Developing students’ learning autonomy through project work at a secondary school in hanoi

Aims, objectives, and research questions of the study This action research aims at examining whether secondary school studentscan develop their learning autonomy through participating in

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST –

GRADUATE STUDIES *********************

NGUYỄN HỒNG NHUNG

DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ LEARNING AUTONOMY THROUGH PROJECT WORK AT A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN HANOI (Phát triển tính tự chủ trong học tập của học sinh thông qua làm việc dự án ở một

trường cấp hai tại Hà Nội)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology (applied programme) Code: 8140231.01

HANOI - 2019

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST –

GRADUATE STUDIES *********************

NGUYỄN HỒNG NHUNG

DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ LEARNING AUTONOMY

THROUGH PROJECT WORK AT A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN HANOI (Phát triển tính tự chủ trong học tập của học sinh thông qua làm việc dự án

ở một trường cấp hai tại Hà Nội)

Field: English Teaching Methodology (applied programme) Code: 8140231.01

Supervisor: Dr Huỳnh Anh Tuấn

HANOI – 2019

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

I, Nguyễn Hồng Nhung, declare that this thesis and the work presented it are myown and have been generated by me as the result of my own original research It hasnot been submitted to any other university or institution wholly or partially

Hanoi, July 2019

Nguyễn Hồng Nhung

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I would first like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor Dr HuynhAnh Tuan, who gave me a lot of valuable guidance, encouragements, criticisms andcorrection throughout my thesis writing He consistently allowed this paper to be

my own work, but steered me in the right direction whenever he thought I needed it

I would also like to thank fifty grade six students at a secondary school inHanoi Without their passionate participation and input, the research could not havebeen successfully conducted

Last but not least, my sincere thanks go to my family, my colleagues and myfriends for their support and encouragement that help me to complete my work

The present study was conducted to address two issues: investigating theinfluence of project work on students‟ learning autonomy and exploring students‟evaluations of the using project work in developing their learning autonomy Theinstruments employed for data collection and analysis of the study included twoquestionnaires, an interview with ten students, students‟ diaries, and observation.The findings showed that project work was beneficial to help students to improvetheir learning autonomy It also revealed that students highly recommended doingprojects to enhance learning autonomy though they faced up with some difficulties

in doing the projects Based on the findings, some implications would be suggestedfor both the teacher and the students With all this information, this study isexpected to be significant to both teachers and students in teaching and learningprocess

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES vii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study 1

1.2 Aims, objectives, and research questions of the study 2

1.3 Significance of the study 2

1.4 Scope of the study 3

1.5 Methods of the study 3

1.6 Organization of the thesis 4

1.7 Summary 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Learning autonomy 5

2.1.1 Definition 5

2.1.2 Types of autonomy 6

2.1.3 Characteristics of autonomous learners 8

2.1.4 Roles of learning autonomy 12

2.2 Project work 13

2.2.1 Definition 14

2.2.2 Types of project work 15

2.2.3 Features of project work 17

2.2.4 Stages of project work 18

2.2.5 Roles of project work 23

2.2.6 Roles of project work in developing students’ learning autonomy 24

2.3 Related studies in promoting students‟ learning autonomy through project work

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2.4 Summary 29

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 31

3.1 Research approach: Action research 31

3.2 Research questions 33

3.3 Participants 33

3.4 English textbook, English syllabus and the projects used in the study 34

3.5 Procedure of the study 37

3.6 Instruments for data collection 41

3.6.1 Questionnaire 41

3.6.2 Semi-structured interview 42

3.6.3 Students’ diaries 43

3.6.4 Observation 43

3.7 Data collection procedure 45

3.7.1 Questionnaires 45

3.7.2 Semi-structured interview 45

3.7.3 Students’ diaries 46

3.7.4 Observation 46

3.8 Data analysis procedure 47

3.8.1 Data from the questionnaires 47

3.8.2 Data from the semi-structured interview 48

3.8.3 Data from the students’ diaries 49

3.8.4 Data from the observation 50

3.9 Summary 52

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 53

4.1 The extent to which the students‟ learning autonomy can be enhanced through project work 53

4.1.1 Findings from the questionnaires 53

4.1.2 Findings from the interview 58

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4.1.3 Findings from students’ diaries 60

4.2 The students‟ evaluations of the projects assigned to them to develop their learning autonomy 61

4.2.1 Findings from interview 61

4.2.2 Findings from observation 63

4.3 Discussion 64

4.4 Summary 66

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 68

5.1 Major findings of the study 68

5.2 Implication 69

5.3 Contribution of the study 70

5.4 Limitations of the study 71

5.5 Suggestions for further studies 71

5.6 Summary 72

REFERENCES 73 APPENDICES I

APPENDIX 1 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ENGLISH LEARNING PROCESS I APPENDIX 2 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PROJECT WORK V APPENDIX 3 DATA FROM QUESTIONNAIRES V APPENDIX 4 SAMPLE OF A PROJECT PLAN VIII APPENDIX 5 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS XI APPENDIX 6 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS XII APPENDIX 7 T-TABLE XXVI APPENDIX 8 SAMPLE OF TEACHER‟S FIELD NOTE FROM OBSERVATION XXVIII APPENDIX 9 SAMPLES OF STUDENT‟S DIARY XXIX

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: The project used in the study 35

Table 3.2: Procedure of the study 38

Table 3.3: Overview of the questionnaires 42

Table 4.1: Statistical test result in determining objectives 54

Table 4.2: Statistical test result in choosing contents 55

Table 4.3.: Statistical test result in selecting methods and techniques to be used 56

Table 4.4: Statistical test result in monitoring acquisition procedure 56

Table 4.5: Statistical test result in evaluating what has been acquired 57

Table 4.6: Students‟ activities in the project work 60

Table 4.7: Students‟ attitudes and behavior when doing the projects 63

Table 5.1: Problems and solutions in doing project work 69

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: Action research cycle 32

Figure 3.2: One tailed test distribution 48

Figure 3.3: Data analytical framework 51

Figure 4.1: Mean scores of students‟ learning autonomy in 54

Figure 4.2: The extent of the changes of students‟ learning autonomy 58

after doing the projects 58

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the background to the problem and the reasons for choosing the topic are mentioned As a result, the necessity of delivering the research as well

as the importance of the application of project work in teaching and learning process is revealed The aims and the significances of the study are also stated The final section will present the scope, methods and organization of the study.

