Q QTL Abbreviation for quantitative trait loci. Quail eggs Eggs produced by quails. Considered as a delicacy. Consist of approximately 13% protein and 11% lipids, and have a mean weight of 11 g. Egg shells may be a variety of colours, but are often light brown with dark speckles. Quail meat Meat from quails, commonly from farmed bobwhite quails (Colinus virginianus) or Japa- nese quails (Coturnix coturnix). Farmed quail meat tends to be white in colour, delicately flavoured and very tender. In comparison, wild quail meat can be very richly flavoured, but it can also be tough; conse- quently, it benefits from application of marinades or slow pot-roasting, which soften the meat. Quails Several species of migratory, short-tailed birds belonging to the Phasianidae family, which are hunted for quail meat or farmed for production of quail meat and quail eggs. Quality assurance Planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that goods or services will satisfy given requirements. For the food industry, this is a customer-focused management sys- tem, whose aim is to guarantee food safety and consis- tent product quality by application of production, proc- essing and handling standards. Proactive food safety programmes, in particular those based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) princi- ples, are the foundation of many food quality assurance systems. Quality control A system of maintaining standards in manufactured products by testing a sample against the specification. Quantitative descriptive analysis Comprehensive system used in sensory analysis that covers sample collection, assessor screening, vocabulary develop- ment, testing and data analysis. Quantitative descrip- tive analysis (commonly abbreviated to QDA) uses small numbers of highly trained assessors. Once the training sessions have established satisfactory panel performance, and removal of ambiguities and misun- derstandings, the test samples can be evaluated. This is carried out in replicated sessions using experimental designs that minimize biases. Three major steps are required: development of standardized vocabulary; quantification of selected sensory characteristics; and analysis of results by parametric statistics. Quantitative trait loci Location of genes that affect traits which can be measured on a quantitative (linear) scale. These traits are usually affected by more than one gene and also by the environment. Examples of quantitative traits are body wt. and plant height. Ab- breviated to QTL. Quarg German soft cheese made from cow milk. Can be made from whole, skim or semi-skimmed milk or buttermilk. Skim milk powders are sometimes added, giving a gritty texture. Ripens within a few days. The moist, white product has a light taste and is usually sold in pots. Also known as quark. Quartirolo cheese Italian soft cheese similar to Taleggio cheese. Also made widely in Argentina where it is known as Cuartirolo Argentino cheese. Quassin Triterpenoid produced in the bark of the plant Quassia amara. Used as a bittering agent in foods and beverages. Quaternary ammonium compounds Cationic surfactant ammonia salts in which the nitrogen atom is bonded to four organic groups. Used as antiseptics, disinfectants or preservatives due to their antim- icrobial activity. Commonly used for disinfection of equipment in dairies and breweries. Quercetin Flavonol aglycone distributed widely in plants and found in many foods and beverages. Ex- hibits a range of biological activities including anti- oxidative activity. Forms the glycosides quer- citrin and rutin with rhamnose and rutinose, re- spectively. Quercitrin Flavonol glycoside formed from quercetin and rhamnose. Distributed widely in plants and found in many foods and beverages. Ex- hibits a range of biological activities including anti- oxidative activity. Queso Blanco cheese Mexican soft cheese made from cow milk. Traditionally produced from skim milk or whey coagulated with lemon juices. Fla- vour is milky and fresh. Has an elastic texture which holds its shape when heated, making it ideal for prepa- ration of dishes such as stuffed chicken breasts, stuffed peppers, enchiladas and burritos. 354 Queso fresco cheese Quorum sensing Queso fresco cheese Mexican soft cheese made from a mixture of cow milk and goat milk. Mild, with a fresh acidity and grainy texture; softens but does not melt when heated. Used in cooking and also in salads. Quiches Rich, savoury tarts comprising pastry cases filled with egg custards containing ingredients such as vegetables, meat, cheese and sea foods. Quillaja saponins Group of saponins derived from the tree Quillaja saponaria. Non-ionic surfactants with good resistance to salt and heat and high stability at acid pH. Used as foaming agents in foods and beverages. Quinalphos Organophosphorus insecticide and acari- cide used for control of a wide range of insect pests on fruits, vegetables and cereals. Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). Also known as bayrusil and ekalux. Quince jams Jams made using quinces (Cydonia oblonga). Quince juices Fruit juices extracted from quinces (Cydonia oblonga). Quinces Fruits produced by the shrub Cydonia ob- longa. Usually resemble pears in shape, and are light golden-yellow, green or orange in colour. Fruits are a good source of potassium and vitamin C. Generally unpalatable when raw, but have a good flavour when cooked. The flesh turns pink when cooked. Contain high levels of pectins, ensuring that any jelly made with them will set easily. Used to make jams, jellies, marmalades, quince juices and flavourings. Quinic acid Organic acid that, together with caffeic acid, is a constituent of chlorogenic acid, an anti- fungal metabolite found in certain higher plants. Quinic acid can interact with proteins, influencing their function and digestibility. Quinine Bitter alkaloid isolated from cinchona bark, derivatives of which are used in the treatment of ma- laria. Also used as a bittering agent in carbonated beverages, especially tonic waters, although high doses are thought to be toxic. Quinoa A pseudocereal comprising the high protein dried fruits and glutinous seeds of the plant Cheno- podium quinoa or C. album, which is native to Chile and Peru. Used to make flour and bread. Rich source of iron and vitamin B 1 . Quinoa flour Food produced by milling seeds of quinoa, a pseudocereal. Can be used in wheat-based and gluten-free baking. Quinolones Group of synthetic antibiotics used to combat a wide range of diseases in animals and farmed fish. Commonly used examples include oxolinic acid and nalidixic acid, which show activity against Gram negative bacteria only. Second generation quinolones (containing a fluorine or piperazino moi- ety) show broader antibacterial activity; examples include ciprofloxacin and sarafloxacin. Quinones Aromatic dioxo compounds that are usually coloured and are constituents of many natural pig- ments; intermediate products of enzymic brown- ing. Their derivatives include the K vitamins. They function in aerobic and anaerobic electron transport chains, in photosynthesis, and as carriers of reducing equivalents between dehydrogenases and terminal enzyme complexes. Quintozene Soil applied fungicide that controls a wide range of soil borne plant diseases. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Also known as pentachloronitrobenzene. Quito orange Alternative term for naranjilla. Quorn Trade name for textured mycoprotein ob- tained from the filamentous fungus Fusarium graminearum A3/5. Commonly used as meat substi- tutes, e.g. in sausages and ready meals, or sold as unflavoured chunks or mince for use in home cooked dishes. Originally conceived as a protein-rich food, now usually promoted as a healthy food that is high in fibre and low in calories and saturated fats. Quorum sensing Mechanism through which com- munication occurs among bacteria and some social insects. In bacteria, this involves the accumulation and detection of signalling molecules (autoinducers) secreted by other bacteria. Usually communication is between bacteria of the same species; however, recog- nition of signals produced by other species has been shown. Used by a bacterium to monitor the number of bacteria within an environment and co-ordinate a re- sponse to an environment. Important for successful virulence of some pathogens or formation of biofilms. R Rabadi Traditional fermented food of India, prepared by fermentation of a mixture of flour, made usually from pearl millet, and buttermilk. Cereal flour may be partially substituted by that prepared from soy- beans or other vegetables. Rabbitfish Marine fish species (Chimaera mon- strosa) found in the northeast Atlantic. Of little com- mercial value, but livers are sometimes utilized as a source of oils. Rabbit meat Meat from wild or farmed rabbits. Rabbit carcasses have a high meat to bone ratio; a high proportion of the carcass is edible meat. Meat from young rabbits tends to be more tender and succu- lent than meat from older rabbits. Rabbits are sold whole or jointed into back legs, forelegs, saddle and fillets. The highest quality meat is found in the rabbit thigh. Farmed rabbit carcasses tend to be larger than those of wild rabbits. Farmed rabbit meat tends to be whiter in colour, is covered