Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition

Backbone optical networks are evolving to mesh topologies utilizing intelligent work elements; a new optical control plane is taking shape based on GMPLS; andsignificant advances have occ

Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition

Updated and expanded, this second edition of the acclaimed Multiwavelength Optical Networks provides a detailed description of the structure and operation of modern optical

networks It also sets out the analytical tools for network performance evaluation andoptimization for current and next generation networks, as well as the latest advances inenabling technologies

Backbone optical networks are evolving to mesh topologies utilizing intelligent work elements; a new optical control plane is taking shape based on GMPLS; andsignificant advances have occurred in Fiber to the Home/Premises (the “last mile”),metropolitan area networks, protection and restoration, and IP over WDM Each ofthese is treated in depth, together with new research on all-optical packet-switched net-works, which combine the speed of optics with the versatility of packet switching Alsoincluded are current trends and new applications on the commercial scene (wavelengths

net-on demand, virtual private optical networks, and bandwidth trading)

With its unique blend of coverage of modern enabling technologies, network tectures, and analytical tools, the book is an invaluable resource for graduate and seniorundergraduate students in electrical engineering, computer science, and applied physics,and for practitioners and researchers in the telecommunications industry

archi-Thomas E Stern is Professor Emeritus of Electrical Engineering at Columbia University,

New York, and has served as department chair and technical director of Columbia’sCenter for Telecommunications Research A Fellow of the IEEE, he holds several patents

in networking He has also been a consultant to a number of companies, including IBM,Lucent, and Telcordia Technologies

Georgios Ellinas is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer

Engineering at the University of Cyprus, Nicosia He has held prior positions as anAssociate Professor at City College of New York, as a Senior Network Architect atTellium Inc., and as a Senior Research Scientist at Bell Communications Research Hehas authored numerous papers and holds several patents in the field of optical networking

Krishna Bala is currently the CEO of Xtellus, a company that manufactures fiber

opti-cal switches Krishna was the co-founder and CTO of Tellium (NASDAQ: TELM), asuccessful optical networking company Prior to that he was a Senior Research Scien-tist at Bell Communications Research He holds a Ph.D in electrical engineering fromColumbia University

Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition

Architectures, Design, and Control

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521881395 C

Cambridge University Press 2009 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2009 Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

1 Optical communications 2 Computer network architectures I Ellinas, Georgios.

II Bala, Krishna III Title.

TK5103.59.S74 2009 621.382 7 – dc22 2008008319ISBN 978-0-521-88139-5 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to

in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Information regarding prices, travel timetables, and other factual information given in this work are correct at the time of first printing, but Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter.

To Monique, who has always been there for me To our children and our children (T.E.S.)

grand-To my loving mother, Mary, and sister, Dorita, and the memory of my beloved father, Nicos (G.E.)

To my wife, Simrat, and our children, Tegh and Amrita (K.B.)

1.2 Objectives of an Optical Network Architecture 41.3 Optics versus Electronics: The Case for Transparent

1.4 Optics and Electronics: The Case for Multilayered Networks 12

2.3 Optical Network Nodes: Routing, Switching, and Wavelength

3.3.2 Routing and Channel Assignment Examples 1283.4 Linear Lightwave Networks: Waveband Routing 133

3.5.2 Multipoint Logical Topologies: Hypernets 156

4.1 Evolution of Transmission and Switching Technology 166

4.4.4 Amplification Trends in Metro Optical Networks: Amplets 204

4.5.2 Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers 211

4.6 Optical Receivers in Intensity-Modulated Direct-Detection

4.6.4 Analog Systems: Carrier-to-Noise Ratio 227

4.9 Performance Impairments in a Network Environment 235

4.11 Wavelength Conversion and Signal Regeneration 274

4.11.2 Opaque Wavelength Conversion and Signal Regeneration 278

5.2 Representative Multiplexing and Multiple-Access Schemes 3275.2.1 Time-Wavelength-Division Multiplexing/Multiple

5.3 Traffic Constraints in Shared-Channel Networks 367

5.4 Capacity Allocation for Dedicated Connections 3715.4.1 Fixed-Frame Scheduling for Stream Traffic 3715.4.2 Fixed-Frame Scheduling for Packet Traffic 383