1.1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study

Being a part of Eastern culture with the great influence of Confucianism, theVietnamese traditional pedagogy emphasizes on absorbing and memorizing ratherthan experimenting and producing knowledge (Dang, 2012: 6) In other words, thestudents‟ ability in applying knowledge learnt at school to real life situations is notthe main aim of schooling In traditional classrooms, teachers are the classauthorities, and students who are known as passive learners are expected to obeytheir teachers Standardized examinations are an important feature of the educationsystem that shapes classroom interactions Several standardized examinations arerun by the Department of Education and Training in each local area every semester.Therefore, classroom teaching and learning activities are often regulated by theseexaminations Teachers are normally required to follow certain classroomprocedures and students are expected to learn from textbooks and their teachers As

a result, negotiations and collaborations between teachers and students or amongstudents are rarely seen (Pham, 2010: 51) Consequently, there is no opportunitiesfor learners to be more independent in the learning process Referring to the issueabove, students‟ learning autonomy, which is defined as the responsibility for all thedecisions concerned with a student‟s learning and the implementation of thosedecisions (Dickinson, 1987: 11), is considered an important aspect of successfullearners in globalized world, has been a new terminology to Vietnamese learners

and educators so far.

There should be solutions to enhance Vietnamese students‟ learningautonomy One of the favorable answers for this problem is applying project work

on the learning process According to Ramírez (2014: 56), project work fostersactive roles for students in which the learners can engage in authentic andinteresting tasks to achieve a common goal by means of collaborative work and theteacher provides them with opportunities to improve language skills forcommunicating successfully

Although a large body of research now exists on enhancing learners‟ autonomythrough project work, relatively few researchers have explored this controversial issue

in the subject of adolescent learners, especially in the context of Vietnam Drawing onprevious studies, and based on the obvious concerns as mentioned above, the presentstudy is undertaken to investigate how doing project work raises students‟ awareness ofbeing responsible to take control their learning process

1.2 Aims, objectives, and research questions of the study

This action research aims at examining whether secondary school studentscan develop their learning autonomy through participating in project work Toachieve this aim, the study has to obtain the following two objectives:

- Investigate the extent to which the students‟ learning autonomy can

be enhanced through their participation in project work

- Explore the students‟ evaluations of the projects assigned to them todevelop their learning autonomy

In accordance with these two objectives, the research tries to answer the following research questions:

1 To what extent does project work enhance the students‟ learning autonomy?

2 What are the students‟ evaluations of the projects in view of the impact of the projects on developing their learning autonomy?

1.3 Significance of the study

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Recently, research on learners‟ autonomy has been conducted in a variety ofcontexts all over the world, including some Asian countries (Barfield & Brown,2007; Gardner, 2007; Lamb & Reinders, 2008; Miller, 2007), but the volumne ofresearch in this field carried out in the Vietnamese context is not very substansive.Although it can be argued that the Vietnamese English-foreign-language classroomstereotype is rather similar to its Chinese or Japanese counterparts, it has its owneducational context which makes it unique Furthermore, in Vietnam, there is noprevious study thoroughly discussing the development of students‟ learningautonomy through project work among Vietnamese adolescents Therefore, thisstudy potentially plays a role in contributing other understandings of the examinedconstruct in education.

It is hoped that secondary school teachers and students can get someinsightful implications from the findings of the study, especially those who wish tochoose project work as an alternative activity in their English teaching and learningpractices

1.4 Scope of the study

The research is carried out in eighteen weeks of the second semester in theschool year 2018-2019 (from December 25th to May 24th) The study limits itself tothe investigation of the effects of project work on the students‟ learning autonomy

as well as students‟ evaluations on developing their learning autonomy throughproject work The number of participants of the study is quite small – only fiftystudents in grade six

As a study on one teacher and one class at one school, the conclusion of thestudy may not be valid to be generalized to apply to any other contexts It may beuseful to serve as an intensive source of information to refer to or to providehypothesis for further studies

1.5 Methods of the study

The study adapts action research approach According to Ferrance (2000: 1),action research is regarded as one of the most common research methods applied incurrent educational circumstances With the choice of this method, data collection

instruments including questionnaires, artifacts, observation, and interview are used

in order to have a deep investigation into what is being studied

1.6 Organization of the thesis

This research consists of five chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter aims at stating the research problems, the significance, the aims,the scope, and the methods of the study

Chapter 2: Literature review

This provides elaboration of key definitions as well as the review on relatedstudies

Chapter 3: Methodology

This chapter issues the description of research approach, researchparticipants, data collection methods and data analysis methods

Chapter 4: Findings and discussion

In this chapter, research findings and discussions are presented Besides,discussion on the comparison between the findings and reviewed literature is alsodrawn

of main guidelines for the rest of the paper

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter aims at providing readers the theoretical background of the study In the chapter, the key concepts related to learner’s autonomy and its roles, as well as the main characteristics of autonomous learners, and teachers and students’ roles to promote learning autonomy In addition, background information about project work, and preceding studies will be displayed specifically.

2.1 Learning autonomy

2.1.1 Definition

As can be seen, the interest in learning autonomy has grown considerably inthe past few decades; therefore, the definition of learning autonomy seems tointerpret in many different ways Holec (1981: 3) defines the term as “the ability totake charge of one‟s own direct learning” In other words, it refers to learningactivities which give learners more chances to determine the learning objectives, tochoose the contents of the lesson, to select methods and techniques to be used, tomonitor the acquisition procedure and to evaluate what has been acquired

Similarly, Bergen (1990: 102) states that learning autonomy is characterized

by a readiness to take charge of one‟s own learning in the service of one‟s needsand purposes This entails a capacity and willingness to act independently and in co-operation with others, as a socially responsible person

Besides, view it as a process, Higgs (1988: 41) indicates learning autonomy

is where learners work on learning tasks and activities and largely independent ofthe teacher who acts as a manager of the learning program and resource person

In addition, Joshi (2011: 14), defines an autonomous learner as “one who hascapacity to make and carry out the choices which govern his or her actions

independently” When autonomy is encouraged in the classroom, Joshi (2011: 14)suggests, the learners take on more responsibilities and make more of the choicesabout their learning, yet often with the guidance and support of their teachers.

