efl students’ attitudes towards autonomy in vocabulary learning and their vocabulary learning strategies a case study at nguyen huu cau high school

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY LUC TIEU HOANG LINH EFL STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS AUTONOMY IN VOCABULARY LEARNING AND THEIR VOCABULARY LEARNING S

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

LUC TIEU HOANG LINH

EFL STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS AUTONOMY

IN VOCABULARY LEARNING AND THEIR VOCABULARY

LEARNING STRATEGIES: A CASE STUDY AT NGUYEN HUU CAU

HIGH SCHOOL

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Ho Chi Minh City, 2019

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

LUC TIEU HOANG LINH

EFL STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS AUTONOMY

IN VOCABULARY LEARNING AND THEIR VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES: A CASE STUDY AT NGUYEN HUU CAU

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify my authorship of the thesis submitted entitled, “EFL students’ attitudes towards autonomy in vocabulary learning and their vocabulary learning strategies: a case study at Nguyen Huu Cau High School” as the

statement of requirements for thesis in Master’s Programs at Ho Chi Minh Open University, issued by the Higher Degree Committee

This thesis does not contain material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree of diploma, except where reference is made in the text of the thesis

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of this thesis

The thesis has not been submitted for any degree in any other tertiary institution

Ho Chi Minh, July 2019

LUC TIEU HOANG LINH

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Luc Tieu Hoang Linh, being a candidate for the degree

of Master of Arts (TESOL), accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research,

in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Librarian for the care, loan, and reproduction for theses

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2019

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deep gratitude to those who have greatly helped and encouraged me to complete my research Without their support, my research would be far from being completed Hence, I am deeply indebted to the individuals that provided support for the completion of this study

First and foremost, my sincere and special appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr Tran Quoc Thao, with my greatest gratitude for his valuable guidance, advice and encouragement He has supervised my entire thesis, and, most importantly, given me a lot of helpful comments to get over the most problematic period when I was stuck in finding solutions for my thesis Undoubtedly, without his enthusiastic support, it would be very difficult for me to complete this study

Next, I would like to send my deep thank to all the lectures of TESOL course, who oriented and inspired me to put the first step on the path of scientific research

Furthermore, I would like to thank to the Head of Nguyen Huu Cau High School and the Head of English subject for facilitating best conditions for my research Particularly, I would also like to acknowledge all colleagues and 200 grade twelfth students at Nguyen Huu Cau High School for their contribution to the completion of data collection Without their willingness and generous help, my research could not have been accomplished

Last but not least, I would like to express my thankfulness to my adorable brothers, sisters and friends for the love and encouragement gave me during my study time Especially, I am deeply grateful to my honorable parents for dedication, support and sharing of feelings to help me overcome all the difficulties and to become a better me now

ABSTRACT

Learner autonomy has been considered as a determining factor of success in their own study However, there are a limited number of papers on this issue in the context of Vietnamese High School The present study aimed at (1) investigating EFL high school students’ attitudes towards autonomy in English vocabulary learning, (2) identifying the strategies used by a group of 200 twelfth-grade students studying at Nguyen Huu Cau High School in enriching English vocabulary knowledge autonomously and (3) examining whether there is a difference in vocabulary learning strategies use in terms of gender The researcher employed a mixed-methods design, involving both quantitative and qualitative approaches with two research instruments: a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview The findings revealed that EFL high school students expressed positive attitudes towards autonomy in English vocabulary learning The results also demonstrated that EFL high school students employed English vocabulary learning strategies at an average frequency level when they encountered with vocabulary items This current investigation revealed six English vocabulary learning strategies used with high frequency by the students In other words, Nguyen Huu Cau High School 12th

students often utilized six following English vocabulary learning strategies, namely,

“Use a bilingual dictionary to find out the meaning of the word”, “Study words through English songs”, “Ask teachers for L1 translation”, “Ask classmates for meaning”, “Highlight new words” and “Say new word aloud when studying” in order to enrich their knowledge of English vocabulary autonomously Furthermore, female students reported using vocabulary learning strategies more frequently than their male counterparts Based on these findings, some recommendations were made for EFL students, EFL teachers and school administrators