5.5.1 Blocking Calculations in WDMA Networks 3905.5.2 Blocking in Combined Time-Wavelength-Division

5.6.1 Uncontrolled Scheduling: Random Access 401

5.6.5 Dynamic versus Fixed Capacity Allocation 408

6.3 Wavelength-Routed Networks: Static Routing

6.3.1 Flow Bounds: Matching the Physical

6.3.5 Ring Decomposition of General Mesh Networks 458

6.4 Wavelength-Routed Networks: Dynamic Routing

6.4.1 Some Basic Routing and Channel Assignment Algorithms 484

6.4.2 Case Study: Bidirectional Rings 4916.4.3 Performance of Dynamic Routing Rules on Meshes 494

6.4.5 Routing Multicast Connections in WRNs 4976.5 Linear Lightwave Networks: Static Routing Rules 507

6.5.2 Optical Connections:λ-Channel Assignment 5166.5.3 Significance of Nonblocking Access Stations in LLNs 518

6.5.5 Routing Waveband and Channel Assignment on the

6.6 Linear Lightwave Networks: Dynamic Routing Rules 544

6.6.2 Routing Multicast Connections in LLNs 558

7.1 Introduction: Why Logically-Routed Networks? 576

7.2 Point-to-Point Logical Topologies: Multihop Networks 585

7.3.3 Traffic Grooming in Point-to-Point

8 Survivability: Protection and Restoration 647

8.2 Current Fault Protection and Restoration Techniques in

8.2.3 SONET Self-Healing Ring Interconnection Techniques 6578.2.4 Architectures with Arbitrary Mesh Topologies 6638.3 Optical-Layer Protection: Point-to-Point and Ring Architectures 669

8.4 Optical-Layer Protection: Mesh Architectures 6778.4.1 Shared Optical Layer Line-Based Protection 679

8.4.4 Survivability Techniques for Multicast Connections 702

9.2.1 Packet Transport through an MPLS Network 722

10.1 Optical Packet-Switched Network Architectures 758

10.1.3 Performance Analysis of Deflection Routing 76610.1.4 Buffering: Time Domain Contention Resolution 77010.1.5 Buffering and Wavelength Conversion: Time/Wavelength

10.1.6 Comparison of Contention Resolution Techniques for

10.1.7 Hybrid Electronic and Optical Buffering 784

10.4.3 Contention Resolution in OBS Networks 806

11 Current Trends in Multiwavelength Optical Networking 828

11.1.1 Cost Issues for WDM Point-to-Point Systems 831

11.1.3 Cost Issues for WDM Cross-Connect Networks 83311.1.4 Open versus Closed WDM Installations 835

11.2.1 Optical Networks Technology Consortium 838

11.2.3 European Multiwavelength Optical Network Trials 839

11.2.5 National Transparent Optical Networks Consortium 84011.2.6 The Importance of the Testbeds in Driving the

11.3.1 Metro Network Unique Characteristics 84111.3.2 Defining the Metropolitan Networking Domain 842

11.3.3 Metro Network Evolution 844

11.4.1 Current Considerations in Wide Area

11.4.2 Some Recent Commercial Network Deployments 856

E An Algorithm for Minimum-Interference Routing

2.21 Three-stage realization of a waveband-space switch 56

2.29 Network access station 682.30 Example of a logical connection between two NASs 69

3.14 MAC protocol in the layered architecture 120

3.18 Bidirectional ring: single access fiber pair 1303.19 Bidirectional ring: two access fiber pairs 132

3.32 A logical switching node in an optical network 152

3.33 Eight-node ShuffleNet 154

4.10 Dispersion coefficients as a function of frequency 1794.11 Limitations due to nonlinear effects in multiwavelength systems 186

4.14 Basic erbium-doped fiber amplifier structures 192

4.18 Raman gain coefficient in bulk silica as a function of frequency shift 1984.19 Hybrid distributed-discrete amplification 200

4.39 Transversal decision-directed equalizer 233

4.49 2D mechanical switch using micromachined mirrors 251

4.53 Two hologram N × N liquid crystal holographic switch. 255

4.68 Performance of a difference frequency converter 277

4.72 Nonlinear optical loop mirror regenerator 280

4.75 Circuit layout for 8× 8 optical crossbar switch 284

4.82 Parallel and serial OADM architectures with capability for m

4.94 Ring interconnect network architecture Worst-case paths between

4.95 Histogram of all cross-talk terms accumulated at receiver B for the

4.96 Cross-talk-induced Q penalty in dB versus dominant cross-talk term

4.97 Q-channel performance for the worst-case path of Figure 4.94

assuming OC-192 bit rate and EA-modulated transmitters 3084.98 A DWDM metro network deployment scenario All rings represent

typical SONET OC-12/48/192 designs DWDM is deployed onlybetween the superhub nodes (dark squares) in ring (solid) or possible

4.99 DWDM metro network case study based on the network deploymentscenario presented in Figure 4.98 Nodes represent only superhubstations with typical distances (not shown to scale) 3094.100 Simulation results for path A-F-D in Figure 4.99 comparing

