the implementation of project based learning in efl classrooms a case study at hoa binh junior high school

Also, from the teachers’ and students’ perceptions, the benefits of PBL in teaching and learning English like the improvement in integrated language skills, presentation skills, interdis

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

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HA QUYEN QUYEN

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECT-BASED LEARNING IN EFL CLASSROOMS: A CASE STUDY AT HOA BINH JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Ho Chi Minh City, 2019

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Supervisor: NGUYEN THI HONG THAM, Ph.D

Ho Chi Minh City, 2019

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I declare that this study is my own work and has not been submitted, in whole or in part, for another degree in any institution

I declare that any information cited from the published or unpublished work written

by others has been acknowledged in the text and a bibliography has been provided

Date: September 18, 2019

Student’s signature: Ha Quyen Quyen

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Completing this dissertation is one of the greatest desires in my life It was made possible thanks to the encouragement, assistance, and support of many people and institutions

Above all, I am very much grateful to my supervisor, Dr Nguyen Thi Hong Tham, who provided me with valuable advice from my first few days in the course and through the duration of my thesis to completion Her untiring supervision not only encouraged me to complete my thesis, but it also helped me effectively improve my research skills

Also, my sincere gratitude sends to the participants at Hoa Binh Junior High School who supported me by all their hearts It was such a great honor to cooperate with you during my time of doing research Thank you for helping me making this thesis

To all my great lecturers at Ho Chi Minh City Open University, thank you for

taking your valuable time to instruct me during the course All experiences and knowledge sharing by all of you have encouraged me in widening my horizon

Finally, my eternal love and thanks go to my friends and my family who always have faith in me and encourage me since I participated in the course Without all of you, I could not finish my course properly

September 18, 2019

ABSTRACT

This qualitative case study aimed to investigate the implementation of Based Learning (PBL) approach in EFL classrooms at Hoa Binh Junior High school This study explored the implementation of PBL in four aspects: (1) the teachers and students’ experience in implementing PBL which four EFL teachers had done in their classrooms; (2) the teachers’ and students’ perceptions towards PBL; (3) the challenges both teachers and students face when implementing PBL and (4) some suggestions to improve the implementation in the future In the study, the researcher used four instruments: eight classroom observations, four semi-structured interviews to EFL teachers, four student focus groups and documents Notably, four teachers and 195 students from four classes were involved in the study The data collection was conducted within two phases In the first phase, the researcher did eight classroom observations, including two observations per class

Project-In the second phase, the researcher conducted semi-structured interviews for four lecturers, and four focus groups with six students per group All the data were analyzed and categorized in light of main themes and sub-themes

The findings of this study indicated that the PBL approach was partly implemented

in the context as a supplemental teaching and learning approach Also, from the teachers’ and students’ perceptions, the benefits of PBL in teaching and learning English like the improvement in integrated language skills, presentation skills,

interdisciplinary knowledge were confirmed Then, some challenges the

implementers face were pointed out such as limited time, teamwork challenge, parents’ support as well as assessment Finally, some suggestions were given to improve the situation, including preparing well for the projects, grouping, meeting parents face-to-face and assessing the process rather than the product

Keywords: PBL, implementation, EFL, English speaking skills, generic skills, benefits, challenges

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

ABSTRACT iii

LIST OF FIGURES vi

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Statement of the problem 2

1.3 Aims of the study 4

1.4 Research questions 5

1.5 Significance of the study 5

1.6 Organization of the study 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Speaking skills 7

2.1.1 Speaking skills 7

2.1.2 Characteristics of speaking skills 8

2.1.3 Presentation skills 10

2.1.4 Teaching speaking skills 11

2.2 Generic skills 13

2.2.1 Definitions of generic skills 13

2.2.2 The nature of generic skills 14

2.3 Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT) 16

2.4 Project-Based Learning (PBL) 18

2.4.1 History of PBL 18

2.4.2 Definitions of Project-Based Learning 19

2.4.3 The characteristics of PBL 19

2.4.4 The teachers’ and students’ perceptions of PBL in education 22

2.5 The Implementation of PBL in the Vietnamese context 30

2.6 Conceptual framework 33

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 35

3.1 Research Design 36

3.2 Setting of the study 37

3.3 Participants 37

3.3.1 The teachers 37

3.3.2 The students 39

3.4 Instruments 40

3.4.1 Classroom observations 40

3.4.2 Semi-structured interviews to EFL teachers 42

3.4.3 Student focus groups 43

3.4.4 Document analysis 45

3.5 Data collection procedures 45

3.6 Data analysis procedures 46

3.7 Validity and reliability 48

3.7.1 Validity 48

3.7.2 Reliability 49

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS 50

4.1 The implementation of PBL in EFL classrooms 51

4.2 Teachers’ and students’ perceptions towards PBL 66

4.2.1 The benefits of PBL in teaching and learning English 66

4.2.2 The challenges and solutions to overcome the challenges 97

4.3 Summary of the main findings 115

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 117

5.1 The implementation of PBL in EFL classrooms 117

5.2 Teachers’ and students’ perceptions towards the benefits of PBL 119

5.2.1 The improvement in students’ speaking and other language skills 119

5.2.2 The formation of students’ generic skills 120

5.2.3 The enhancement of students’ interdisciplinary knowledge and positive attitude 121

5.3 The challenges and solutions 123

5.4 Suggestions for PBL improvement 126

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 129

6.1 Summary of the study 129

6.2 Limitations 131

6.3 Pedagogical implications 132

6.4 Recommendations for further research 133

REFERENCES 135

APPENDICES 142

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1.3 Model of Presentation as an Interactive Process ……… …… 11

Figure 2.6 The Conceptual Framework of the study …… ……… 35

Figure 4 Thematic Network of PBL approach ……… 53

Figure 4.2.2 Products of the project work ………….……… 61

Figure 4.1.4 (a) Self, Peer Evaluation Form ……… ……… 67

Figure 4.1.4 (b) Group Evaluation Form ……… 68

Figure 4.2.1 The Poster of Recycling ……… 89

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Summary of the methodology chapter 37