Keywords: autonomy; attitudes; case study; EFL students; vocabulary learning

strategies

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

LIST OF TABLES x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 3

1.3 Purposes of the Study 6

1.4 Research Questions 7

1.5 Significance of the Study 7

1.6 Definitions of Key Terms 7

1.7 Overview of Thesis Chapters 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Learner Autonomy 9

2.2.1 Definition of Learner Autonomy 9

2.2.2 The Importance of Learner Autonomy in Language Learning 10

2.3 Learner Attitude and Their Role in Language Learning 11

2.3.1 Definition and Domains of Learner Attitude 11

2.3.2 The Importance of Attitude in Language Learning 13

2.4 Vocabulary and Its Importance in Language Learning 14

2.4.1 Definition of Vocabulary 14

2.4.2 The Importance of Vocabulary in Language Learning 14

2.5 Vocabulary Learning Approaches 14

2.6 Vocabulary Learning Strategies 15

2.6.1 Definition of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 15

2.6.2 The Importance of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 15

2.6.3 The Classification of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 16

2.7 The Difference of Learner Autonomy and Vocabulary Learning by Gender 20 2.8 Previous Studies 21

2.9 Research Gaps 25

2.10 Conceptual Framework 26

2.11 Chapter Summary 29

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 30

3.1 Introduction 30

3.2 Research Setting 30

3.2.1 Research Location 30

3.2.2 Research Participants 32

3.3 Research Design 36

3.3.1 Case study 36

3.3.2 Research Method 36

3.4 Research Instruments 38

3.4.1 Questionnaire 38

3.4.2 Interview 41

3.6 Data Analysis Procedure 44

3.6.1 Procedure of Analyzing Questionnaire 44

3.6.2 Procedure of analyzing Semi-structured Interview 46

3.7 Reliability and Validity 47

3.7.1 Questionnaire 47

3.7.2 Semi-Structured Interview 48

3.8 Chapter Summary 48

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 50

4.1 Introduction 50

4.2 Results 50

4.2.1 EFL High School Students’ Attitudes towards Autonomy in English Vocabulary Learning 50

4.2.2 EFL High School Students’ Use of Autonomous English Vocabulary Language Learning Strategies 54

4.2.3 Differences in Vocabulary Learning Strategies Use in terms of Gender 65 4.3 Discussion 66

4.3.1 EFL High School Students’ Attitudes towards Autonomy in English Vocabulary Learning 67

4.3.2 EFL High School students’ Use of Autonomous English Vocabulary Language Learning Strategies 69

4.3.3 Differences in Vocabulary Learning Strategies Use in terms of Gender 73 4.4 Chapter summary 74

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 75

5.1 Introduction 75

5.2 Conclusions 75

5.3 Implications 76

5.3.1 For EFL Teachers 76

5.3.2 For School Administrators 78

5.3.3 For EFL Students 78

5.4 Limitations of the Study 79

5.5 Recommendations of Further Research 79

REFERENCES 81

APPENDICES 89

APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE (English Version) 90

APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE (Vietnamese Version) 94

APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL (English Version) 99

APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL (Vietnamese Version) 102

APPENDIX E: A SAMPLE OF THE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT WITH

STUDENT 2 (English Version) 106 APPENDIX F: A SAMPLE OF THE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT WITH

STUDENT 2 (Vietnamese Version) 111

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

COG: Cognitive

DET: Determination

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ESL: English as a Second Language

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Schmitt’s (1997) VLS classification 16

Table 2.2: Intaraprasert’s (2005) VLS classification 19

Table 3.1 Research Participants’ General Information 35

Table 3.2: Reliability Coefficient of the Questionnaire 40

Table 3.3: Methods of Data Analysis in Relation to the Research Questions and Instruments 46

Table 4.1: EFL High School Students’ Attitudes towards Autonomy in English Vocabulary Learning 51

Table 4.2: Significance of Self-Learning English Vocabulary 52

Table 4.3: Interest of Self-learning English vocabulary 53

Table 4.4 Frequency of students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies 55

Table 4.5: Students’ use of DET vocabulary learning strategies 56

Table 4.6: Students’ use of SOC vocabulary learning strategies 57

Table 4.7: Students’ use of MEM vocabulary learning strategies 59

Table 4.8: Students’ use of COG vocabulary learning strategies 60

Table 4.9: Students’ use of MET vocabulary learning strategies 61

Table 4.10: Frequency Category of students’ vocabulary learning strategy use 63

Table 4.11: Independent samples T-test: Differences in vocabulary learning strategies use in terms of gender 66

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 A model of attitude formation(Luu, 2011) 12

Figure 2.2 Schmitt’s (1997) Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 18

Figure 2.3 Conceptual Framework of the Study 28

Figure 3.1: Research Design for the Present Study 38

Figure 3.2: Research Methodology of the Present Study 49

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the background to the study, followed by the statement

of the problem It then emphasizes the purposes and research questions of the study Moreover, the significance of the study is taken into consideration as well Finally, definitions of key terms and overview of thesis chapters are presented

1.1 Background to the Study

Nowadays, with the rapid development of technology, it is undeniable that language plays a very crucial role in human life in the world because it is considered as a means of communication In other words, language is used not only

to communicate but also to transfer information According to Hornby (1995), language is “the system of sounds and words used by human to express their thoughts and feelings” (p 662) Actually, more and more people from different countries are communicating and exchanging ideas with each other by one international language, namely the English language To put it another way, English can be regarded as a bridge used to connect people all over the world Therefore, teaching and learning English is of significance to educational demands There is no doubt that to master the English language, learners need to have necessary knowledge of vocabulary apart from mastering the grammar rules Truly, vocabulary is one of the most important components of language learning in which learners are able to use it in order to support for four language skills (Nation, 2001; Richard & Renandya, 2002; Schmitt, 2010) Hence, the richer vocabulary knowledge students have, the better they can master the language Obviously, vocabulary plays a vital role in any stages of the learners’ language development (Balci & Çakir, 2011) Particularly speaking, vocabulary is one of the essential aspects of the language learning process (McCrostie, 2007) Moreover, it is impossible for a learner to communicate without the required vocabulary Indeed, a number of leading scholars (e.g., Wilkins, 1972; Willis, 1990; Lewis, 1993; Folse, 2004) in the field of vocabulary believe that communication can occur without

syntax and grammar, but not vocabulary This above-mentioned statement draws the importance of vocabulary in any languages in general and in English in particular No one can deny that if learners have no vocabulary, they cannot express their ideas, thinking or feelings as well as are unable to understand the meaning of written and spoken texts Thus, it can be said that vocabulary learning is a prominent domain to approach a satisfactory language proficiency level (Boers & Lindstromberg, 2008)

In order to enhance learning quality and learners’ development in language teaching and learning process, some researchers have moved their concentration to

a greater emphasis on learning and learners instead of teaching and teachers over the past few decades (Sadighi & Zarafshan, 2006) In other words, the concept of learner autonomy has generally been paid a lot of attention as an alternative approach in educational environments and particularly in language learning (Gremmo & Riley, 1995; Benson, 2001) In fact, it is seen as an effective way for EFL teachers to help students to attain an autonomous level as well as make them less dependent on teachers (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990) Cotterall (2000) declares that many EFL teachers today have a clear awareness of how important the learner autonomy is Consequently, he suggests that teachers should encourage students to undertake independent learning inside and outside the classroom by introducing them an array of vocabulary learning strategies, contributing to their success of language acquisition Vocabulary learning strategies help students not only become more active but also be able to take more responsibility for their own learning (Marttinen, 2008)