by a thin layer of fat and is generally more tender, more delicately flavoured and juicier than wild rabbit meat. Wild rabbit meat is very lean and, consequently, can be tough and dry when cooked. Rabbits Burrowing, plant-eating mammals belonging to the Leporidae family, that are farmed and hunted for rabbit meat and fur production. Rabri Concentrated and sweetened buffalo milk product with a flaky/layered texture. Popular in India. Traditionally, milk standardized to 6% fat is heated at approximately 90qC with repeated removal of clotted cream (malai), sugar is added to the concentrated milk and finally the clotted cream is added back to the concentrated sweetened milk. In a commercial method, shredded chhana or paneer is used in place of clot- ted cream. Rabri has a relatively short shelf life. Racemases Includes members of subclass EC 5.1. These isomerases catalyse the racemization of a centre of chirality and are subdivided according to their substrates; amino acids (EC 5.1.1), hydroxy acids (EC 5.1.2), carbohydrates (EC 5.1.3) and other compounds (EC 5.1.99). Racking Process of drawing off wines or beer from the sediment in the barrel. Raclette cheese Semi-firm, salted cheese, with a pale yellow colour and a light brown rind, made from cow milk. Originates from the Swiss canton of Valais but is also made in the French regions of Savoie, Franche-Comte and Bretagne. Cheese flavour is in- tensified, and its elasticity improved, by heating, usually in front of a fire or under a hot grill. The melted cheese is scraped off onto various dishes such as boiled potatoes, cold meat and gherkins. Can also be used in fondues. Ractopamine ȕ-Adrenergic agonist which increases nitrogen retention and protein synthesis, enhances lipolysis, suppresses lipogenesis and increases rate of weight gain and feed conversion efficiency in farm animals. Rapidly absorbed and eliminated from animal tissues; residues rarely persist in any organs beyond 10 days. Radiation Energy emitted in the form of electromag- netic waves or subatomic particles. Radicals Highly reactive molecular species which possess an unpaired electron. Often formed by the splitting of a covalent bond. May react with macro- molecules (especially DNA and proteins), causing them damage. Radical scavenging activity Ability to trap organic free radicals formed by the splitting of molecular bonds. This protects cellular membranes from oxida- tive destruction and ultimately prevents DNA damage caused by the action of the radicals which can lead to carcinogenesis. Substances with high radical scav- enging activity include antioxidant vitamins, such as Į-tocopherol. Radioactive contamination Contamination that is caused by the presence of radioactive materials, such as radioelements. Radioactivity Emission of ionizing radiation or parti- cles caused by the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei. Radioelements Elements that undergo spontaneous disintegration of their nuclei with the emission of sub- atomic particles (Į-particles and ȕ-particles) or elec- tromagnetic rays (X-rays and gamma rays). Radiofrequency Electromagnetic wave frequency between audio and infrared. Radiofrequency technol- 356 Radioimmunoassay Raisins ogy is used in a number of food processing applica- tions, including heating, drying, tempering, de- frosting and pasteurization. Radioimmunoassay Immunological technique in which a substance is measured by its ability to compete with a radioactively labelled form for binding to spe- cific antibodies. Concentration of the substance is de- termined by comparing inhibition of binding with that caused by a series of standards. Radioisotopes Isotopic forms of elements that are radioactive and undergo radioactive decay, properties that make them useful in various analytical tech- niques and for studying metabolic pathways. Radiometry Technique for measurement of incident radiation using radiometers that can be tuned to spe- cific frequencies. Radionuclides Radioactive species of atoms that decay into products that themselves decay, the se- quence of which constitutes a radioactive series. Radishes Common name for Raphanus sativus, the fleshy roots of which are consumed. Roots vary in colour, size and shape. Western or small radishes, which contain moderate amounts of vitamin C, are generally used raw to add colour, crispness and pungency to salads and sandwiches. Oriental radishes, such as Japanese radishes, produce very large roots which are sold in the UK as mouli or ret- tich. Other types of radish include rat-tailed radishes, which produce edible pods, and leaf radishes, which are grown for fodder. Radish sprouts