor Curtis (2001) argues that even though teachers are given a development opportunity there is no way for them to grow when they choose

to take it for granted or do not appreciate the others’ helps and feedback Freeman (1989) is with Curtis in that he emphasizes attitude being construed as the link between “intrapersonal dynamics” and “external performance behaviors” (p.23) determines the success of development procedures Curtis (2001) also mentions trust

as an attribute for professional growth; however, the author does not clarify the meaning of this concept Cranston (2011) shares the view that trust plays a critical role in professional learning community He follows Bryk and Schneider (2002) to distinguish different conceptions of trust and emphasizes the positive effect of organic trust and relational trust on professional learning (pp.61-62) Specifically, organic trust is “based on the absolute belief in the moral authority of an institution”, all members of which “possess knowledge of the expectations and the behaviors necessary to keep their traditions going and essentially agree on them” (Cranston,

2011, p.61) Relational trust “describes the extent to which there is consonance with respect to each group’s understanding of its and the other group’s expectations and