Today autonomy in vocabulary learning is becoming an essential for EFL learners at any levels in general and EFL high school students in particular Furthermore, in the new educational innovation, learners’ needs and motivations are highlighted by EFL teachers because they constitute the foundations of the learner's language learning acquisition Basing on the new trends in education, some researchers such as Holec (1981), Dickinson (1995), Little (1991) and Benson

(2003) emphasize on the necessity of learner autonomy What is more, it is believed that the more effective students have vocabulary learning strategies, the more motivated students get in language learning As a result, helping learners to learn how to learn vocabulary autonomously is an immensely important element which ESL/EFL teachers have to take into account when teaching any language, including English

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The past thirty years has seen an increasingly rapid advance in the field of learner autonomy In other words, learner autonomy has been increasingly acknowledged as an essential and significant need and goal in education McDevitt (1997) states that “the end product of language learning is an independent learner in every aspect of the language” (p 34) In practice, the effort to make ESL/EFL learners become independent learners should be considered as the end goal that educators and ESL/EFL teachers pursue

In Viet Nam, English is considered as a foreign language Hence, students have very few opportunities for exposure to English in their real life For this reason, teaching English for ESL/EFL learners by schools in general and ESL/EFL teachers, tutors in particular is absolutely necessary Nevertheless, learners need to

be aware that success in learning depends much on their persistence and individual effort as well (Scharle & Szabó, 2000) This means that learners need to try their best in order to learn and practice language in their own besides teachers’ instructions As a matter of fact, if students only focus on learning language through the classroom instruction, it is not the best way for students to acquire the language effectively Particularly, the learners’ proficiency in vocabulary today is still poor

In fact, a considerable number of secondary and high school students realized that they are not interested in studying English (Seyed, Karbalaei & Afraz, 2013) This unfortunate incident happens in English teaching and learning process due to three following reasons The first reason is that Vietnamese students have been educated with

the passive style along with the teacher-centered belief (Nguyen, 2014) This means that teachers are regarded as the people who master the knowledge of the language (Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996) and their job in the class is restricted to imparting knowledge to students instead of encouraging them to learn independently (Pham, 2007) With traditional methods of teaching, teachers play a central role and the students receive the knowledge passively The second reason is that most of the EFL students must face memorizing not only a long list of vocabulary but also Vietnamese translation provided by EFL teachers (Thuy, 2013) The fact of the matter is that when students encounter a new word whose meaning is unknown, teachers often directly give the meaning for students without mentioning about its form as well as using Hence, students only concentrate on the word meaning provided by their teachers in order to grasp the written texts in their course book It

is incredibly noteworthy, however, the word form, its use as well as its meaning should be equally attracted to students’ attention since they are the three core components of word knowledge (Nation, 2001) As a result, knowing the meaning

of the word is only one of the vital things that students have to acquire in vocabulary learning On the other hand, revealing the word meaning rather than introducing some vocabulary learning strategies such as guessing word meaning from context, word family, synonyms which may make students lost the chances to individualize their learning as well as to maximize their cognizance of the strategies for their own learning outside the classroom context (Atay & Ozbulgan, 2007) The last reason is that vocabulary teaching and learning is limited by the time in the class In fact, Sokmen (1997) expresses that it is impossible for EFL teachers to teach all of vocabulary which students need in and out of the class within the class time limit To put it simply, the class time is obviously not enough for students to comprehend all of the essential words that students need for their communication purposes (Vo, 2016)

More recently, there has been an increasing interest of researchers on autonomy in vocabulary learning such as Luu (2011), Khalifa and Shabdin (2016),

Sedighi and Tamjid (2016) Most of these researchers mainly focus on exploring attitudes, strategies used by EFL students or EFL teachers to promote students’ autonomy towards undergraduate students and EFL secondary school students However, autonomy towards EFL high school students is still questionable To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, there have been a few studies that have investigated on autonomy of EFL high school students in vocabulary learning and their vocabulary learning strategies in Viet Nam Regarding the field of vocabulary learning strategies and gender, some studies show that there was a difference of vocabulary leanign strategies use based on the gender (Hall, 2011; Zeynali, 2012; Zarei, 2013) However, the other studies prove that gender does not affect the use of vocabulary learning strategies (Griffiths, 2003; Ziahossein & Salehi, 2008) Within the field of vocabulary learning strategies, personality of individuals is affected through various variables such as culture, environmental factors and sex differences (Budaev, 1999; Costa & McCare, 1992) In the context of English as a foreign language in Vietnam, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, only a small number of research studies have been carried out to investigate the students’ vocabulary learning strategies use in terms of gender Therefore, gender variable has been selected to examine the effects on the students’ vocabulary learning strategies use The findings of the present study may contribute to vocabulary learning as well as the factors affecting the strategy choices among EFL High School Vietnamese students Understanding a comprehensive picture of students’ vocabulary learning strategies use might enable EFL teachers to improve the vocabulary teaching methods as well as introduce vocabulary learning strategies and some appropriate techniques to their students Consequently, it might help students develop some strategies and ways to become independent learners by recognizing the strategies they possess and those they may lack