Sprouts formed by germination of radish seeds. Rich source of vitamin C, vitamin A, calcium and folic acid. Eaten raw in salads and sandwiches. Have a pungent, peppery flavour. Radium Radioactive element with the chemical sym- bol Ra. Radon Radioactive element with the chemical symbol Rn. Radurization Low-level ionizing radiation treatment designed to enhance the shelf life of food by reducing the level of spoilage microorganisms present. Raffinose Oligosaccharide composed of 3 sugar resi- dues, i.e. fructose , glucose and galactose . Con- sidered one of the antinutritional factors in leg- umes due to its tendency to cause flatulence. Raftiline Obsolete trade name for inulin food ingredi- ents extracted from chicory roots. Now marketed by the Orafti Group under the trade name Beneo TM inulin. The products are mixtures of oligo- and polysaccha- rides, which can stabilize water in foods into a creamy structure with the same mouthfeel as fat. Used as fat substitutes and stabilizers in a wide range of low fat food applications. Raftilose Obsolete trade name for oligofructose food ingredients produced by partial enzymic hydrolysis of chicory inulin. Now marketed by the Orafti Group under the trade name Beneo TM oligofructose. The products consist of oligofructose, glucose, fructose and sucrose in varying combinations. Used as sugar substitutes in a wide range of food applications, and can be blended successfully with artificial sweeten- ers. Ragi Cereal plant, Eleusine coracana, that is an impor- tant food grain in India and Africa. Used in porridges and gruel, and to make beer. Alternative term for finger millet. Also the Indonesian name for fer- mented and dried balls of roasted rice flour (other flours may be used as a substitute, e.g. cassava or mil- let) that contain a mixture of microorganisms and are used as starters for fermented foods such as tape. Ragout Richly seasoned dishes made by stewing meat and/or vegetables. Preparation usually in- volves slow cooking over a low heat. Also refers to sauces for pasta, noodles or other starchy foods. Ragusano cheese Italian hard cheese made from raw cow milk. Curd is heated and stretched until it becomes rubbery before being pressed and left to dry. During ripening the cheese is rubbed with oil and vinegar giving a strong savoury flavour to the ma- ture product. Rahat Alternative term for Turkish delight. Rahnella aquatilis Species of bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae which can cause spoilage of vegetables, fish and dairy products. Also used in biotechnology for the production of lactan gums . Rainbow trout Salmonid fish species (Oncorhynchus mykiss) predominately found in freshwater; indigenous to geographical areas linked to the East Pacific Ocean, but introduced worldwide. An important food fish with high commercial value; cultured in large numbers around the world. Marketed and consumed in a variety of forms, including fresh, frozen, smoked and canned. Raising agents Bakery additives that are used for chemical leavening of cakes. Raising agents, such as baking powders (mixtures of tartaric acid and so- dium bicarbonate), produce CO 2 on addition of liq- uid, such as water or milk. On baking, the gas bubbles expand but are trapped by the protein and starch of the flour, and become set as the liquid in the cake mix evaporates. Raisins Dried grapes, usually made from Thompson seedless grapes. Prepared by sun or mechanical dry- ing. Rich in iron with a high sugar content and a range of vitamins and minerals. Eaten out of hand or used in bakery products and various dishes. 357 Raki Raspberry juices Golden raisins are amber in colour due to treatment with sulfur dioxide, and are dried with artificial heat, giving a plumper and moister product that is preferred to common raisins for cooking. Muscat raisins are dark and sweet and used in fruit cakes. Raki Aniseed flavoured spirits made in Turkey. Rakia Spirits made from grapes or other fruits in Bulgaria and adjacent regions. Rakkyo Common name for Allium chinense, a plant grown for its bulbs, that resemble small shallots. Eaten raw or cooked, but most commonly used for pickling. Raman spectroscopy Technique based on meas- urement of scattering of incident light from lasers upon striking a sample. Raman scattered light is of a different wavelength from the incident light. The dif- ference in energy between the incident light and Ra- man scattered light is the energy required to make a molecule vibrate or rotate. A Raman spectrum is built up of the energy difference at different intensities, with clear bands representing functional groups. This tech- nique is able