Table 3.3.1 Summary of teachers’ characteristics 40

Table 3.4.1 The information of observations 44

Table 3.4.2 The information of the interviews 45

Table 3.4.3 The information of focus groups 47

Table 3.7 Codes of data from different instruments 50

Table 4.1 The Phases of a PBL lesson 55

Table 4.1.1 Activities in the starting the project phase 56

Table 4.1.3 The activities in the reporting periods 64

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CLT : Communicative Language Teaching PBL : Project-Based Learning

EFL : English as a Foreign Language

MOET : Ministry of Education and Training

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This introduction chapter provides an overview of the issues discussed in this study The chapter consists of: (1) background of the study, (2) statement of the problem, (3) aims of the study, (4) research questions, (5) significance of the study, and (6) organization of the study

1.1 Background of the study

In teaching and learning English as a foreign language (EFL), communicating in English is the essential goal that learners need to gain In order to reach that aim, it

is EFL teachers’ mission to devise classroom activities which constitute “real

communication” “Real communication” or “authentic communication” involves

students to produce spontaneous communication and thoughtful understanding in interaction (Horwitz, 2013, p.23) In other words, students need to effectively

interact with English speaking partners in their daily life However, there is the

absence of authentic communication in EFL classrooms where English is not

frequently used except for three 45-minute periods per week at school Besides, conventional teaching approaches, mainly focusing on grammar, reading, simple writing and even exam-focusing, have reduced the opportunities for students to use English, so students cannot communicate in English after leaving school (Ngo, 2014)

Simultaneously, another goal that students need to obtain for their future profession

is generic skills The components of generic skills or major skills are recognized by Mayer’s key competencies as communication, collaborative, critical thinking,

creative, planning and organizing, self-management, learning and technological skills (Curtin, 2002) Nevertheless, it is not easy for students to establish these skills

in traditional classroom environment which centers on teachers who determine what and how the students learn and assess on students’ learning In this kind of

classroom, there is little attention to students’ interests or needs Students are just

passive listeners and no voices in their learning process Therefore, students’ main skills may not be able to be established or developed

Due to the above concerns in teaching and learning process, there is a need to find ways to promote not only students’ authentic communication to enhance their

speaking skills but social key competences to form their generic skills as well

Besides, the policy of Viet Nam’s education reform which aims to supply

Vietnamese students with competitive skills puts the process of teaching and

learning English under innovation As a result, Project-Based Learning (PBL), “a

teaching model that organizes learning around projects” (Thomas, 2000, p.1), has initially been implemented in K-12 curriculum of teaching and learning English In this curriculum, PBL is expected to equip students with the productive skills,

especially speaking skills through presentations and to establish generic skills

focusing on communication, collaborative, critical thinking, creativity, and

technological skills

1.2 Statement of the problem

In Vietnamese context of EFL teaching and learning, in the Decision 1400/QĐ-TTg dated September 30, 2008 of the Prime Minister on the Approval of the Project entitled “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education

System, Period 2008-2020” (2020 Project), the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) sets up the goal that:

by 2020, most Vietnamese students graduated from secondary, vocational schools, colleges and universities will be able to use a foreign language confidently in their daily communication, their study and work in an integrated, multi-cultural and multi-lingual environment, making foreign languages a comparative advantage of development for Vietnamese people in the cause of industrialization and modernization for the country (General Objectives in the Decision, p 1).

Accordingly, to make the national project more specific, the Circular

55555/BGDĐT-GDTrH on October 8, 2014 from MOET puts an emphasis on the transformation of students’ learning into student-centered, which focused on

students’ needs and interest The Circular also requires teachers to reform their teaching methods into student-centered learning and assessment towards formative and self, peer assessment The center of the assessment techniques is to develop students’ virtue as well as competences In brief, the Decision and Circular assume the significant requirement of reforming teaching and learning process towards student-centered learning in the context of Vietnamese academic education

Further, numerous studies also examined the benefits PBL brought to EFL

classrooms in diverse contexts from the higher education at high schools,

universities, or colleges For instance, Hoang (2014) adopted PBL as a tool for effectively teaching Intercultural Communication in English at the university Another study of Vietnamese students’ awareness towards a Project-Based

Environment was also conducted by Felipe et al (2016) In the study, the

researchers affirmed the benefits of implementing PBL in Vietnamese teaching and learning setting Additionally, Bui, Pham and Tran (2017) also carried out studies

on the effectiveness of PBL integration in the curricula in the context of language classrooms of universities or senior high schools Nevertheless, the implementation

of PBL in the context of state junior high schools received little attention in the literatures although it is a part of the new English textbooks in Vietnamese

curriculum PBL is a new term to EFL teachers in these schools in Vietnam

At Hoa Binh junior high school, PBL has been used for four years in four selected classes by four selected teachers with initially astonished moments from both teachers and students This is the only lower junior high school in Trang Bom district, Dong Nai province which has employed the piloted English program following the Project 2020 In the piloted English book, there are six parts in each

unit They are “Getting Started” which gives an overview of the topic, “A Closer

Look 1” which provides students vocabulary and pronunciation, “A Closer Look 2” which centers on grammatical knowledge, “Skills 1” with reading and speaking,

“Skills 2” with listening and writing and each unit closes with a project in “Project”

Most of teachers and students have been familiar with the first 5 parts However, it

is a new term to both teachers and students to do a project because they have never implemented any project before during their school study program

For the above reasons, the perceptions of teachers and students who were pioneers

in employing PBL in lower junior high schools are worth examining so that the administrators consider PBL thoroughly before putting it into reformed English program In addition, teachers and students who have not had a chance to get

accessed to the PBL approach while this kind of learning will officially put into practice in the academic year of 2021-2022 will have a nutshell of PBL in EFL teaching and learning

1.3 Aims of the study

The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore how PBL was implemented in the

context of the selected EFL classrooms at a state junior high school of Trang Bom district, Dong Nai province The more detailed purposes of the study include:

1 To explore the experiences in implementing PBL, which four EFL teachers have done in their own classrooms at Hoa Binh junior high school

2 To investigate what the teachers’ and students’ perceptions towards the benefits of PBL are in improving students’ speaking skills, and generic skills

3 To figure out the challenges the PBL implementers face when doing the projects and the solutions to overcome these challenges

4 To find out some suggestions made by the teachers and students for

improving the PBL implementation in the context of EFL classrooms in K-12

3 What challenges do the implementers face when doing the projects?

4 What should be done to improve the PBL implementation in EFL

classrooms?