This study was carried out on EFL students’ autonomy in vocabulary and their vocabulary learning strategies at Nguyen Huu Cau High School because of three following reasons Firstly, although most EFL teachers and students are aware

of the importance of vocabulary mastery, several teachers do not usually point out and discuss effective vocabulary learning strategies Under those circumstances, most of the students at Vietnamese schools, especially at Nguyen Huu Cau High School, still get a multitude of difficulties in English learning in general and vocabulary mastery in particular Secondly, the content of textbooks English 10, 11 and 12 published by the Ministry of Education and Training have had so many difficult grammar points As a consequence, most of the students focus on learning grammar more and they also think that translations of words into Vietnamese are an effective method to help them save time for learning vocabulary Lastly, EFL students at Nguyen Huu Cau High School are not interested and motived in learning vocabulary In practice, students are asked to memorize the words in order to increase their vocabulary without autonomous vocabulary learning strategies being suggested by their teachers From that point, the students feel frustrated in an attempt to memorize a large number of new words throughout the course Based on the reasons mentioned above, therefore, conducting this study is considered very necessary with the hope to find out the solution to foster the quality of teaching and learning English in general and autonomous vocabulary learning of EFL students at Nguyen Huu Cau High School in particular

1.3 Purposes of the Study

This study is conducted with the purposes of

1 Examining the attitudes of EFL high school students at Nguyen Huu Cau High School towards autonomy in English vocabulary learning

2 Exploring strategies employed by EFL high school students in enriching English vocabulary knowledge autonomously

3 Investigating whether the choices of vocabulary learning strategies use vary significantly by EFL students’ gender

1.4 Research Questions

In order to achieve the above aims of the study, three following questions are raised:

R.Q-1: What are the attitudes of EFL high school students at Nguyen Huu Cau High

School towards autonomy in English vocabulary learning?

R.Q-2: What strategies are used by EFL high school students in enriching English

vocabulary knowledge autonomously?

R.Q-3: How do EFL male students use English vocabulary language learning

strategies differently from their female counterparts?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The study intends to explore EFL high school students’ attitudes towards autonomy in learning vocabulary and their vocabulary learning strategies Thus, after this study has been completed, it is hoped to have some following contributions Firstly, this success of the study will help EFL teachers perceive more about autonomy in vocabulary learning From that, EFL teachers can find out further appropriate and innovative methods in their teaching in order to help students enhance the autonomy in vocabulary learning as well as find different vocabulary learning strategies that fit the learning styles and personalities of the students Secondly, the findings of the study will help students not only memorize vocabulary more easily but also strengthen their motivation in learning vocabulary Last but not least, this study is expected to be a useful reference for not only EFL

teachers but also for those who have the same research field

1.6 Definitions of Key Terms

EFL students: It refers to the twelfth-grade students learning English as a foreign language at Nguyen Huu Cau High School

Lerner Autonomy: Autonomy is defined as learner’s willingness and ability

to take responsibility for his/her own learning

Attitude towards autonomy in vocabulary learning: It refers to

willingness of the learners to choose and employ vocabulary learning strategies as

the words or vocabulary required among the conditions of possibilities

Vocabulary learning strategies: Vocabulary learning strategies are defined

in this study as any techniques used by learners in order to learn vocabulary more

easily

1.7 Overview of Thesis Chapters

This current study consists of five chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 presents the introduction of the study including background to the

study, statement of the problem, purposes and research questions, significance of

the study and the final is definitions of key terms

Chapter 2 deals with literature review, which includes definition of learner

autonomy, the importance of learner autonomy in language learning, learner attitude

and their role in language learning, vocabulary and its importance in language

learning, vocabulary learning approach, definition and domains of vocabulary

learning strategies, the importance of vocabulary learning strategies, the

classification of vocabulary learning strategies, the difference of learner autonomy

and vocabulary learning by gender and previous studies related to the current

research Finally, a conceptual framework is constructed from the previous section

of this chapter, which helped the researcher develop the methodological part

Chapter 3 describes research methodology employed in this study, which

consists of research setting, research design, research instruments, data collection

procedures and data analysis procedures

Chapter 4 presents results of the collected data from questionnaire and

semi-structured interview and then analysis and discussions are taken place

Chapter 5 summarizes some main issues in the research, conclusions,

implications, limitations, and recommendations for further research

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents definition of learner autonomy and the importance of learner autonomy in language learning, followed by definitions and domains of learner attitude as well as their role in language learning Next, it describes vocabulary and its importance in language learning Moreover, vocabulary learning approach, definition of vocabulary learning strategies, the importance of vocabulary learning strategies, the classification of vocabulary learning strategies are presented What follows is a short part for the difference of learner autonomy and vocabulary learning in terms of gender Finally, the chapter moves to a review of previous studies in relation to the current research and conceptual framework

2.2 Learner Autonomy

2.2.1 Definition of Learner Autonomy

Learner autonomy has been defined by many scholars and educational researchers (e.g., Holec, 1981; Dickinson, 1987; Little, 1991; Crookall, 1995; Cotterall, 1995; Littlewood, 1996; Macaro, 1997; Le, 2000; Benson, 2001; Vanijdee, 2003) to various degrees Holec (1981), one of the first pioneers taking the idea of learner autonomy into language education, declares autonomy as the ability of learners to take charge of one’s own learning In addition, Littlewood (1996) defines learner autonomy as “learners’ ability and willingness to make choices independently” (p 427) According to Macaro (1997), learner autonomy is

“an ability to recognize the value of taking responsibility for […] learning” (p 168)

In addition, Dickinson (1987, as cited in Dang, 2010) defines learner autonomy as

“a situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all the [learning] decisions” (p 3) Learner autonomy is “the capacity of taking control of learning management, learning content” (Benson, 2001, p 47) Huang (2006) perceives learner autonomy as a complicated process in which learners must become more active and independent agents of language classrooms and even outside classrooms

in different arenas such as selecting extra materials, selecting learning strategies, and self-evaluating their learning outcomes In short, there are different ways to define learner autonomy In the current research, nevertheless, learner autonomy is

learner’s willingness and ability to take responsibility for his/her own learning 2.2.2 The Importance of Learner Autonomy in Language Learning