These above definitions provide a concise description of the characteristics

of learning autonomy, including both individual and cooperative aspects That is tosay, learner autonomy is not a totally individualistic process, rather it is a processwhich is also achieved through interdependence

2.1.2 Types of autonomy

According to Oxford dictionary, autonomy means the right or condition ofself-government or the capacity of an agent to act in accordance with objectivemorality rather than under the influence of desires In moral and political

philosophy, autonomy is often used as the basis for determining moral responsibilityfor one's actions The concept of autonomy is also found in education, medicine,psychology, and so on, to which it is applied to come up with its more precisecriteria

In terms of moral autonomy, Kant (1956) developed correlative concepts ofautonomy in the context of moral law Autonomy refers to a moral agent‟s capacity

to freely and rationally adopt moral policies Kant believed that a person‟s moralprinciples, the internal authority which imposes restrictions on how that person acts,originate in the exercise of reason People are offered the choice of many possibleprinciples, but they reject all principles which "cannot accord with the will‟s ownenactment of universal law." Autonomous moral principles are laws which we, asrational beings, give to ourselves through consciously identifying ourselves withthem

In political ethics, the concept of autonomy is used in efforts to define certaininalienable political rights, such as personal liberty, freedom of speech, and propertyownership, which should be guaranteed to every citizen (Autonomy in moral andpolitical philosophy, n.d.) Autonomy in this context implies that these rights areprotected unless a citizen actively forfeits them, either by breaking a law

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and invoking punishment, or by consciously choosing to give up some of his liberty

in exchange for some other advantage Autonomy implies respect for each person‟sability to make decisions about his own life and absorb the consequences

Additionally, the promotion of personal autonomy has been identified asone of the aims of the philosophy of education (Personal autonomy, n.d.) Astudent is to be provided with access to a wide range of choices and experiences,

at the same time as he or she is given the rational tools to evaluate these choicesintelligently Upholding the autonomy of a student implies that the student will

be allowed to experience the consequences of his choices with minimalinterference Guidance and education will take the form of broadening thestudent‟s awareness and exposing him to additional choices Protecting theautonomy of a student is believed to encourage active thought and exploration,rather than mere acceptance of knowledge and ideas A student with autonomyfeels more freedom to experiment with new ideas, but must also takeresponsibility to ensure that his contributions have value

When it comes to psychology, according to Frankfurt (1971), to beautonomous is to be directed by considerations, desires, conditions, andcharacteristics that are not imposed from without but are part of what cansomehow be considered one's authentic self It implies a conscious intention toact in a certain way, and to take responsibility for any consequences of thoseactions In psychology, the issue is defining what is the "authentic self." Withinself-determination theory in psychology, autonomy also refers to "autonomysupport versus control," hypothesizing that autonomy-supportive socialenvironments are inclined to facilitate self-determined motivation, healthydevelopment, and optimal functioning Efforts to define autonomy in the context

of the personality have given rise to two types of conditions required forautonomy: "Competency" and "authenticity." The definition of competencyincludes the capacity for various types of rational thought, self-control, and theabsence of self-deception or pathological disorders which affect perception of the

self "Authenticity" conditions involve the capacity to reflect upon one‟s desiresand consciously endorse or reject them.

Among several types of autonomy, this study focuses on autonomy ineducation; in other words, learning autonomy The students in this study areallowed to make choice and undergo experience They are also encouraged tohave active thoughts and exploration when doing projects, which makes themfeel free to experiement with new ideas, but must also take responsibility toensure that his contribution is valuable

2.1.3 Characteristics of autonomous learners

Many researchers in the relevant literature have suggested differentcharacteristics related to autonomous learners Candy (1991: 459-466) states thecharacteristics of autonomous learners are as follows: methodical and disciplined;logical and analytical; reflective and self-aware; curious, open and highlymotivated; flexible, interdependent and interpersonally competent; persistent andresponsible; venturesome and creative; and self-sufficient, information seekers,knowledgeable and skillful about learning process and critical thinkers

According to Dickinson (1993: 330-336), although quite a lot of learnersactually do not know what is going on in their classes, autonomous learners are able toidentify what has been taught They are able to formulate their own learning objectives

in collaboration with teacher, or as something that is in addition to what the teacher isdoing In addition, autonomous learners can select and implement appropriate learningstrategies consciously, and they can monitor their own use of learning strategies Lastly,autonomous learners should monitor their own learning and self-assessment Cotterall(1995: 199) agrees with Dickinson on self-assessment as she says “it is essential thatlearners be able to evaluate the quality of their learning An appreciation of theirabilities, the progress they are making and of what they can do with the skills they haveacquired is essential if learners are to learn efficiently.”

According to Holec (1981: 3), basically, autonomous learners are those whotake charge of their own learning They are aware of their personal and educationalneeds and can determine the objectives and goals for their own learning They can

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also establish a link between what is to be learned, how to learn, and the resourcesavailable They develop a capacity that enables them to define the contents of theirlearning, select methods and techniques to be used, monitor the procedures ofacquisition and evaluate what has been acquired.