1.5 Significance of the study

This study is significant because of the following reasons First of all, it is expected that the study will contribute to clarify the way PBL is implemented in the selected EFL classrooms From that, EFL teachers consider shifting from teacher-centered instruction to student-centered learning, in which students have opportunities to

build their own knowledge and improve their skills by experiencing and doing

projects relating to authentic communication Secondly, this study in the future can

be seen as a useful source of reference for the teachers not only at Hoa Binh Junior High school but also other teachers who feel interested in this field to consult when applying PBL into their practice Thirdly, the current study also helps school leaders and educators have a deep understanding of how teachers and students appreciate PBL in their teaching and learning process so that they can support teachers and students in their PBL implementation Last but not least, the findings of the study

can also contribute to the improvement of the current piloted English program The curriculum writers and educators from the MOET can refer the study in order to adjust the program relevant to the context of Vietnamese lower junior high schools before making it popular nationwide

1.6 Organization of the study

The thesis is organized into six chapters:

Chapter 1 provides an introduction of the study by introducing background of the

study, statement of the problem, the purposes of the study, research questions, the significance of the study and the organization of the study

Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literatures which can be served as the background

for the entire research In this chapter, the theoretical concepts of speaking skills, generic skills, Project-Based Learning theory are mentioned, and the conceptual framework is designed to guide the study

Chapter 3 describes the methodology of the study It includes the research design,

the setting of the study, the participants, the instruments, data collection and

analysis procedures The validity and reliability of the study are also considered

Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study which are based on the instruments Chapter 5 focuses on the discussion of the findings All the main findings are

thoughtfully interpreted and discussed

Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by presenting a summary of the findings, making

pedagogical implications, presenting limitations of the study and giving

recommendations for further research and lastly summarizing the overview of the study

The next chapter will focus on the literature review relevant to the study

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is divided into four main sections The first section is focused on investigating speaking skills This includes the definitions of speaking,

characteristics of spoken language and teaching speaking The second section

reveals the definitions of generic skills and the nature of generic skills in students’ study and future profession The third section is about PBL of which definition is mentioned, characteristics of PBL and the effectiveness of PBL in students’

development of speaking and generic skills Moreover, the challenges both teachers and students have to face during their PBL implementation is also taken into

account Finally, the study considers the implementation of PBL in the Vietnamese context, where PBL is considered as an innovative method of teaching and learning, especially in the setting of K-12 curriculum Last but not least, the conceptual framework is designed to lead the study

2.1 Speaking skills

2.1.1 Speaking skills

In the literature, there has been a wide range of speaking definitions under different perspectives First of all, Burns and Joyce (1997) and Brown (2007) assume that speaking skill is the interactive process of constructing meaning that involves

producing, receiving and processing information In addition, Nunan (2003) refers speaking as “productive aural/oral skills and it consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning” (p.48) To highlight the importance of

speaking skills, Nunan (2015) maintains that speaking skills is “essential for

children’s overall language development in which children learning English as their native language spend time developing speaking skills” (p.47) According to

Morehouse (2017), as one of the productive skills, speaking skills can be used to improve other aspects, including learners’ communicative skills and interaction Similarly, Harmer (2007) also states that “While listening and reading involve the

ability to correctly receive messages and are therefore referred to as receptive skills, speaking and writing, on the other hand, involve language production and are

referred to as productive skills” (p 16)

Overall, speaking skills is one of the productive skills in language teaching It is the ability which speakers express themselves orally, coherently, fluently and

appropriately in a given meaningful context to make themselves understood by using pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary accurately and fluently

2.1.2 Characteristics of speaking skills

In the literature, it is known that the major elements in speaking skills include

pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary, grammar and accuracy (Gerard, 2000; Ellis, 2009)

1 Pronunciation: Pronunciation relates to the phonological process which

includes two fundamental features of phonemes and supra segmental features (Gerard, 2000)

2 Vocabulary: Vocabulary is a list of words that a speaker is familiar with and

able to use in a language (Hatch and Brown, 1995)

3 Grammar and Accuracy: Grammar is the internalized system of rules that

speakers of a language share (Hartwell, 1985) While accuracy refers to the capicity to avoid error in speaking and complex structures that may lead to error (Ellis, 2009)

4 Fluency: Fluency is defined as the ability of using language in real time to

emphasize meanings and draw on more lexicalized systems (Ellis, 2009)

Furthermore, students are required to master the knowledge of English as well as the ability “to process information and language on the spot” (Harmer, 2007, p.269)

if they want to become good English speakers As a result, not only grammar,

vocabulary, and pronunciation but also fluency must be skillful

On the other hand, Brown (2007) emphasized the importance of micro and macro skills in speaking English According to Brown (2007), the micro skills are the ability of producing chunks, phonemes or stress pattern as well as the ability of using lexical items or different strategies of speaking while the macro skills relate to the ability to achieve communicative purposes or appropriate genres, implication or the flexibility of using verbal and non-verbal language for an effective

communication Nunan (2015) summarized the four skills areas of speaking

competence are required for effective communication, as follows:

1 Phonological skills: Learners need to be able to blend the phonemes of the

language they are learning In addition, they must use appropriate stress and intonation

2 Speech functions: Learners need to achieve specific communicative

functions in social and transactional exchanges such as agreeing with someone, asking for clarification or offering a reason

3 Interactional skills: In face-to-face exchanges, learners must manage

interactions by regulating turn taking, redirecting the topic, and negotiating meaning, in addition to initiating, maintaining and closing a conversation