Vocabulary learning is one of the major challenges faced by language learners (Ghazal, 2007) It is impracticable for a learner to communicate without the necessary vocabulary items However, a learner cannot learn all vocabulary in language classes, so he/she must seek other useful ways to help her acquire language vocabulary in the best way Learner autonomy is an extreme support for learners in vocabulary learning because it provides many advantages for learners (Gu & Johnson, 1996) as follows Learner autonomy not only enhances the learner’s motivation to help them learn vocabulary more effectively but also accommodates learners with more opportunities for language communication In addition, it caters to the individual needs and abilities of learners as well Moreover,

it heightens the learners’ readiness towards active learning and helps them become more self-confident Therefore, it is undeniable that learner autonomy plays a vital role in learners’ language learning process According to Nada (2015), learner autonomy is very valuable because of two following reasons The first reason is that learner autonomy helps students to develop their learning The next reason is that it helps them to become interactively motivated learners In fact, many scholars and researchers have conducted various studies to find out different approaches in an attempt to discover how learner autonomy may be enhanced To achive these purposes, DeLong (2009) suggests that teachers should help students assess their learning types to determine what their needs in developing their abilities to come autonomous learners Moreover, he suggests that teachers should guide students to set up their goals or objectives to form personal values hierarchy, which reflects their references to become an autonomous learners

In short, the importance of learner autonomy in language learning process is undeniable It places them in the center of focus, in which they are expected to be responsible for any stages of their learning During that process, attitude is the core element that helps to build learner autonomy According to Qui Shujun & Li Quian (2006), positive attitude is considered as a crucial factor which lead to the success

of the development of learner autonomy Consequence, it is neccesary to explore the attitude factor in the next parts

2.3 Learner Attitude and Their Role in Language Learning

The learners’ attitudes are believed as an indication of learning success (Padwick, 2010) Therefore, there is no doubt that an exploration of learners’ attitudes is of great importance to improve their language performance In this section, definitions, roles and constructs of attitudes are summarized

2.3.1 Definition and Domains of Learner Attitude

There are many scholars and educational researchers defining learner attitude

by many different ways Baker (1988) provides the general definition of learner attitudes He describes it as follows:

Attitudes are cognitive (i.e are capable of being thought about) and affective (i.e have feelings and emotions attached to them)

Attitudes are dimensional rather than bipolar - they vary in degree of favorability or unfavorability

Attitudes predispose a person to act in a certain way, but the relationship between attitudes and actions is not a strong one

Attitudes are learnt, not inherited or genetically endowed

Attitudes tent to persist but they can be modified by experience

Similar to Baker (1988), Brown (2001) says that emotional factors such as feelings, self, relationships in the community affect considerably learners’ language

learning In addition, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2008) gives the definition of attitude relating to the way you think and feel about something or someone, and the way that you express what you think and feel through your behavior On the other hand, a conceptual and holistic definition of attitude is given

by Eagly and Chaiken (1993), who define attitude as “a psychological tendency that

is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor and disfavor” (p 1) In other words, attitudes are psychological orientations to respond

to the given objects either positively or negatively (Luu, 2011) In addtions, Luu (2011) also clarifies attitude into three components namely cognitive, affective and behavioral components basing on the theory of cognitivism, humanism, and behaviorism

a Cognitive component of attitude: involves learners’ beliefs and ideas or opinions which reinforce the attitude

b Affective component of attitude: helps the learners to express strong feelings and emotions such as “likes” or “dislike”

c Behavioral component of attitude: deals with creating the link with consisting actions or lead to particular behavioral intention

The following model presents three attitudinal components:

Attitude towards objects or entities

Cognitive

component

Affective component

Behavioral component

Figure 2.1 A model of attitude formation(Luu, 2011)

In this study, the researcher would focus on these three domains of attitudes

In specific, the study was to clarify how the twelfth-grade students felt, thought and behaved on the realm of learner autonomy Thus, Luu (2011) definition and components will be applied in this research

2.3.2 The Importance of Attitude in Language Learning

According to Kara (2009), learners’ attitude has an important impact on their behaviors as well as on their performance It is obvious that the crucial role of attitide is undeniable Attitude can shape the way students think, understand, feel and behave In other words, it is believed that attitude shapes all decisions and actions “Attitudes and beliefs are a subset of a group of constructs that name, define, and describe the structure and content of mental states that are thought to drive a person’s actions” (Richardson, 1996, p.102) Reid (2003) emphasizes

“attitudes are important to students because they cannot be neatly separated from study” Visser (2008) also states that attitude is considered as an essential factor influencing language performance

Not only intellectual capacity but also attitudes do contribute to the success

of language learning (Dörnyei, 2007) More academically, learners’ attitudes have been identified as an important variable on learning outcome (Ellis, 1994) There are two tendencies of attitudes, i.e positive and negative ones A student who has a positive attitude towards a target language will attempt to do well in the classroom and study hard In contrast, negative attitudes can impede language learning continuity

Conclusively, attitudes play a role in determining one’s behavior, as it can stimulate the behavior and direct it in a particular direction If learners improve their positive attitudes or motivation towards language learning, they may increase their desire to learn, to apply what they have been taught to improve their achievement Given the importance of learner attitudes, the researcher deliberately sought the twelfth-grade students’ attitudes towards vocabulary learning autonomy