Briefly, as defined by different researchers, there are many characteristics of

an autonomous learner After all, stated by Holec in 1981, learners who areautonomous will be able to:

2.1.3.1 Determine the learning objectives

In self-directed learning, determining the learning objectives will be based on

an analysis made by the learner, in accordance with his subjective criteria As regardsthe communicative competence, the learner will set objectives in terms of lexis,grammar and phonology so that he can find himself in any communicative situations

The objectives will not necessarily be fixed for all time, the learner maylook at them again as his learning continues and alter them

Changes occurring in the external situation forming the learning environment:

 Professional or vocational situation: where the motive for learning isprofessional or vocational, any change in language needs connected with suchoccupation will involve a change of objective

 Social situation: where the motive for learning is social one, certainchanges in this field may involve a change of objective (eg where the learner wishes

to be able to communicate among a circle of acquaintances)

 Material situation: changes of all kinds may involve a change of objective (eg a move to another area making it possible to receive foreign television)

Changes occurring in the internal learning situation:

 Level of knowledge: as his level of knowledge of the language he islearning changes, the learner may be led to amend his initial objectives eitherbecause some objectives regraded as unattainable become attainable or vice versa,

or because fresh objectives are revealed in the light of knowledge already acquired,thus in fact development in any learning experience may be the reason for a change

in objectives

 It must not be forgotten that the leaner may simply change his mind

In the context of this study, learners may changes their objectives because

of the changes occurring in the internal learning situations

2.1.3.2 Choose the learning contents

The contents are defined in terms of lexis, grammar, and phonology

 As regards lexis, the choice is usually made on the basis of frequency lists, possibly supplemented by a “specialized vocabulary”

 As regards grammar, the principle is approximately the same: basic

structures and possibly distinct structures

 As regards phonology, since the elements available for selection aresomewhat limited in number, the whole is generally made an integral part of thecurriculum: pronunciation of phonemes, intonation and rhythm

In self-directed learning, the contents will as a general rule be defined bythe learner One of the two fundamental features of definition of contents by thelearner is that the thematic content of the communication aimed at is given priority.The learner wants above all to communicate (to understand and to express), whichmeans he has to think what words and grammar he must master so as to understandthe first and express the second Thus the contents will be defined in terms of lexis,grammar and phonology

The second fundamental feature is that the contents are no longer “broughtin” from outside but are to some extent “created” by the learner He will have todiscover those contents by observing and analyzing the sources of informationavailable to him: written texts, films, dictionaries, etc These sources will alsoinclude both educational and authentic documents, and native speakers

2.1.3.3 Select the methods and techniques to be used

In self-directed learning, the learner himself will be defining his methods and techniques

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He will not make this definition a prior before starting his study but right

at the beginning and as his studies continue He will in fact proceed by trial anderror: by using the methods and techniques he has chosen and then evaluating them

he will be able to decide which are appropriate to his own case

The methods and techniques that will be available to the learner include:

 Those that he knows because he has used them in earlier studies

 Those he will learn of from other learners or in miscellaneous teaching materials

 Those he will devise for himself

The criteria he will use for selection purposes will be of two kinds:

 Criteria of efficacy as regards the objectives set: knowing exactly what hisobjectives are and making his own assessments of progress made, the learner will beable to determine accurately enough how far the methods and techniques he hasused have been effective; this judgement, coupled with what he has learned duringhis studies, will enable him to make valid assumptions as to the reasons for thefailure of any particular method or technique where he has been let down in anyway and to plan his decisions for the next attempt

 Criteria regarding adaptation to external and internal constraints on the learner:the proposed methods and techniques must be adapted as far as possible toconstraints of all kinds affecting the learner during his studies – restrictions in thematter of place, time, materials, etc – and must fit in as far as possible with the type

of the learner

2.1.3.4 Monitor the acquisition procedure

The acquisition procedure has reference to spatial and temporal dimensions:where the acquisition takes place, at what times, according to what timetable, atwhat rhythm, and so on

In self-directed learning, the student decides for himself when to study, howlong to work at a time, and he can therefore adjust his learning rhythm to his

acquisition rhythm Where the end of the course is decided for him by others, he can

to some extent overcome this restriction by speeding up his learning rhythm either

by devoting more time to his studies or by increasing the number of maximallyeffective sessions

2.1.3.5 Evaluate what has been acquired

With regard to criteria used in evaluation, these are chosen by the learnerfrom all possible criteria, by reference to his own definition of the component parts

of successful attainment and the relative importance thereof These component partswill perhaps include correct grammar, lexical wealth and correct pronunciation.Moreover, this choice need not necessarily be final: for each new step in hislearning, the learner may select other criteria and other combinations of them whichare better suited to his new learning objectives and in line with his new level ofknowledge

This self-evaluation of learning will be carried out on the basis of personalcriteria such as compatibility between the proposed methods and techniques and theexternal constraints (availability of place and time, physical possibilities, etc) andinternal constraints (intellectual and physical ability, etc)

As a general rule it will lead the learner to evaluate how he has taken charge

of his learning, from the definition of objectives and contents to selection ofmethods and techniques, monitoring the learning procedure and evaluating what hasbeen acquired

2.1.4 Roles of learning autonomy

The learning process in Vietnam in particular and in other countries ingeneral is originally considered a cognitive matter, mainly involving memorization.Today, however, one of the dominant techniques in teaching is communicativeapproach Supporting for the process of improving communicative competence,learning autonomy is particularly necessary for the success of the communicativeapproach Therefore, students who learn under the communicative approach need to

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possess an adequate level of learning autonomy to actively participate in customizedcommunicative situations to develop their competence.

Moreover, as proposed by Dickinson in 1987, by having learning autonomy,learners can master (1) self-instruction, which refers to a situation in which learnersare working without the direct control of the teacher, (2) self-direction, which meanssituations in which learners accept responsibility for all the decisions concernedwith learning, (3) self-access learning, in which learners make use of self-accessteaching material or instructional technology, and (4) individualized instruction,which refers to situations in which the learning process is adapted, either by theteacher or by the learner, to suit the specific characteristics of an individual learner

2.1.5 The role of teachers and students to promote learning autonomy

There is a relationship between the role of the teacher and learners inpromoting learning autonomy as McCarthy (2000: 6) and Scharer (2000: 11) arguethat "the teacher-student relationship is crucial" in developing students‟ learningautonomy The trust and cooperation between the teacher and students make thestudents feel comfortable and secure in the classroom Benson and Vollers‟s study

in 1997 also finds that teachers have a significant role to play in launching learnersinto self-access and in helping them to stay afloat In this investigation, it is foundthat there is a great change for both the teacher and learners The teacher is nolonger in her dominant position as a speaker in class while learners are not passivereceivers any more However, it does not necessarily mean the teacher is lessimportant On the contrary, the teacher‟s job is more demanding and challenging inhelping students grow up as creative and independent learners The teacher mustfocus her attention on how to learn instead of how to teach She must play differentroles in class as a guide, facilitator and counselor Therefore, adjusting the teacher'sand students‟ roles, and establishing proper relationship are the keys to the success

in promoting autonomous learning (Benson & Vollers, 1997: 2)