5.4 Illustrating channel reuse in an FT-TR system 332

5.12 SCM/WDMA/SCMA 350

5.14 Block diagram of a direct-detection CDMA system 3545.15 Waveforms for a direct-detection CDMA system 356

5.25 CASs for systems with a full complement of channels 376

5.31 Markov chain model for demand-assigned traffic 391

5.33 Normalized throughput versus traffic intensity 3945.34 Normalized throughput versus traffic intensity 395

6.1 Number of vertices in known maximal graphs 435

6.21 External traffic in flow conservation equations 467

6.29 Gain in blocking; 11-node WDM ring, simulation 4916.30 Fairness ratio; 11-node WDM ring, simulation 4926.31 Fairness ratio improvement versus interchanger density; 11-node

6.32 Simulation and asymptotic analysis; 195-node interconnected WDM

6.35 Fairness ratio improvement versus interchanger density; 195-node

6.36 Multicast connection in a transparent network 500

6.41 Petersen network 5096.42 Structure of a nonblocking access station for an LLN 510

6.45 Local access subnets on the Petersen network 520

6.49 Connection interference graph for Equation (6.60) 530

6.60 Blocking in networks with multifiber links 5556.61 Blocking in networks with multiple wavebands 556

6.63 Example of a tree decomposition using MBFS-1 5626.64 Example of a tree decomposition using MBFS-4 563

6.66 Blocking probability for multicast connections 568

7.4 The architecture of a grooming node with optical bypass 584

7.6 Maximum throughput per node for ShuffleNet 588

7.12 Advantage of grooming static traffic in SONET over WDM rings 6017.13 Construction of an auxiliary graph for grooming 605

7.19 Duality construction 6187.20 Directed hypergraph construction via duality 6197.21 Directed hypergraph construction via edge grouping 6207.22 Tripartite representation of G K H (2 , 42, 3, 28). 622

7.24 Comparison of hypernets and multihop networks 628

7.26 Multicast-capable logical-grooming switch 638

8.12 (1+ 1) Optical protection and (1:N) electronic protection for

8.14 Four-fiber WDM SPRING surviving a link failure 6748.15 Four-fiber WDM SPRING surviving a node failure 675

8.20 Directed cycles in a nonplanar graph: K5 6838.21 Face traversal for a planar national network 684

8.23 Seven-node planar network with default protection switch settings 6878.24 Seven-node planar network after a link failure 6878.25 Failure recovery using the p-cycle approach. 688

8.28 (1:3) shared protection in a mesh network 6938.29 Spanning trees used in optical path protection 697

8.33 Examples of different types of islands centered on node 22 7028.34 Examples of segment and path-pair protection of multicast sessions 7038.35 Example illustrating the arc-disjoint and MC-CR algorithms 704

9.1 A mesh optical network 715

9.3 Provisioning a connection between two routers through

9.6 MPLS header format and MPLS packet format 7249.7 Two LSPs in an MPLS packet-switched network 725

9.16 Protection signaling using GMPLS RSVP-TE 751

10.2 A generic OPS node architecture for an unslotted network 76110.3 A generic OPS node architecture for a slotted network 761

10.5 A generic packet format for a slotted network 762

10.12 Example of head-of-the-line (HOL) blocking 773

10.16 Typical packet sequence in DI buffers for a 4× 4 optical switch 77610.17 Generic node architecture with TOWCs at the input lines 77910.18 Details of output buffers for TOWC switch 78010.19 Packet-loss probability versus number of FDLs with and without

10.20 Generic node architecture with TOWCs that are shared among

10.21 Node architectures for different contention resolution schemes:

single-wavelength delay line, multiwavelength delay line, wavelength

conversion, and wavelength conversion with multiwavelength

10.22 Switch architecture with electronic buffering

10.23 All-optical buffering and switching architecture 79010.24 Physical implementation of the CRO device 792

10.27 Proposed unicast node architecture for the KEOPS project 79410.28 Proposed multicast/broadcast node architecture

10.29 SLOB architecture Each stage is a photonic switch element (PSE) 796

10.31 Optical packet switching and Optical burst switching 799

10.36 Packet-loss probability versus load for different contention resolution

10.41 Network node architecture for an OLS testbed demonstration 81410.42 FSK/IM orthogonal labeling scheme used in the STOLAS project 81410.43 Optical router and optical label swapper used in the STOLAS project 81510.44 Architecture of the edge-router in OPSnet 81610.45 Architecture of the core-router in OPSnet 81710.46 Core node configuration for label swapping and packet switching 819

10.48 Experimental setup for multihop packet transmission

11.1 Six Central Offices, including two hubs, with capacity exhaust 83111.2 Application of WDM point-to-point systems to alleviate

11.3 Six Central Offices, including two hubs, with capacity exhaust 833

11.5 Node in Central Office: Electronic cross-connect 83511.6 Economic case for WDM optical cross-connect 83611.7 Open WDM network architecture: Opaque network 83711.8 Integrated closed WDM network architecture 83711.9 Current legacy SONET/SDH design in U.S metropolitan regions 842