4 Extended discourse skills: Learners must often produce long stretches of

uninterrupted language and they need to structure what they say so it is easy for others to follow This requires the use of established conventions for structuring different kinds of extended spoken language such as narrative, procedural,

expository, or descriptive discourse (p.53)

In summary, speaking skills is characterized by micro skills and macro skills in monologue and dialogue in which the information is successfully exchanged

between interlocutors or the message is completely sent to the audience from the presenter The elements in speaking skills include pronunciation, vocabulary,

grammar and accuracy, fluency These elements contribute to an effective

conversation

2.1.3 Presentation skills

Presentation skills, which have the close bonding to public speaking skills, could be considered as a specialized discourse Lucas (2013) defines presentation skills as a speech delivered with a purposeful message in a strategic way of communication in order to inform or convince Also, Paltridge and Starfield (2013) point out the

purpose of teaching presentation skills for students, including attaining the

academic, professional and professional target They also state that differently from other English-Speaking teaching, presentation skills employed language, skills, and registers to match specific goals In term of its characteristics, Muehl (2017) designs

an interactive model of presentation skills

F IGURE 2.1.3.Model of Presentation as an Interaction Process (Muehl, 2017, p 11)

According to the model, there are some basic elements of the presentation process

Firstly, the speaker is the one creating the message In public speaking, the message could be his/her opinions, identity, etc Secondly, the message conveyed by the speaker consists of two parts: factual data and opinions of the speaker Also, the channel is the way that the speaker uses to deliver their message Thirdly, the

listener is the one who receives and integrates the message by using their

knowledge, attitudes, etc Then the listener provides both verbal and non-verbal feedback to the speaker before, while or after the speech Moreover, both speaker and listener participate in the same particular context such as time, places, etc During the communication process, there should be some “noise” that interferes in the delivery of the message

In short, besides requiring complexity, fluency and accuracy in conveying the message, presentation skills are much more complicated due to the interactive process of communication Therefore, the teaching and learning of presentation skills should be paid more attention

2.1.4 Teaching speaking skills

The importance of teaching speaking is undeniable People can successfully

communicate with each other, mainly due to oral interaction As a result, it is

important to be fluent in English for effective contacts in the context of global economy in Viet Nam In order to succeed in learning English, learners need to succeed in carrying out conversation in the target language with native speakers (Nunan, 2015) Therefore, speaking must be a priority for most English learners (Florez, 1999) Beside daily dialogues, speaking also involves in monologue which

is the process of performing speaking publicly in front of some certain audience in different circumstances Furthermore, speaking activities in the classroom are able

to raise general students' motivation and create a dynamic and interesting English language classroom (Nunan, 2015) According to Harmer (2015), teaching speaking

is essential because teaching speaking provides students with the chance of

expressing their knowledge in order to explore their strengths and weaknesses Moreover, teaching speaking offers learners the opportunity to practice language grammar structures practiced which leads to fluent speaking Due to its importance

in one’s life, it is significant for students to be taught in their classrooms To prove the importance of speaking skills, Baker and Westrup (2003, p.5) state that:

Educators, governments, ministries of education and employers need people who can speak English well Companies and organizations want staff who can speak English for international marketing Good speakers have a great chance of further education,

of finding employment and gaining promotion It also helps students to access date information in different fields of sciences.

up-to-Taking into account the importance of developing EFL speaking skills, Nunan (2015) listed five basic principles of teaching speaking which were originally

proposed by Bailey (2003):

1 Be aware of the difference between second language and foreign

language learning contexts: Teachers need to consider the global, national,

and local contexts In addition, the teacher should know how, when, and why your learners use English outside of the classroom

2 Give students practice with both fluency and accuracy: These are two

basic criteria for assessing speaking However, complexity is sometimes added as the third criteria Complexity is the ability of using complicated sentence structures

3 Provide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair work and limiting teacher talk: This principle emphasizes the importance

of collaborative work which increases the talking time of students

4 Plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation of meaning: The negotiation

of meaning relates to the situation that requires the students to clarify the information which may lead to misunderstandings

5 Design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both transactional and interactional speaking: Transactional and interactional

speaking dominate daily language use, thus, should be constructed into

teaching speaking

It came to the conclusion that in EFL classrooms, teaching speaking was extremely significant since it brought students opportunities to use language in a safe

environment This resulted in the establishment of automatic usage in language users In other words, learners could produce utterances “without very much

conscious thought” (Harmer, 2007).

2.2.1 Definitions of generic skills

In terms of generic skills, Muehl and Sholl (2004) states that it is advisable to “find agreement on terminology that is acceptable to all stakeholders - schools, VET, higher education, employers, individuals, and communities and which recognizes that the new agenda of generic skills for the 21st century is about essential life skills

as well as enterprise and employability skills” (p.85) In her study, Elkin (2012, p.14) suggests that:

Generic skills are high-order, transferable skills that are common to almost all

complex endeavors They include skills such as communicating, problem-solving, curiosity, patience, flexibility, purpose, persistence, resilience, courage and creating - that apply across all specific fields They enable us to organize, adapt, and

strategically apply our specific skills in new situations and circumstances

In addition, the Mayer Committee defined key competencies as:

… generic in that they apply to work generally rather than being specific to work, in particular, occupations or industries This characteristic means that the key

competencies are not only essential for participation in work but are also essential for

effective participation in further education and in adult life more generally

(Australian Education Council, Mayer Committee 1992, p.7)

Further, in simulations, generic skills also lead to the establishment of new skills

which help people succeed in managing and adapting changes in the face of

adversity Generic skills are essential because working and learning need flexibility and the capability of undertaking various tasks at the same time Moreover, generic skills motivate students to become reflective and self-directed (Hager, Holland, & Beckett, 2002) Singh & Gera (2015) add that generic skills encourage learners to organize and strategically adapt specific skills in new circumstances In addition, generic skills assist leaners produce new skills to manage and adapt to various situations Generic skills are important as work and life are becoming more and more complex and asking learners for the capacity of taking over different tasks and learning from their doing and experience