2.2 Project work

2.2.1 Definition

There are several definitions regarding project work and it is relevant todistinguish some of them It is suggested that a “project is the development of anexperience centered on the student and his environment, that it is a creative andenriching experience on the student‟s interest” (Jiménez Raya, 1994: 52) Secondly,project work “is a versatile vehicle for fully integrated language and contentlearning” (Stoller, 1997: 3) Students are invited to live a meaningful experience thatgoes beyond the syllabus and classroom walls This way, learners and teachernegotiate how they will implement a project in their own context based on theirneeds Regarding the previous definitions, project work can be understood as asuccessful way to provide learners with opportunities to create their own planning inthe classroom It focuses on the learner, promotes the development of intrinsicmotivation and positive attitudes towards learning; it increases studentresponsibility, fosters participation when making decisions concerning projects,facilitates the gradual acquisition of autonomy and the use of the language, andpromotes interdisciplinary and cooperative work

Project work is an extended process of inquiry through which studentsinvestigate a complex question, problem or challenge as an extension of what hasalready been learned in class In project work, students work collaboratively, inpairs or teams, to develop a product or solve a problem by following some steps likeplanning, organizing, negotiating, arriving at a consensus about such issues as tasks

to be performed, methods and materials to be used and responsibilities to be shared.Interaction, critical thinking, problem solving and collaboration are some of thebenchmarks of project work The key components of project work were identified

by Larner and Mergendoller (2010: 34-37) as significant content, a need to know, adriving question, student voice and choice, 21st century skills (collaboration,communication, critical thinking, and creative thinking), inquiry and innovation,feedback and revision, and publicly presented report

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2.2.2 Types of project work

Projects are in-depth investigations of real-world topics and issues that areworthy for students to know and understand They can do creatively reading/writing projects, information-data organizing projects, major investigationprojects, design projects, problem-solving projects, argumentation projects, andauthentic projects (Seven types of projects that foster powerful learning, 2014)

1 Reading/Writing projects

Students read, comprehend and interpret specific books, novels, plays,poems, etc., often around themes Sometimes books are assigned, while at othertimes students select their own books Through reading/writing projects, studentsdemonstrate comprehension, understanding, and ability to interpret the text.Reading/writing projects often include class discussions around dilemmas inherent

in the reading and/or writing general reactions, interpretive essays, poems, storiesand plays based on the material read

2 Information-data organizing projects

The goal of information-data organizing projects is for teachers to havestudents collect, sort and summarize information and data around a topic, question,theme or unit from multiple sources, such as textbooks, fiction, and non-fictiontexts Students might synthesize articles and other readings around a topic ofinterest, analyze surveys and interviews designed to explore key questions or findways to put information into a variety of formats, including graphs and charts.Sometimes information is represented in other formats, such as through artwork,crafts, and music Information-data-organizing project approaches are useful whenstudents are studying a particular topic or question since this type of project helpsstudents learn how to use multiple resources instead of solely using a textbook

3 Major investigation projects

Major investigation projects enable students to create their own questionsaround a topic, collect, organize, and evaluate information, draw conclusions andshare results through presentations and explanations Students may demonstrate theresults of their investigations through different types of products and experiences,including the writing of a paper, the development of artwork, oral presentations,audio and videotape productions, photographic essays, simulations, or plays

Sometimes students select their own topics for research projects based ontheir interests, while at other times research projects are focused around specificacademic topics being studied in class In some senior project formats, students arefree to select any topic of interest for an investigation project

While major investigation projects are often considered long-term activities,some investigation projects can be conducted over relatively short periods of timewhen adequate amounts of time are devoted to them each day

5 Problem solving projects

Students solve problems and make decisions by being given or creatingspecific situations and complex problems Problem situations around topics such aspollution, world events, health care, poverty, and economic issues are interestingand exciting areas of study and provide students with opportunities to learn aboutcurrent and future complex issues and problems and to use creative problem-solvingprocesses Complex mathematical problems are another source of problem-solving

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projects Decision- making projects through simulations of both historical andpresent-day decisions are worthwhile projects.

6 “Argumentation” projects

After considerable research and discussion about an issue or dilemma,students write a persuasive essay or position paper giving their point of view,reasons, and evidence to support this point of view Some argumentation projectsare built around debates or simulations

7 Authentic projects

These provide students with the opportunity of conducting projects withdirect links and potential payoffs either to themselves or to the outside world.Projects which lead to personal improvement, community involvement, and service,multicultural explorations in real-world settings, an understanding of careers andcareer options, cooperative work experience, internships, and a focus on healthissues produce direct payoffs for students in a changing world

In conclusion, based on the conditions of the school, the students‟ level, andthe purpose of fostering the students‟ learning autonomy, the teacher choosesinformation-data organizing project which students collect, sort and summarizeinformation and data around a topic, and then present the information throughposters or powerpoints

2.2.3 Features of project work

In the last decades, several studies conducted on project work have revealedincreasing concern about the issue In Northwest Regional Educational LaboratoryReport, Railsback (2002: 7) assembled research on the common features of projectwork follows:

 Student centered, student directed

 A definite beginning, middle and end

 Content meaningful to students; directly observable in their environment

 Real-world questions and problems

 First hand investigation

 Sensitivity to local culture and culturally appropriate

 Specific goals related to curriculum and school, district, or state standards

 A tangible product that can be shared with the intended audience

 Connections among academic life and work skills

 Opportunity for feedback and assessments from expert sources

 Opportunity for reflective thinking and student self-assessment

 Authentic assessments (portfolios, journals, etc.)