2.4 Vocabulary and Its Importance in Language Learning

2.4.1 Definition of Vocabulary

Vocabulary has long been considered as a simple and familiar concept However, until now, there has still been no definition which fully describes the features of vocabulary Newman and Dwyer (2009) define vocabulary as “words we must know to communicate effectively” (p 385) According to Hornby (1995), vocabulary is a list of words with their meanings, which we teach in the foreign language (Ur, 1998) To sum up, there are various ways to define the concept of vocabulary However, it can be concluded that vocabulary is the total numbers of words in language, including single words and multiple words which are used to express ideas as well as the speakers’ meaning

2.4.2 The Importance of Vocabulary in Language Learning

It is undeniable that vocabulary is a vital and central factor to English language teaching and learning It is a fact that if we do not have enough vocabulary

to communicate, our conversations will not be successful (McCarthy, 1992) Moreover, Nunan (1991) also argues that it is necessary for EFL/ESL students to acquire an adequate amount of vocabulary knowledge In other words, we will be unable to apply structures, functions as well as the sounds that we have learned for comprehensible communication unless we have an extensive amount of vocabulary knowledge Furthermore, a basic aspect of language is vocabulary mastery, which will help learners improve their English skills (Richards & Renandya, 2002) Therefore, learning vocabulary is extremely essential because it not only helps EFL/ESL students become more confident when talking to foreigners but also assists them to improve their English skills effectively

2.5 Vocabulary Learning Approaches

Vocabulary learning is a vital process for ESL/EFL learners to acquire proficiency in target language In ELF/ ESL lexical teaching and learning, incidental learning and intentional learning are of two types (Nation, 2001)

Incidental learning approach refers to learning vocabulary through texts, tasks or activities without direct relation to vocabulary; meanwhile, intentional learning focuses on vocabulary itself (Nation, 2001)

Alizadeh (2016) discusses and compares these two vocabulary learning approaches to the presence of context In specific, intentional learning is quick but it

is also less meaningful In this approach, learners encounter vocabulary in an isolatedly without real contexts However, with incidental vocabulary acquisition approach, learners encounter vocabulary in contexts and specific situations

According to Ellis (1999), the difference between focal and peripheral attention leads to the difference between these two approaches To be more specific, intentional learning requires focal attention to the forms, while incidental learning requires focal attention to the meanings (Schmitt, 1997)

2.6 Vocabulary Learning Strategies

2.6.1 Definition of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies are considered as a sub-category of language learning strategies In definition, “a vocabulary learning strategy is a special instructional tool […] to learn words independently” (Naveh, Kafipour, & Scoltani,

2011, p 105) Likewise, they are “any set of techniques or learning behaviors to expand their knowledge of vocabulary” (Intaraprasert, 2005, p 165) In conclusion, vocabulary learning strategies are defined by many various scholars In this study, however, the researcher refers to vocabulary learning strategies as any techniques

used by language learners in order to learn vocabulary more easily

2.6.2 The Importance of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

It cannot be denied that vocabulary learning strategies are extremely vital in learning a language In order words, vocabulary learning strategies provides learners with many following benefits The main privilege obtained from all learning strategies in general and strategies for vocabulary learning in particular is

that they make learners have an ability to take more control of and responsibility for their own learning Moreover, Nation (2001) believes that by vocabulary learning strategies, students can gain the large amount of vocabulary Furthermore, when students are equipped with different vocabulary learning strategies, they can know how to use exactly in order to deal with unknown words

2.6.3 The Classification of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Table 2.1: Schmitt’s (1997) VLS classification

Discovery

strategies

Determination strategies

+ Analyze part of speech;

+ Analyze affixes and roots;

+ Check for the first language cognate;

+ Analyze any available pictures or gestures; + Guess meaning from textual contexts;

+ Use a dictionary (bilingual or monolingual)

Social strategies

+ Ask teacher for a synonym, paraphrase, or the first language translation of new words;

+ Ask teacher for a sentence including new word + Ask teacher for meaning;

+ Ask classmate for meaning

Consolidating

strategies

Social strategies

+ Study and practice meaning in a group; + Teacher checks word lists for accuracy + Interact with native speaker

Memory strategies

+ Connect word to a previous experience; + Associate the words with its coordinates; + Connect the word in its synonym, antonyms; + Use semantics maps;

+ Image word’s meaning;

+ Use keyword Method;

+ Group words together to study them;

+ Study the spelling of a word;

+ Say new word aloud when studying;

+ Use physical action when learning a word

Cognitive strategies

+ Highlight new words

Metacognitive strategies

+ Use English media (songs, movies, newspapers, magazines, etc.);

+ Test oneself with word tests;

+ Skip or pass new words;

+ Continue to study word over time

The first group consists of determination and social strategies while the second group comprises social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive strategies Social strategies are included in both categories by Schmitt because they can be used for various purposes

§ Determination strategies are to find out the meaning of words by learners themselves;

§ Social strategies are to seek the meaning of words by interacting with classmates or teachers;

§ Memory strategies are to learn new words with mental processing;

§ Cognitive strategies are to learn new words through mechanical actions;

§ Metacognitive strategies are to learn new words by planning, controlling and evaluating their own use of strategies

Figure 2.1 below summarizes the key features of Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy

of vocabulary learning strategies which the researcher would rely mainly on for the current study:

Figure 2.2 Schmitt’s (1997) Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Discovery Strategies Consolidation Strategies

Determination

Strategies

Social Strategies Strategies Social

Cognitive Strategies

Memory Strategies Metacognitive Strategies

2.6.3.2 VLS classification by Intaraprasert (2005)

Intaraprasert (2005, pp 55-56) classifies VLSs based on the information obtained through the open-ended questionnaires provided by 133 Thai EFL students into three main categories:

Table 2.2: Intaraprasert’s (2005) VLS classification

+ Ask someone other than one’s teacher, classmate or friend + Look at the word roots, prefixes or suffixes