to provide information about concentra- tion, structure, and interaction of biochemical mole- cules within intact cells and tissues in a nondestructive way, without homogenization, extraction or use of dyes or other labelling agents. Recognized as an ana- lytical tool within different areas of food science, one such area being the rapid and non-destructive qual- ity assessment of foods for in-line purposes. Rambutan Fruits produced by Nephelium lapaceum. Rich in vitamin C. The outer skin is covered with red or yellow spines and encloses the edible white to pink flesh, in the centre of which is a seed. Flavour varies from sweet to acid according to cultivar; the former are eaten fresh and the latter cooked. Fruits are also available canned. Ram meat Meat from rams (adult male sheep), alternatively known as mutton. When produced from early maturing breeds, carcass and eating qualities tend to be good. However, meat from older rams tends to be darker in colour and may have an undesirable aroma and flavour. Ram muscles Alternative term for mutton. Ramp Common name for Allium tricoccum, a pungent vegetable also known as wild leek. An aroma similar to onions is combined with a strong garlic flavour. Culinary and medical applications are similar to those of garlic. Rams Uncastrated adult male sheep . Although often kept solely for breeding, they may be reared for pro- duction of mutton. They produce lean meat more ef- ficiently than female or castrated male sheep. Rancidity Sensory properties relating to the extent to which the flavour of a product containing fats or oils is perceived to be rancid (sour or stale). Caused by oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in fats and oils, resulting in the characteristic disagreeable flavour and aroma. Occurs slowly and spontaneously, and is accelerated by light, heat and certain minerals. Rancid- ity in foods may be prevented by proper storage, and/or the addition of antioxidants. Peroxide val- ues are used as a measure of rancidity of oils and fats. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA Amplifi- cation of randomly selected genomic sequences by PCR under low stringency conditions using arbitrary primers. Can be used to determine taxonomic identity, study genetic diversity, generate probes and analyse mixed genome samples. Usually abbreviated to RAPD. RAPD Abbreviation for randomly amplified poly- morphic DNA. Rapeseed meal Residue remaining after rapeseed oils have been extracted from rapeseeds. Rich in proteins and minerals, but use in foods is limited due to the presence of antinutritional factors, such as glucosinolates. Rapeseed oils Oils extracted from rapeseeds, Brassica napus. Rich in erucic acid, although varie- ties producing oils low in erucic acid have been devel- oped. Rich in monounsaturated fatty acids and low in saturated fatty acids. Often used as cook- ing oils. Also known as canola oils. Rapeseeds Seeds produced by Brassica napus and used as a source of rapeseed oils. Also known as canola seeds. Raphia Genus of palms. Stems of some species are used in the production of palm wines. Ras cheese Egyptian hard cheese made from cow milk, buffalo milk or a mixture of both, raw or pas- teurized. Rasogolla Sweetened dairy product prepared from chhana. Chhana is mixed with flour and other con- stituents, divided into balls and cooked in sugar syr- ups. Raspberries Berries produced by some species of the genus Rubus. R. idaeus produces red berries, al- though it has some less common yellow-fruited culti- vars. R. occidentalis produces black fruit, while purple berries are produced by hybrids. Rich in vitamin A and vitamin C. Eaten out of hand and used in making desserts, jams, jellies and beverages. Raspberry juices Fruit juices extracted from raspberries (Rubus spp.). Good sources of ellagic acid (one of the anticarcinogens), quercetin and anthocyanins (powerful antioxidant com- pounds). 358 Ravioli Recombined foods Ravioli Small square parcels of pasta which are usu- ally stuffed with meat mince or cheese and served in tomato-based sauces. Raw milk Milk that has not been heat treated to de- stroy disease or spoilage causing microorganisms. Used to make some products, especially cheese, but not usually drunk. Sale of raw milk for drinking is pro- hibited in many countries. Also called unpasteurized milk. Ray General name used for a number of flattened ma- rine fish species in the order Rajiformes; worldwide distribution. Generally used synonymously with skate. Many species are utilized as food fish, includ- ing Raja clavata (thornback ray), R. asterias (starry ray) and Leucoraja fullonica (shagreen ray). Flesh tends to be firm and white with a sweet flavour; fins may also be consumed. Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked and salted. Raya seeds Seeds extracted from Brassica juncea or B. carinata. Potential use as oilseeds. Razor shells Any of a number of marine bivalve molluscs with elongated shells. Found in sediments on Atlantic and Pacific shores. Some species are con- sumed, including Siliqua patula (razor clam) and Ensis ensis (pod razor). RDA Abbreviation for recommended dietary al- lowance. RDI Abbreviation for recommended daily intake. Reactive nitrogen species Potent oxidants formed from nitric oxide. Cause inflammation and have been linked to ageing, cancer and other condi- tions. May be formed by reaction of nitrates (e.g. in leafy vegetables) or nitrites (e.g. in cured meat) with other dietary components or gastric acid. Also generated as part of an innate host defence mechanism against microbial infection. May be inhibited by die- tary antioxidants , such as quercetin and isofla- vones. Reactive oxygen species Small, highly reactive moieties causing harmful effects in humans, such as DNA damage and cell damage, leading to oxidative stress and increased risk of cardiovascular dis- eases and cancer. Formed as by-products of O 2 me- tabolism and include oxygen ions, free radicals, peroxides and superoxides. Various dietary com- ponents (e.g. polyphenols) react with the above, neutralizing their effects and potentially providing health benefits. Ready meals Convenience foods prepared indus- trially to a set meals recipe usually by cook freeze or cook chill processing, and requiring no further preparation by the consumer other than reheating. Ready to eat foods Convenience foods that re- quire no further preparation by the consumer, such as fast foods, food bars, ready to eat meals and ready to eat cereals. Similar to ready to serve foods. Ready to eat meals Convenience foods in the form of meals that require no further preparation by the consumer. Similar to ready meals. Ready to serve foods Convenience foods re- quiring no further preparation by the consumer, other than reheating where appropriate. Examples include ready to serve dairy desserts, gravy, salads, soups and beverages. Similar to ready to eat foods. Rearing Agricultural term relating to breeding and raising of animals as sources of foods. Rebaudiosides Sweet glycosides of the diterpene derivative steviol, which are 400 times sweeter than sugar. Found in leaves of Stevia rebaudiana, along with stevioside. Can be used as natural, non- nutritive, heat-stable sweeteners in foods and bever- ages. Less bitter than stevioside. Their use in foods is permitted in some countries, but not in others. Recipes A set of instructions that provide details on how to prepare culinary dishes and certain beverages. Information may include: ingredients required and their quantities, a step-by-step list of directions, prepa- ration time, cooking instructions and number of serv- ings provided. Some recipes may also give nutritional information, usually per portion, such as the contents of fats, carbohydrates, proteins , salt and calo- ries. Recombinant enzymes Enzymes produced by recombinant DNA techniques. DNA encoding the en- zyme of interest is manipulated in vitro and trans- formed into an appropriate cell type where it is ex- pressed. Recombinant microorganisms Genetically modified microorganisms that contain DNA or genes from different sources. Produced using ge- netic engineering techniques. Recombinant proteins Proteins produced by re- combinant DNA techniques. DNA encoding the pro- tein of interest is manipulated in vitro and transformed into an appropriate cell type where it is expressed. Recombination Process similar to reconstitution, but involving addition of substances other than water which have been removed from the product. Examples include addition of butterfat as well as water to dried skim milk to make recombined milk of the desired fat content. Recombined foods Products made in a similar way to reconstituted foods, but with the addition of 359 Recombined milk Redcurrants substances other than water which have been removed from the product in its original form during processing. Examples include recombined milk, made by addi- tion of butterfat, as well as water, to dried skim milk to achieve the desired fat content in the final product. Recombined milk Dairy product made by reconsti- tuting dried milk with water and other components such as a fat source (e.g. butter) to give a composition similar to that of milk. Recommended daily intake Amounts of nutrients greater than the requirements of