Sani (2014: 173-174) also shares the characteristics of effective project work,they are hereunder:

 It should direct students to investigate idea and essential question

 It is as inquiry process

 It links the need and interest of students

 It is students centered by creating a product and presenting to public

 It uses creative and critical thinking to search information in doing

investigation, making conclusion and releasing a product

 It links with real problems and authentic issues

In this research, the projects do not contain all but almost these featuresabove, including student-centered learning, using creative and critical thinking tosearch information in doing investigation and making conclusion, first handinvestigation, specific goals related to curriculum and school, and opportunity forreflective thinking and student self-assessment

2.2.4 Stages of project work

Sheppard and Stoller (1995: 10-15) proposed an 8-step sequence of activitiesfor orchestrating project work That model has been fine-tuned, after testing it in avariety of classrooms and teacher-training courses The new 10-step sequence(Stoller, 2002: 112-117) is described here in detail The revised model gives easy-to-manage structure to project work and guides teachers and students in developingmeaningful projects that facilitate content learning and provide opportunities for

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explicit language instruction at critical moments in the project.

Step 1: Students and the teacher agree on a theme for the project

To set the stage, the teacher gives students an opportunity to shape theproject and develop some sense of shared perspective and commitment Even if theteacher has decided to pursue a structured project, for which he or she will makemost decisions, students can be encouraged to fine-tune the project theme Whileshaping the project together, students often find it useful to make reference toprevious readings, videos, discussions, and classroom activities

Step 2: Students and the teachers determine the final outcome

Whereas the first stage of project work involves establishing a starting point, thesecond step entails defining an end point, or the final outcome Students and the teacherconsider the nature of the project, its objectives, and the most appropriate means toculminate the project They can choose from a variety of options, including a writtenreport, letter, poster or bulletin-board display, debate, oral presentation, informationpacket, handbook, scrapbook, brochure, newspaper, or video

Step 3: Students and the teachers structure the project

After students have determined the starting and end points of the project,they need to structure the “body” of the project Questions that students shouldconsider are as follows: What information is needed to complete the project? Howcan that information be obtained (e.g., a library search, interviews, letters, faxes, E-mail, the World Wide Web, field trips, viewing of videos)? How will theinformation, once gathered, be compiled and analyzed? What role does each studentplay in the evolution of the project (i.e., who does what?)? What timeline willstudents follow to get from the starting point to the end point? The answers to many

of these questions depend on the location of the language program and the types ofinformation that are within easy reach (perhaps collected beforehand by theteacher)

Step 4: The teacher prepares students for the language demands of information gathering

It is at this point that the teacher determines, perhaps in consultation with the

students, the language demands of the information-gathering stage (Step 5) Theteacher can then plan language instruction activities to prepare students forinformation-gathering tasks If, for example, students are going to collectinformation by means of interviews, the teacher might plan exercises on questionformation, and set aside time for role-plays to provide feedback on pronunciationand to allow students to practice listening and note taking or audiotaping If, on theother hand, students are going to use a library to gather materials, the teacher mightreview steps for finding resources and practice skimming and note taking withsample texts The teacher may also help students devise a grid for organized datacollection If students will be writing letters to solicit information for their project,the teacher can introduce or review letter formatting conventions and audienceconsiderations, including levels of formality and word choice If students will beusing the World Wide Web for information gathering, the teacher can review theefficient use of this technology.

Step 5: Students gather information

Having practiced the language, skills, and strategies needed to gatherinformation, students are now ready to collect information and organize it so thatothers on their team can make sense of it During the data-gathering stage, theteacher, knowing the issues and propositions being researched, can also bring ininformation that is potentially relevant for student consideration, such as readings,videos, dictocomps, and teacher-generated lectures

Step 6: The teacher prepares students for the language demands of compiling and analyzing data

After successfully gathering information, students are confronted with thechallenges of organizing and synthesizing information that may have been collectedfrom different sources and by different individuals The teacher can prepare studentsfor the demands of the compilation and analysis stage by setting up sessions inwhich students organize sets of materials, and then evaluate, analyze, and interpretthem with an eye toward determining which are most appropriate for

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the supporters and opponents of a given proposition

Step 7: Students compile and analyze

information

With the assistance of a variety of organizational techniques (includinggraphic organizers), students compile and analyze information to identify data thatare particularly relevant to the project Student teams weigh the value of thecollected data, discarding some because of their inappropriateness for the projectand keeping the rest Students determine which information represents primary

“evidence” for the supporters and opponents of their proposition It is at this pointthat topical teams divide themselves into two groups and begin to work separately

to build the strongest case for the debate

Step 8: The teacher prepares students for the language demands of presentation of the final project

At this point in the development of the project, the teacher can bring inlanguage improvement activities to help students succeed with the presentation oftheir final products This might entail practicing oral presentation skills andreceiving feedback on voice projection, pronunciation, organization of ideas, andeye contact It may involve editing and revising written reports, letters, or bulletin-board display text

Step 9: Students present final project

Students are now ready to present the final outcome of their projects.Students stage in front of the audience, following the format previously agreedupon The presentation is videotaped so that students can later review theirperformances and receive feedback from the teacher and their peers

Step 10: Students evaluate project

Although students and the teacher alike often view the presentation of the finalproduct as the last stage in the project work process, it is worthwhile to ask students toreflect on the experience as the last and final step Students can reflect on the languagethey mastered to complete the project, the content they learned about the targetedtheme, the steps they followed to complete the project, and the effectiveness of their

final product Students can be asked how they might proceed differently the nexttime or what suggestions they have for future project work endeavors Throughthese reflective activities, students realize how much they have learned and theteacher benefits from students‟ insights for future classroom projects.

In order to suit to the participants‟ English levels and circumstance in thisresearch, the researcher would like to adapt Stoller‟s framework and the projects inthis study are carried out with the following steps:

Step 1: Selecting topics and setting objectives

Projects can be initiated when learners and teachers decide on a topic It isbetter to encourage students to bring their own ideas and have a whole classdiscussion to allot topics to each group or the teacher may offer a list of possibletopics Having chosen a topic for the project, learners work together to set theobjectives for their project work

Step 2: Planning and language generation

Learners now work together to decide upon how to proceed and what kind oflanguage needs to be used Teacher has to direct this very carefully and here iswhere the learners need guidance and support Some of the initial discussions maytake place in the classroom paving way for activities in and outside the school Thework can also be divided among learners

Step 3: Collection of date /information / details

Learners gather required data and information from a number of sources.They can consult encyclopedia, read books, interview people, collect information,pictures and illustrations, record audio or video, surf the Internet, watch TV, etc

Step 4: Planning, writing the draft and editing

Having collected the required data / information and ideas, it is time now toplan and organise the data and interpret them to write the draft Since most of theprojects in language(s) will be of written report or written creative work like play,songs, essays, chapterisation could also be planned It is also possible to haveprojects in which learners work together to script and enact a play or direct and

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enact a play Editing is important part of writing the report Learners should bemade aware of process approach involved in writing a good piece of work, whichinvolves various stages.