+ Use an on-line dictionary + Use an electronic dictionary

+ Use new words to converse with peers + Speak Thai with English loan-words + Keep words as the computer background + Keep word cards or word charts in one’s bedroom + Keep words as rhymes or songs

+ Practice translating from Thai into English and vice versa + Watch an English-speaking film with Thai-narrated scripts + Attend classes of every module regularly

+ Listen to English songs + Do extra vocabulary exercises from different sources

Strategies for dealing with vocabulary items proposed by Intaraprasert (2004) are grouped under the three main categories, namely “Strategies to Discover the Meaning of New Vocabulary Items” (DMV), “Strategies to Retain the Knowledge of Newly-Learned Vocabulary” and “Strategies to Expand the Knowledge of Vocabulary Items” (RKV)

2.7 The Difference of Learner Autonomy and Vocabulary Learning by Gender

In reality, there is an array of different factors which can affect the extent of learner autonomy and vocabulary learning strategies like social status, language background, personal characteristics, and gender, etc In fact, gender can be seen as one of themost prominent factors leading to the selection of vocabulary learning strategies Several pieces of scientific research have proved that the characteristics

of female and male brains are different For example, according to Zaidi (2010), although both of them have equal intelligence, they are able to work differently to encode memories, sense emotions, solve problems and make decisions In addition, Hall (2011) concludes that the females develop social interaction skills more

effectively than males, and often spend more time learning vocabulary and revising the words which they have learnt In other words, female students are more clearly aware of learning vocabulary autonomously than male students For male students, they may need more help and attention in choosing and applying appropriate vocabulary learning strategies to them In this study, the researcher would seek how the male students were different the female students in the use of vocabulary learning strategies

2.8 Previous Studies

The purposes of the study were to find out EFL high school students’ attitudes towards autonomy in English vocabulary learning, as well as to explore high school students’ use of autonomous English vocabulary language learning strategies, and to better understanding any differences in vocabulary learning strategies use in terms of gender Through reviewing a number of previous studies, the researcher noticed some common research trends as go following:

Chan (2001) checked the degree of learner autonomy could work from the learner perspective in Hong Kong Her research explored the learners’ attitudes of language learning, teacher and learner roles, their learning preferences and perception of learner autonomy To achieve the aims of her research, 20 second-year English major students in Polytechnic University were asked to fill in four questionnaires The findings revealed that the participants had a positive attitude towards autonomous learning In addition, they had a clear understanding of learner autonomy and the role of the teacher

Vanijdee (2003) explored English distance students’ attitudes in Thailand towards learner autonomy Data from questionnaire, Think Aloud protocols and interviews indicated that the students’ degree of autonomy varied from self-sufficient language learners to dynamic distance language learners The former group showed their limited degree of autonomy Also, EFL students reported that they were not favor of English subject because it is a dry and boring subject, mainly

to pass an examination On the other hand, the latter one seemed more proactive in their language learning

Luu (2011) carried out his study at University of Finance-Marketing to investigate learners’ attitudes toward vocabulary learning autonomy and strategies they utilized in vocabulary learning The participants belonged to two groups The first group consisted of 140 first year students from four pre–intermediate English classes The second group consisted of 13 teachers Based on the findings obtained from the questionnaire, although the students found their vocabulary very poor, and understood the importance of vocabulary learning autonomy, they still did not have

a good habit of autonomous vocabulary learning They even had low intrinsic motivation to learn and their confidence level for vocabulary learning is also not high They thought that vocabulary learning was hard and they self-assessed their ability for the skill as rather low For learning strategies, the students reported high familiarity to using bilingual dictionary, asking for L2>L1 translation, spoken repetition and word list for vocabulary retention

Nakata (2011) used both quantitative data from questionnaire and qualitative data from group interview to explore the perception of the high school English teachers in Japan, in terms og their readiness for promoting learner autonomy Eighty English teachers answering the questionnaire expressed some main problems which they have to face including students’ unreadiness for autonomous learning, the practice of grammar-translation method to support students for their university entrance exam and other restrictions to their professional development Besides, four interviewed teachers showed that the high school teachers in Japan see the significance of promoting autonomy among their learners but they seem not to be ready for it From the results, Nakata encouraged high school teachers to cooperate with their colleagues as well as reflect on their own teaching practice to solve the problem in their teaching context

Joshi (2011) conducted a mixed-method study with 80 graduate students and

6 teachers at a university in Nepal The aim of this study was to investigate the students’ and teachers’ beliefs about the role of the teachers and students in learner autonomy The findings of the study revealed that both teachers and students understood and highly favored autonomous learning in the classroom Additionally, they believed that learners were ready to take responsibility for their own language learning, they had tendency to accept the teachers’ power and authority in the learning process

Using questionnaire and interview as research instruments, Mohamadpour (2013) scrutinized the correlations between autonomous learning ability and English language proficiency of 30 Iranian senior high school students with the average of 17 years The researcher employed paired sample T-test to analyze the quantitative data The results suggested that learners’ awareness of learner autonomy is rather low, but different between high English proficient students and their low English proficient counterparts In other words, the learners who performed well in their academic achievements would have higher level of learner autonomy, while the low proficient students went to the other way around

Showing the interest in the degree of learner autonomy and language learning strategy uses among high school students in a junior high school in central Taiwan, Chen and Pan (2015) carried out a survey with the use of questionnaire Findings from 130 ninth-grade students revealed that the students held positive attitude towards autonomous in language learning, however, they are medium autonomous learners The researchers also found that there was a correlation between learners’ learning autonomy levels and the use of language learning strategies