almost all members of the population, determined on the basis of the average requirement plus twice the standard deviation, to allow for individual variation in nutrient requirements and thus cover the theoretical needs of 97.5% of the population. Commonly abbreviated to RDI. Recommended dietary allowance The average daily dietary intake level of individual nutrients that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of most healthy individuals in a particular gender and age group. Comprises a component of the dietary reference intakes (DRI), and commonly abbreviated to RDA. Reconstituted foods Foods that have undergone reconstitution before consumption, often by addi- tion of a liquid. Examples include soups and bakery products made from mixes, and fruit juices made from concentrates. Reconstituted meat products Alternative term for restructured meat products. Reconstitution Restoration of a product to its original state and consistency, often achieved by adding a liquid, usually water. Includes addition of water to concentrates and powders. Rectification One of two general methods, the other being simple distillation, used to separate a substance or a mixture of substances from a solution through va- porization. Distillation usually involves boiling a liq- uid and condensing the vapour that forms in a still. In simple distillation, all the distillate is removed from the still after collection. In rectification, part of the distil- late flows back into the still. This portion comes into contact with the vapour being condensed and enriches it. Rectification can also be undertaken using large towers (fractionating columns). As the mixture to be separated is heated, its vapours rise through these col- umns. Substances that boil at the lowest temperatures form the first fractions. Their vapours rise highest and are carried off by pipes near the tops of the fractionat- ing columns. Separate pipes carry off different frac- tions at various levels. Reflux (return) of some distil- late to the columns produces the most efficient condi- tions for this method of distillation. Rectification can be carried out with a continuous feed of liquid. During manufacture of vodka, by-products of distillation, such as methanol, are removed from the distillate by rectification using a continuous still. Recycling Reuse of renewable resources in an effort to maximize their value, reduce waste, and reduce en- vironmental disturbance. Food packaging wastes such as paper, glass and plastics are often recycled. Red beans Dark red beans used in making chilli con carne and refried beans. Also used in red beans and rice, a dish that is popular in the southern states of the USA. Red beets Roots of some varieties of Beta vulgaris. Eaten cooked as a vegetable and in salads. Also avail- able canned. Leaves are sometimes consumed as a pot herb. Red cabbages Cabbages containing antho- cyanins as pigments, giving them a red colour. Rich source of vitamin C. Flavour is generally milder and sweeter than that of other types of cabbage. Eaten as a cooked vegetable or raw in salads and coleslaw. Also popular for pickling. Red chillies General term for chillies which are red in colour. Immature chillies are green in colour and, depending on the variety, may change in colour during ripening to red, orange, yellow or brown. Thus, all red chillies are mature fruits. Most common type used for preparation of chilli powder. In general for chillies there is no correlation between pungency and colour. Red clover Common name for Trifolium pratense. A rich source of isoflavones. The young leaves and flowers of these plants can be used in salads and soups, the seeds can be sprouted and used in salads, and a sweet herb tea can be made from the fresh or dried flowers. Employed as a herbal remedy for vari- ous ailments, such as respiratory problems and skin conditions, and may be used to relieve symptoms of premenstrual syndrome and menopause due to its high content of phytoestrogens. Also used for grazing cattle and other animals. Red crabs Common name used for several species of marine crabs occurring along Pacific coasts, princi- pally Pleuroncodes planipes and Chaceon quin- quedens . Marketed in a variety of forms, including fresh cooked whole crab, cooked leg meat, canned meat and pastes. Redcurrant juices Fruit juices extracted from red- currants (Ribes rubrum). Redcurrants Red berries produced by Ribes ru- brum. Rich in vitamin C. Eaten out of hand or used as components of preserves, jellies and sauces, es- pecially Cumberland sauce. 