2.2.2 The nature of generic skills

While there has been no agreement on the framework for generic skills, the Mayer Key Competencies (1992) classifies generic skills into seven competencies, which each individual needs to gain during their work and life The competencies include communicating ideas and information; using mathematical ideas and techniques; working with others and in teams; solving problems; collecting, analyzing and organizing information; planning and organizing activities and using technology In other words, the components of generic skills are communication skills,

collaborative skills, critical thinking, creativity and technological skills (Curtin, 2002)

language like pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar people use but the meaning they want to transfer to their counterparts accurately in meaningful contexts (Curtin, 2002) The interview process is helpful to effective communication as well as in people’s profession In particular, communication skills are most required in

working in groups, where they need to find the best way to show their disagreement tactfully and skillfully without creating a conflict Therefore, it is necessary to grasp active listening, confidence, conflict resolution for effective interaction

x Collaborative skills

According to Marinez-Moyano (2010), collaboration involves the process of

individuals or organizations working in groups or teams to complete a task or

achieve a goal It requires leadership and active participation Team-work results in the success of teams in overcoming the difficulties Meanwhile, Barell (2003)

acknowledges that working together helps group members have a strong attachment

to each other and hold hands to solve problems Each member will be more mature thanks to useful peer assessment and each other’s performance (Bender, 2012) A collaborative environment helps people solve all the difficulties in workplace and their daily life

x Critical thinking

According to Doyle (2019), critical thinking is the ability to make objective analysis

of certain information or a reasoned judgment It relates to the evaluation of

information, perceived phenomenon, and research findings Moreover, critical thinking can enhance the rationality of the learner Critical thinking enables people

to improve their process of thinking Those learners who are good at critical

thinking can produce conclusions from information and distinguish different details

to solve a problem

x Creativity

According to Franken (1994, p 396), creativity is “the tendency to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with others, and entertaining ourselves and others” Creativity is the ability to generate new ideas (Crowl et al., 1997).When learners are being creative, they can see the hidden patterns, make connections between things which seem to

be unrelated, and produce new ideas In other word, creativity means bringing into being something that was not there before.Creative thinking will help the learners

to expose to different thinking, different points of views, and different methods to solve the problems Therefore, creativity is necessary for students’ success

x Technological skills

The key skills people need to gain these days is technological skills, which is one of the surviving skills in workplace Students may use computers in very advanced ways; however, they need to be guided to use technology safely and effectively for their learning purposes Technology as a means, not an end, enables students to experiment with different technologies for all aspects of PBL (Bell, 2010) To students, an authentic use of technology is highly engaging, because it taps into their fluency with computers Students participate in research using the Internet

Briefly, generic skills are featured with key skills of communication, collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and technological skills These skills are means for people’s surviving in their life and work

2.3 Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT)

Developed in the 1970s, CLT has become the current trend in research and the most prominent approach to second and foreign language teaching (Brown, 2007)

Therefore, it is critical to understand the focus of CLT and how it is integrated into language teaching In CLT, communication and communicative competence, a

learner's ability to use language to communicate successfully (Brown, 2007),

became a major goal of language teaching (Nunan, 2015) In order to promote communicative competence, students should be able to communicate fluently and accurately in the target language (Brown, 2007), and able to “use the language appropriate to a given social context” (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p.131) Learners need to be actively engaged in constructing intent and use the target language as a tool for communication of meaning (Brown, 2007) Learners should involve in class discussions and have practice negotiating meaning among their peers and teachers Learners should be motivated and encouraged to express their own thinking,

feelings and needs There are many instructional ways to support learners to reach the goals of language learning The CLT approach enhances second language

acquisition and engages students both in meaningful classroom activities and in various social contexts (Harmer, 2007)

The CLT approach has been interpreted to focus on language use instead of

language usage As learning involves the integration of different language skills (Brown, 2007), a concern about focusing on meaning rather than on form has risen Spada (2007) argues that a balance between practicing form and meaning should be further investigated, as research has indicated that success with reading and writing has helped in second language learning

In summary, the shift of this pedagogy shows the difference in language learning between past and present methodologies The language laboratory was traditionally used to listen to taped language but has now changed to a multiple center Learning was limited to the classroom environment but is now encouraged to occur outside the classroom which is connected to society, the community and the world

Teachers and students use textbooks and the Internet as teaching and learning

resources, and educational software is a part of the learning system Learners have opportunity to experience information and to seek and create target language in meaningful contexts (Richards, 2006)

In the literature, a number of teaching approaches (e.g Beckett & Slater, 2005; Thomas, 2000; Markham et al., 2003; Holm, 2011; Harris, 2014) incorporate the application of CLT and PBL They have documented the success of using PBL in the classroom with second language learners and the features of PBL complement the features of CLT Further details related to results of PBL are examined at a later

point in the section called The benefits of PBL in education

As many Vietnamese learners are incapable of using communicative English

efficiently after studying English for 12 years (Ngo, 2014), it appears that PBL could be a promising teaching approach to develop Vietnamese learners’

constructive learning In order to better understand how PBL links theory and

practice, the following section details the history of PBL and discusses the

definitions and descriptions of PBL

2.4 Project-Based Learning (PBL)

2.4.1 History of PBL

PBL is not a new approach in education, Beckett and Slater (2005) stated that PBL can be dated back to the mid-1800s, and was first created by David Snedden, who taught science in American agriculture classes Later, in the early 1900s, PBL was further developed by William Heard Kilpatrick, John Dewey’s student and focused

on the need for learners to have a purposeful activity (Brown, 2007) In other words, learners in PBL had the opportunity to construct knowledge by generating their projects based on their interests and individual differences They made connections between their new knowledge and their existing knowledge and were able to apply them to similar settings They learnt in a meaningful context while creating the end product (Harmer, 2007)