Ibrahim (2015) conducted the learners’ autonomy in vocabulary learning in EFL class The data were collected through questionnaires, classroom observations

as well as interviews and were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively The

findings revealed that the majority of students were aware of their responsibility but they do not know how they use vocabulary learning strategies and they had little awareness of their teachers’ role in teaching vocabulary Furthermore, they are not encouraged to learn and develop their vocabulary materials autonomously The study also revealed some challenges that hold back students’ efforts to learn English vocabulary: lack of basic English skills, their exam based technique of study, lack

of knowing strategies of vocabulary and lack of confidence in using English

Habibi and Samaie (2015) attempted to find out how learners’ autonomous language learning related to learning strategy use Quantitative data were collected

by inviting 150 Iranian university students to fill in learner autonomy questionnaires The results indicated that learner autonomy was strongly associated with language learning strategies Moreover, learning strategy use of male and female learners was statistically different Compared with males, female learners tended to use learning strategies more often

Khalifa and Shabdin (2016) investigated the impact of vocabulary learning strategies on developing learner autonomy at a secondary school in Libya The data was collected through pre-test/post-test and logbooks The participating students were divided into two groups: experimental group and control group Comparison

of pre-test and post-test results showed that experimental group participants made considerable progress in achieving autonomy in vocabulary learning when they were trained learning strategies Besides, the findings of the study indicate that learner autonomy could be made; autonomous learners acquired vocabulary faster

Sedighi and Tamjid (2016) explored how vocabulary learning strategies related to learner autonomy of EFL learners in Iran To arrive at this aim, 82 year-two and year-three students at Tabriz Azad University were enrolled to participate

in the study Two sets of questionnaires were adopted for data collection Results of Pearson’s Correlation analysis showed that use of vocabulary learning strategies was significantly and positively correlated with autonomy among Iranian learners

Besthia (2018) examined what strategies are more or less common for learning vocabulary among EFL university students at Lampung University in Lampung, Indonesia A total of 74 students participated in this study The study made use of the 40-item questionnaire adapted from Schmitt’s (1997 and 2000) taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies: memory strategies, determination strategies, social strategies, cognitive strategies, and metacognitive strategies The major findings of the present study is that among the five vocabulary learning strategies based on Schmitt’s taxonomy, Determination Strategies were reported as the most frequently-used strategies, and Social Strategies were the least frequently used strategies It is recommended that strategy training leads to learner autonomy

It helps them to become aware of their own preferences and habits and feel responsible for own learning

2.9 Research Gaps

Firstly, learner autonomy in vocabulary learning has been studied constantly such as in 2011, 2013, 2015, 2016 and 2018 Furthermore, this field has been elucidated both inside and outside Vietnam like in Iran, Indonesia, Nepal, Taiwan

or Thailand Indeed, learner autonomy contributed to the EFL/ ESL students’ language achievement and has received an ample attention to theorists and researchers However, the reality of learner autonomy has not still been conducted

at Nguyen Huu Cau High School (Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam) In addition to this, learning attitudes are highly believed to an indicator of learning behaviors Thus, the current study was purposely conducted to seek the high school students’ attitudes towards the value and interest of learner autonomy in their vocabulary mastery The researcher relied on attitudinal items from Luu (2011) because he described clearly about attitudes towards autonomy in vocabulary learning The first research question, accordingly, was formulated

Secondly, the main privilege of vocabulary learning is that they make learners have an ability to take more control of their own learning in order to enable

them to take more responsible for their learning Some the previous studies clarified types and frequencies of learning strategies the EFL students used during their vocabulary acquisition However, only a few studies like Besthia’s (2018) study exploited specific and systematic vocabulary learning strategies from the 1997 taxonomies proposed by the well-known theorist Schmitt with five groups of vocabulary learning strategies, i.e memory strategies, determination strategies, social strategies, cognitive strategies, and metacognitive strategies Therefore, in this study, the researcher constructed the core theme of the second research question, in which these five strategy groups were focused on

Thirdly, in actuality, males could utilize vocabulary learning strategies differently from females However, the possible difference by gender was only

investigated in very few studies such as Habibi and Samaie (2015) To make

vocabulary teaching and learning process more effective and meaningful, the teachers needed to be aware of this aspect That was the reason why the researcher

fabricated the third research question on this area

Fourth, almost all the reviewed previous studies only used quantitative

research paradigm with the aid of the questionnaires, excluding Besthia (2018) On the other hand, it seems that a mixed-methods design was the optimal choice to address the research problems, which combined both quantitative and qualitative data Indeed, the mixture of both these types of data can elicit the research problems

in depth and breadth By that reason, in this study, the researcher used methods design with a set of different research instruments of questionnaire and semi-structured interview

mixed-All in all, these previous studies helped the researcher seek research gaps for the current study and provided useful lessons in developing themes of the research

2.10 Conceptual Framework

From what has been critically presented in the previous sections, including theoretical parts, previous studies and research gaps, the conceptual framework was

constructed In particular, the study would be carried out at Nguyen Huu Cau High School (Vietnam) on a group of the twelfth-grade students The study was formulated by three research purposes The first purpose was to examine the attitudes of this group towards autonomy in English vocabulary learning (i.e emotional, cognitive and behavioral attitudes), followed by the second purpose which was to explore the strategies employed by this group in enriching their English vocabulary knowledge autonomously And, the last purpose was pertinent

to testify whether the selection of vocabulary learning strategies varied significantly

by gender These research purposes would be clarified by the mixed-methods design with the aid of two instruments, i.e questionnaire and semi-structured interview To construct and validate these instruments, the researcher would rely on Luu (2011), Schmitt (1997) and Intaraprasert (2005) since their instruments were used in various contexts The conceptual framework is summarized by Figure 2.2