Step 5: Presentation

The goal of the whole project has been aiming is reached when the learnersworking together produce a report or do an activity as intended The final productmay be written report, a play, collection of songs or enacting a play or a big roleplay, writing posters, etc Learners are now asked to submit to the teacher andpresent it to the whole class or to the whole school during assembly or specialoccasions (in case of play, songs, etc.)

Step 6: Evaluating project

Students can reflect on the language they mastered to complete the project,the content they learned about the targeted theme, the steps they followed tocomplete the project, and the effectiveness of their final product Learners can alsoreflect on whether they achieve the objectives or not, and assess their strengths andweaknesses when they do projects

2.2.5 Roles of project work

Project work offers a wide range of benefits to both students and teachers Agrowing body of academic research supports the use of project work in school toengage students, cut absenteeism, boost cooperative learning skills, and improveacademic performance (George Lucas Educational Foundation, 2001) For students,benefits of project work include:

 Increased attendance, growth in self-reliance, and improved attitudes toward learning (Thomas, 2000: 36)

 Academic gains equal to or better than those generated by other models,with students involved in projects taking greater responsibility for their ownlearning than during more traditional classroom activities (Boaler, 1997: 325;SRI, 2000: 39)

 Opportunities to develop complex skills, such as higher-order thinking, problem-solving, collaborating, and communicating (SRI, 2000: 39)

 Access to a broader range of learning opportunities in the classroom,

providing a strategy for engaging culturally diverse learners (Railsback, 2002: 8)For many students, the appeal of this learning style comes from theauthenticity of the experience Students take on the role and behavior of thoseworking in a particular discipline Whether they are making a documentary videoabout an environmental concern, designing a travel brochure to highlight sites ofhistorical significance in their community, or developing a multimedia presentationabout the pros and cons of building a shopping mall, students are engaged in real-world activities that have significance beyond the classroom

For teachers, additional benefits include enhanced professionalism andcollaboration among colleagues, and opportunities to build relationships withstudents (Thomas, 2000: 37) Additionally, many teachers are pleased to find amodel that accommodates diverse learners by introducing a wider range of learningopportunities into the classroom Teachers find that students who benefit the mostfrom project work tend to be those for whom traditional instructional methods andapproaches are not effective (SRI, 2000: 40)

2.2.6 Roles of project work in developing students’ learning autonomy

Learners‟ autonomy is a complex concept; therefore, it is difficult forteachers to know where to start fostering it Project work is an appropriate strategy

to develop learner autonomy because it is a teaching practice supported byprinciples and it puts students in charge of their learning process In the “projectmethod”, students plan, execute, and work in groups; and through groupwork theyacquire the skills to participate in a democratic society According to Legutke andThomas (1991: 160), project work is a theme- and task-centered mode of teachingand learning which results from a joint process of negotiation between allparticipants It allows for a wide scope of self-determined action for both theindividual and the small group of learners within a general framework of a plan

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which defines goals and procedures Project work let students possess a basiccapacity to direct their learning and to exercise their autonomy in the wholelearning process.

In the similar vein, Ramíez (2014: 65) states that developing learner autonomyimplies not only willingness to take control of learning, but also the necessity toprovide students with opportunities to exercise autonomy by making decisions andassuming responsibility in groups for their own learning process Project work has apositive influence on the increase of learners‟ autonomy to discuss and exercise morechoices and control over their learning process It is suggested that projects can makestudents aware of their learning skills and allowed them to work on individual andcooperative tasks In group, students assume the responsibility for taking an active role

in order to direct their learning responsibly to create their project together They canalso share with the entire class what they learned to generate more ideas Cooperativework fosters a high degree of autonomy because this type of work gives learners thefreedom to explore their own preferences and to decide what activities are better foraccomplishing their common goals

Moreover, as stated by Athanasiou in 2007, it can be argued that based learning may be a valuable approach in fostering learners‟ autonomy Thereason for this lies in the value the learners place on group discussions, mainly inrespect of exchanging opinions, gaining information, becoming critical, and ingeneral learning how to develop their critical thinking and ability to analyse texts Itmay be suggested that this value place on group discussions is related to the servingindependently, individualistic needs, thus fulfilling, to some extent, that of learners‟autonomy Besides, it also suggests that project work has the potential to be avaluable element in developing learners‟ autonomy Project work involvesawareness raising, guidance and practice opportunities in strategy use, aiming atdeveloping learner autonomy Through group discussions, the learners can observethe kinds of strategies their peers used in their learning and studying process, andimplement/adapt these in their own learning process The learners themselves also

project-independently choose/create practice opportunities for learner strategy use bydirecting discussions according to their preferences They place much value onthese discussions, clarifying that they enrich their vocabulary and their generalknowledge, as well as appreciating the chance to observe the strategies applied bytheir peers.

In the similar way, Villa and Amstrong (2004: 220) proposes that projectwork enhances autonomy because it is a research endeavor in which learners takecontrol of their own learning They learn how to learn, and can thus apply theknowledge acquired in this experience to life-long learning They decide what theywant to learn, set their own goals and plan actions to reach those goals, and theyevaluate the process and the results of the experience in order to learn from it Theyalso develop the skills needed to work collaboratively: they engage in dialogue, theydevelop their own criteria, and they make decisions jointly

In addition, according to Ying (2002: 19), the research project just serves as atraining process, taking students from their states of varying degrees of dependence

to the state of the greatest degree of independence It starts from larger groupstowards smaller groups, pairs and finally individuals and from giving the studentsfewer choices concerning their learning and work towards many choices, and finallyfreer choices such as open-ended tasks, thus allowing students to make their choicesentirely on their own Besides, it provides the perfect opportunity for learners to goout and use their language In becoming actively involved in the process of learning,students may set their own objectives By working independently of the teacherboth inside and outside the classroom and selecting and using the strategies bestsuited to the occasion, they may realize a sense of autonomy This learner trainingprocess can broaden the horizons of the learner and may empower him or her tobecome autonomous in their present or future language learning