2.4.2 Definitions of Project-Based Learning

Project-Based Learning (PBL) is a key strategy for creating independent thinkers and learners as children solve real-world problems by designing their own inquiries, planning their learning, organizing their research, and implementing a multitude of

learning strategies Moreover, PBL offers students experiences that cannot be taught

out of a textbook (Markham, 2011) There has been a difference of definitions of PBL; however, this study notices two definitions from Markham, Larmer and

Ravitz (2003) and Holm (2011) According to Markham et al (2003), PBL is “a

systematic teaching method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions

and carefully designed products and tasks” (p.4) Besides, Holm (2011) defines PBL as a “student-centered instruction that occurs over an extended time period, during which students select, plan, investigate and produce a product, presentation

or performance that answers a real-world question or responds to an authentic

challenge” (p 1)

In their definitions, Markham et al emphasize students’ motivation on authentic projects and develop students’ knowledge as well as skills while Holm focuses on students’ choice and performance in project processes These two definitions serve

as a conceptual foundation for the present study of the perceptions of teachers and

students in PBL implementation

2.4.3 The characteristics of PBL

In PBL implementation, there is a combination of teacher guidance, teacher

feedback, student engagement, and elaborated tasks with some degree of challenges (Alan & Stollen, 2005) Generally, such projects are multidimensional A review of Levine’s (2004) report reveals that successful PBL consists of the focus on real-world subject matter that can maintain the interest of students; the requirement of student collaboration and, at the same time, some degree of student autonomy and

independence; the accommodation of a purposeful and explicit focus on form and other aspects of language; the process and product orientation with an emphasis on integrated skills and end-of project reflection The result is often authenticity of experience, improved language and content knowledge, increased metacognitive awareness, enhanced critical thinking and decision-making abilities, intensity of motivation and engagement, improved social skills, and a familiarity with target language resources Briefly, PBL is characterized as student-centered learning, authentic projects and students’ autonomy

x Student-centered learning

As a student-driven approach, PBL highlights student-centered learning, which is an

“environment that allows learners to take some real control over their educational experience and encourages them to make important choices about what and how they will learn” (Doyle T , 2008, p xv) Rogers (1983, p 188) confirms the

importance of student–centered learning as the need for “a leader or person who is perceived as an authority figure in the situation, is sufficiently secure within herself (himself) and in her (his) relationship to others that she (he) experiences an essential trust in the capacity of others to think for themselves, to learn for themselves” Collins and O'Brien (2003, p.5) define that:

Student-centered instruction is an instructional approach in which students influence the content, activities, materials, and pace of learning This learning model places the student (learner) in the center of the learning process The instructor provides

students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another and coaches them in the skillss they need to do so effectively

It is obvious that student-centered learning includes such techniques as substituting active learning experiences for lectures, assigning open-ended problems and

problems requiring critical or creative thinking that cannot be solved by following text examples, involving students in simulations and role plays, and using self-

paced and/or cooperative (team-based) learning Properly implementing centered learning can lead to the increase in motivation to learn, greater retention of knowledge, deeper understanding, and more positive attitudes towards the subject being taught

student-In brief, a student-centered classroom involves changes in the roles and

responsibilities of learners and instructors; i.e students play the central roles while instructors play the facilitators during the process of teaching and learning, in the delivery of instructional strategies, and in learning itself; these all differ from those

in the traditional, teacher-center classroom In the student-centered classroom, the learner requires individualization, interaction, and integration (Brown, 2007)

x Authentic projects

Another characteristic of PBL is connecting projects with the real world This

makes PBL classrooms motivated and meaningful to students To achieve this, authentic projects, which are based on real-world problems, grab students’ attention, stimulate their thinking and drive them towards conducting research Hence,

relevant, up-to-date issues related to students’ lives are worth investigating

(Thomas, 2000) In order to avoid a lack of real-world connection in a PBL

environment, a framework proposed by Beckett & Slater (2005) was offered The framework consists of three main parts of language, content in which involves real-life themes and skills Besides, the project procedures with four steps: (1) choosing

a topic, (2) planning, (3) solving the topic and (4) presenting of results are also utilized by Turek (2002) so that the PBL classrooms become more effective

Supporting Turek’s project procedures, Svobodová, Lacko and Cingl (2010) also present the design of a project into four phases of preparation, realization,

presentation and evaluation

In the preparation phase, a project is prepared with a topic which students are able

to work with, the instructor and students set up a specific target and reach an

agreement on a time schedule Moreover, generating a list of what students feel they need to know is an effective way to relate the project to their own concerns and inquiries The next phase comes with students’ realization of the problem to solve, they work with their partners to explore the issues and make up their mind what and

to which extent to tackle with the problems creatively The final products as well as students’ presentations are eventually presented with teachers’ and peers’

evaluation The participants also reflect and evaluate themselves (Kalabzová, 2015)

2.4.4 The teachers’ and students’ perceptions of PBL in education

* The Benefits of PBL in education

PBL can combine the activation of students’ prior knowledge and new information

as well as technological techniques so as to deal with a specific task PBL can

develop creative thinking, work responsibly on their own to process information, cooperate and communicate with others, know how to convince different people, and present own work, etc Furthermore, through project involvement, students play central roles while teachers are just facilitators

Many studies on the benefits of PBL have been conducted worldwide and proved their effects on students’ speaking skills as well as their generic skills Typically,

Hmelo-Silver and Cindy (2004) contend that in PBL, students are centers of

creating an artifact for a specific project Therefore, students’ products are their creative quintessence by working in groups To have their own artifacts, students have to spend the process of choosing, planning, persuading, determining,

communicating, seeking information, designing and producing Suffering from these phases, students enrich their knowledge as well as gain key skills As a result, Hmelo-Silver and Cindy (2004) conclude that through PBL, students can develop flexible knowledge, effective problem-solving skillss, self-directed learning skillss, effect collaboration skillss and intrinsic motivation Making presentations to

introduce their products also enables students to improve their presentation skillss, especially speaking skillss and communication when they counter their friends’ opinions (Markham et al., 2003)

In his review of PBL, Fujioka (2012) also takes considerations of many benefits of project work from different researchers, such as students’ autonomy over their planning and decision-making (Stephenson & Kohyama, 2003; Cunningham & Carlton, 2003 in Fujioka, 2012) Also, supportive ecology is created through

naturally collaborative work (Carney & Foss, 2008; Kagnarith, Theara, & Klein,

2007 in Fujioka, 2012) Besides, carrying out a project can highlight students’ creativity and enhance their self-confidence (Tomei, Glick, & Holst, 1999; Thorp,

1997 in Fujioka, 2012) Students’ motivative aspects are also hightened when the lesson content is appealing and close to their daily life (Tessema, 2005 in Fujioka, 2012) Another benefit in PBL is that students are able to advance their Informative Technology (IT) knowledge and skillss since they have to seek data and

information, interact and collaborate with others on the Internet, and they will gain

expert use to produce their products (Krajcik et al., 1994)

x Improving students’ speaking skills

PBL is widely applied in EFL classrooms so as to enable students to improve their language skills, especially speaking skills In a Thai EFL classroom, Kettanun (2015) examines the positive learning outcomes by conducting an experimental study on 21 third-year students in the program of 2013 Communication Arts

Outstanding Students at Bangkok University The results from a t-test analysis after the 12-week program indicated that the participants surpassed their prior speaking ability and they were better at verbally expressing the content of the projects as well

as making them clearly understood Meanwhile, students’ learning portfolios were also collected in order to support the t-test results The interpretation of students’ portfolios confirmed their significant speaking improvement in six categories, adapted from Brown’s (2011), as imitation, intention, response, transactional

interaction, interpersonal interaction and extension Additionally, Dewi (2016) conducted an action research to explore the efficacy of PBL technique in EFL

classrooms The researcher’s and the students’ observation sheets, tests, and student questionnaire sheets were collected and analyzed The results from his action study prove the improvement in students’ speaking skills by comparing the results from the pre-tests and the post-tests

In 2016, Pramono conducted a study with an aim to develop speaking skills through PBL at grade eleven students at Yogyakarta, Indonesia The procedure of the study included planning, action and observation, and reflection This research found that the students’ speaking skills significantly increased by using of PBL Students’ speaking skills were improved in terms of pronunciation, accuracy, and fluency, and vocabulary PBL also developed students’ confidence to use English and to be actively involved in the teaching-learning process In addition, the activities of PBL made the classroom environment more interesting

Realizing non-English major learners were mostly in the teacher-centered condition and had few opportunities to use English, Yang & Puakpong (2016) integrated PBL

into the English classroom in the Chinese higher education context The aims of this study were to investigate the effect of PBL on non-English major students’ speaking ability and their opinions on PBL The data were gathered from speaking pre-test and post-test, questionnaire and semi-structured interview The findings showed that PBL had positive effect on learners’ speaking skills improvement and learning attitude Unexpectedly, technology skills were also found to be developed The findings of this study provide useful information for the researchers who are

interested in implementing PBL into their teaching

Recently, Torres and Rodríguez (2017) do an action research on thirty EFL ninth graders at a public school in Bogotá, Colombia Three cycles of PBL intervention were carried out with the findings that PBL stimulates students to enhance their communicative competence with a major emphasis on English speaking skills Students were able to supply oral production with diverse use of vocabulary and overcome fears of speaking in English as well as be more self-confident in

expressing themselves in public

x Developing students’ generic skills

In addition to communicative and collaborative skills, students who experience PBL, are involved in problem-solving, critical-thinking and the ability to engage in inquiry (Barell, 2010; Boss, 2012) In 1995, Tretten and Zachariou employed an assessment of PBL in four elementary schools using various kinds of instruments like teacher questionnaires, teacher interviews, and a survey of parents The data from their study contend that PBL brings students a variety of positive benefits consisting of optimistic attitudes towards learning, good work habits, problem-solving abilities, and self-esteem Through working productively in PBL, “students are learning new knowledge, skills and positive attitudes" (p.8) which are key skills for their real life In addition, PBL enables EFL students to link the language to their own real-life interests (Foss, Carney, McDonald, Rooks, 2007), thus improve their attitude towards language learning and problem-solving ability In this regard,

Fragoulis and Tsiplakides (2009) find that project work develops students’

enjoyment in learning and sense of self-esteem Being parts of the group project, most of the learners can improve their ability to solve the conflicts occurred in their groups Besides, students are enhanced to take responsibilities in the project and in learning Eventually, learners also develop their collaborative skills which are important for language learning and future profession

In 2014, Tabaku & Ecirli (2014) conducted a study to examine whether project work was an effective teaching approach to develop language and intercultural communication skills A case study approach was used in this study There were two questions directing their study of (1) how project work improved students’ language skills and group work skills and (2) to what extent using projects in

multilingual groups led to improvement in intercultural communication skills The paper showed that using of project work was successful in a multinational learning setting Project work can improve learners’ language skills, metacognitive skills, interpersonal skills as well as confidence Further, Kettanun (2015) indicates that the PBL implementation in EFL classrooms not only brings positive learning

outcomes, but also enhances learners’ cognition, work ethics, and interpersonal skills Moreover, Tabaku and Ecirli (2014) report that learning from project work can improve students’ metacognitive skills, confidence and independence in

learning and interpersonal skills They also suggest that the use of PBL is even effective in enhancing learners’ generic skills in a multinational learning setting Similarly, Soparat, Arnold and Klaysom (2015) examined the use of PBL using Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to improve learners’ five key competencies based on Thai Basic Education Curriculum 2008, including

communication capability, thinking capability, problem-solving capability,

capability in applying life skills, and capability in technological application It was found that learners improved communication capability, thinking capability,

problem-solving capability, capability in applying life skills, and capability in

technological application In addition, the students were able to achieve the content

in the other learning areas such as science, mathematics, health and physical

education and technology Therefore, the use of PBL can improve students’

capacity of communication, problem solving, life skills, technology and learning in content of the subject area