The whole project not only involves the students' active participation andcooperation, but also sets a high demand on teachers Many people assume that the

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teachers in the autonomous settings will transfer all responsibilities to learners, thusbecoming a redundant part of the learning process As a matter of fact, the success

of learners‟ autonomy enhancement depends to a great extent on an active role forteachers, whether in a classroom or a self-access center In other words, the teacherstill plays an indispensable role in working towards autonomous learning, butinstead of being the traditional knowledge giver, he or she will be a facilitator, acounselor and a helper His or her guidance and encouragement will provebeneficial towards learners' autonomous learning, as all learners need to be preparedand supported on the path to greater autonomy

Last but not least, according to Yuliani and Lengkanawati (2017: 292), forimproving learner autonomy, it is suggested for the teacher to keep encouraging thestudents to realize that project-based learning can improve learner autonomy Thus,the teacher has to motivate and facilitate the students to carry out the task willinglyand completely It is worth noting that both the teacher and students have to have acommitment to carry out learner autonomy

2.3 Related studies in promoting students’ learning autonomy through project work

Yuliani and Lengkanawati conducted a case study which was about based learning in promoting learners‟ autonomy in an English classroom in asecondary school in 2017 This study employed descriptive qualitative researchdesign at six participants at grade nine The results of data analysis led to aconclusion that project-based learning has promoted learners‟ autonomy, whichcovered the criteria of self- instruction, self-direction, self-access learning andindividualized instruction in each stage of project-based activity, namely theplanning process, the implementation process and the monitoring process

project-In the same line with these two authors above, Loi (2017) did a case studyabout promoting learners‟ autonomy through project work in a university FiftyEnglish teaching-majored second-year students were in project work over twosemesters Two instruments employed to assess their learner autonomy include a

self-assessment questionnaire and two group interviews The results showed that thestudents gained a higher degree of learner autonomy after participating in projectwork However, the gain was largely due to increased self-decisions on learning.Other aspects of learner autonomy such as self- regulated learning actions, self-responsibility, and attitudes to social interaction remained unchanged.

Ramirez (2014) conducted action research whose title is “Developing learnerautonomy through project work in an ESP class” The study was conducted at aregional and public university with environmental engineering undergraduates in anEnglish for Specific Purposes class The instruments for data collection were fieldnotes, semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, students‟ artifacts, and videorecordings The results revealed that learner autonomy could be developed bymeans of cooperative work in order to achieve common interests and support eachother Students also displayed self-regulation in regard to facing failures throughlearning strategies; furthermore, this study showed how intrinsic motivation impliesthe desire for accomplishment and knowledge to fulfill a learning goal

Recognizing the importance of project-based learning in developing learners‟autonomy, Guven (2014) conducted a study to investigate the opinions of the Englishprivate school students about the Project Based Learning implementation they wereinvolved in at the School of Foreign Languages in Turkey, in 2011-2012 academicschool year The case study, one of the descriptive qualitative research models, wasused as a method in the study Fifty randomly selected class students participated in thestudy voluntarily The data were gathered through face to face interviews and a semi-structured form with six open ended questions The findings revealed that ProjectBased Learning could be used as a means to guide learners advance towardsautonomous learning It was also noteworthy that formative assessment should takeplace in the learning environment as involving learners in their own assessment willhelp them see their strengths and weaknesses

Similarly, Ying (2012) conducted research which focused on how theresearch projects promoted autonomous learning through a small-scale study in a

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university Both quantitative and qualitative methods have been employed toexamine whether in the projects, learners exercised control over their own learningand evaluated its outcome The final results indicated that due to a flexible syllabus,highly motivating research topics and the network-assisted environment, learnersdid take responsibility for most aspects of learning and thus the projects proved to

be a promising approach for autonomous training

What is more, Villa and Armstrong presented teacher and learners‟experience implementing project work as a strategy the authors used in anundergraduate foreign language teaching program at an important public university

in their action research in 2004 In order to find support for their view that projectwork is an effective approach to developing learners‟ autonomy, students who hadparticipated in project work were interviewed and their responses were analyzed

using Benson‟s contributions (1997, 2001) on autonomous learning, and Legutke

and Thomas (1991) on project work as a framework The authors discussed theissues based on the students‟ experience: stages in the development of the project,characteristics of project work, and its relevance to developing learner autonomy

Although researchers studied about learners‟ autonomy, they did notinvestigate in lower secondary school but mainly focused on students in highereducation Moreover, in the context of Vietnam, little research was conducted tofind effective ways to enhance students‟ learning autonomy for students of grade 6.Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether project work canpositively affect students‟ learning autonomy

2.4 Summary

By reviewing many significant works that related to this study‟s topic, thechapter has provided the theoretical background for the whole paper through carefulelaboration on many angels of the two key terms: students‟ learning autonomy andproject work The review of a number of studies in this chapter indicated a researchgap that the study would pursue to bridge

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter focuses on describing the research implementation Starting with the research approach, the study continues with research questions, the details

of participants, and provides the teaching materials, background information about the researched school as well as the procedure of the study After that, the methods applied are also clearly indicated along with the reasons for choosing these approaches In addition, how the data are collected and data analysis will be displayed systematically and concisely.

3.1 Research approach: Action research

Action research has been seen as a way to bridge the gulf betweenresearchers and teachers (e.g., Brindley 1990: 25; Edge 2001: 3) and to encourageteachers to adopt an investigative stance toward their own classroom practices (e.g.,Gebhard 2005: 54)

Although more complex and extended descriptions of the steps in actionresearch have been proposed (e.g., Burns 1999; Cohen, Manion, and Morrison2000: 226; Hopkins 1993; McNiff 1988), the most widely known model is that ofKemmis and McTaggart (1988: 10):

Develop a plan of critically informed action to improve what is already happening

Act to implement the plan

Observe the effects of the critically informed action in the context in which

it occurs

Reflect on these effects as the basis for further planning, subsequent

critically informed action and so on, through a succession of stages