Previous studies have shown the effectiveness of PBL on learners’ motivation and autonomy Nevertheless, varied results have been reported when using PBL in Asian context Thus, in 2017, Grant (2017) examined the employment and students’ perceptions of this approach in an EAP writing course in Macau This study used questionnaires and teachers’ reflections to collect the needed data The findings showed that PBL created various opportunities for meaningful interactive language use in the classrooms Also, students were comfortable with their autonomous role during the project process It is also indicated that students’ motivation and

autonomy were significantly developed by using PBL

To enhance students’ higher order thinking skills in senior vocational schools, Suprapt, Fahrizal, Priyono, & K (2017) conducted a study developing a strategy of problem-based learning This study is a quasi-experiment conducted on X TKR 1 class of 38 students and X TKR 2 class of 38 students of Senior Vocational School

II, Kupang, NTT Province, Indonesia The findings revealed that the use of

problem-based learning strategy showed more positive effect when comparing to the conventional strategy Specifically, the problem-based learning could improve students’ high order thinking skills in group work and problem-solving tasks

Recently, Dimmit (2017) examined the effects of PBL on developing critical

thinking skills in first-year university students This paper was done through action research investigation Research methodology of this study comprised a student survey to investigate the needs for university level and PBL effects on critical thinking skills The study found that PBL provided successful environment for improving students’ self-reliant and critical thinking skills The paper summarized

with useful suggestions for PBL practices and strategies for developing critical thinking abilities which are fundamental for learners to be successful in their

academic field

* The challenges in PBL implementation

Despite its efficacy, PBL still sends a challenge to its implementers when too many projects are demanded in limited time (Sheppard & Stoller, 1995) The same view comes from Marx et al (1997) in Thomas (2000) They identify four scopes in the teachers' enactment problems The challenges include the limited time in the class schedule, classroom management, the lack of technological mastery and tools for assessment In terms of time management, the literature reveals that projects often take long time and students have difficulties in project tracking resilience Another obstacle of implementing PBL in class was classroom management To spend time for students introducing their artifacts, teachers have to balance limited time in curriculum and that put pressure on teachers’ classroom management Moreover, teachers’ control on students’ process make them stressful In spite of believing in students’ self-responsibility, teachers sometimes need to keep tracks on the process

of the projects Also, teachers have difficulties in facilitating students' tasks due to students’ out-of-class activities One of the big problems in PBL implementations is technology use In other words, the lack of both teachers and students’

technological skills on initial days of conducting projects is a big problem they cope upon Last but not least, how to assess students’ products confronts all the

practitioners It is difficult for teachers to design appropriate tools of assessment that evaluate students’ incorporations during the projects

Through teachers’ reflection, Cyprian (2014) conducted a qualitative study to

investigate how teacher self-efficacy accommodated in the employment of PBL and the procurement of 21st century skills In particular, this study primarily

investigated self-efficacy of six teachers who employed PBL at a middle school in the southwestern part of the United States The results reported numerous factors

that impact teachers’ self-efficacy in the PBL environment These factors consisted

of the course content, the classroom setting, teachers’ self-efficacy, and the

formation of peer relationships Meanwhile, Harris (2014) aims at identifying

middle school teachers’ perceptions of the employment of PBL and examining the challenges of using PBL and the ways the teachers react to these challenges It is found that time, meeting state accountability requirements, addressing the

standards, implementing the project within the schools’ schedule and designing the project-based experience were the challenges of using PBL The findings also

revealed that teachers knew how to solve the problems of using PBL and some expressed further concerns about those challenges

In 2014, Subramanian (2014) investigated the factors influence teachers’ design and implementing of PBL in the high school mathematics classroom after a long-period involvement in a professional learning on PBL employment Firstly, the results of this research reported that teacher collaboration is important by influencing

teachers’ beliefs in the design and use of PBL Second, constraint of the school district to advance leaners’ test scores in standardized tests also had negative impact

on the use of PBL of teachers in the classrooms Moreover, changes in teaching assignment and in the current curriculum disincentivized teachers from conducting innovative “reform-based instructional practices” like PBL in the classrooms In addition, teachers’ low expectation in students’ ability and performance discouraged teachers from using PBL in the classroom This study offered an important

suggestion that teachers should hold the belief that all students could learn In other words, every learner can learn in terms of the standards set forth by challenging curriculum The results of this paper can be beneficial with the teachers in other contexts and influence curriculum organizers to assist the teachers in integrating PBL in the classrooms

To examine the challenges of using PBL to the students, Fragoulis (2009)

implemented a project work in some Greek state primary schools The most serious

problem found was that most of the learners were not familiar with group work It was also shown that despite clear assignment of roles for group members, some learners controlled the work while others did little work Furthermore, some

students used their mother tongue for communication instead of target language Another challenge was that some students felt the duration of the project was too long that made most students lose interest and motivation at the end of the project Lastly, some learners had difficulties in accepting the role of the teacher as a

facilitator and not as a provider of knowledge

Similar to previous studies, Kalabzová (2015) carried out a study with a focus on identifying the challenges of using PBL listing by the teachers Eight major

problematic themes and their implications were listed First, it is important to

promote learner motivation from the first stage of the project work as motivation can reduce during the project work Second, detailed knowledge of students assisted

in promoting motivation, cooperation and safe atmosphere Moreover, checkpoints would help students to promote time management and organization skills

Additionally, EFL teachers should carefully choose input material, its sources and level for project work Last but not least, the knowledge of students contributed to create criteria of assessment at the first stage of PBL work

In summary, despite its advantages, PBL still exists certain drawbacks in the

process of implementing it in each classroom They relate to both objective and subjective factors such as limited time, classroom management, teacher’s self-efficacy, students’ demotivation, content, assessment, input material, etc However,

these factors can be put into three main issues of time for the projects, design of the projects and assessment

2.5 The Implementation of PBL in the Vietnamese context

In Vietnamese educational context, several researches have been conducted in higher education Nguyen (2009) conducted a study of the implementation of PBL