360 Reddish pink soft exudative defect Reflectometers Reddish pink soft exudative defect Commonly abbreviated to RSE defect, a condition which affects pork. RSE describes one of the four quality conditions into which most pork can be categorized. Colour of RSE meat tends to be normal. However, the meat has a poor water holding capacity, and drip loss is far greater than in normal red, firm, non-exudative (RFN) pork. Mishandling of swine pre-slaughter increases the incidence of the RSE defect, but the defect is not asso- ciated with any particular halothane genotype. Redfish Name given to several different marine fish species, but most commonly refers to Sebastes spp. Used as a synonym for rockfish. In Australia, the name refers to Centroberyx affinis. Marketed fresh and frozen. Red ginseng Form of ginseng prepared by sun dry- ing or steaming, which changes the colour of the root from nearly white to red. Contains bioactive gin- senosides, and is used as a traditional medicine in Asia and as an ingredient of functional foods and functional beverages, including ginseng bever- ages. Red gram Alternative term for pigeon peas. Red hake Marine fish species (Urophycis chuss) belonging to the family Phycidae. Found in the western North Atlantic Ocean. Marketed fresh, frozen and dried/salted and cooked in various ways, including steaming and baking. Small fish are also used in fish meal production. Red meat Meat (e.g. beef, venison, rabbit meat, lamb and mutton) that is dark red in colour before cooking. Generally a good source of iron and pro- teins. Red onions Varieties of onions having inedible peel that is red to purple in colour and edible flesh flecked with red to purple pigmentation caused by the presence of anthocyanins. Many are less pun- gent than their yellow/brown or white counterparts and can be eaten raw. Used as an ingredient of various meals including salads. Redox potential Scale of values, measured as electric potential in volts, indicating the ability of a substance or solution to cause reduction or oxidation reac- tions under non-standard conditions. Red peppers Term applied to any of several types of red coloured hot peppers, such as chillies. Also may refer to red bell peppers, a milder variety of Capsicum. Red rice Alternative term for angkak. Red salmon Alternative term for sockeye salmon. Red sea bream Marine fish species (Pagrus major) distributed around the northwest Pacific. Popular food fish which fetches high prices in Japan; cultured in some coastal regions. Marketed live, fresh, frozen and as a spice-cured product. Redspot emperor Marine fish species (Lethrinus lentjan) of the family Lethrinidae which is of high commercial importance. Widely distributed in the Pa- cific Ocean. Also known as pink ear emperor. Reducing agents Chemicals capable of the reduc- tion of other chemicals, i.e. they donate electrons or hydrogen. During this process, the reducing agents themselves undergo oxidation. Also known as re- ducing substances. Reducing substances Alternative term for reduc- ing agents. Reducing sugars Sugars with free aldehyde or ketone groups available for oxidation to form car- boxylic acid groups. Reducing sugars are substrates for Maillard reaction with amino acids. Examples in- clude glucose, maltose, lactose and mannose. Reduction Loss of oxygen from a compound, e.g. removal by reducing agents. Also includes reac- tions in which atoms in the reacting materials gain electrons. Reductions always occur simultaneously with oxidation reactions; if one reactant is oxidized, another must be reduced. Reductones Chemicals that contain an enediol group, e.g. ascorbic acid. Intermediates of the Maillard reaction which possess antioxidative activity. Red wines Wines which are red in colour, due to the presence of anthocyanins extracted from the skins of red winemaking grapes. Thought to have beneficial effects on health due to the anthocyanins and polyphenols such as resveratrol. Reference materials Materials of certified composi- tion that are used as standards in analytical procedures. Refining Removal of impurities or unwanted elements from a substance. Often used to describe the process- ing of sugar and oils. Reflectance Optical properties relating to the measure of the proportion of light or other radiation falling on a surface which is then reflected or scattered. Reflectivity Optical properties relating to the amount of light or other radiation that can be re- flected by an item. Rough surfaces reflect in a multi- tude of directions, and such reflection is said to be dif- fuse. Smooth, brightly polished or glossy surfaces re- flect clearly and sharply at the same angle to the sur- face as the angle at which the light or heat contacted the surface. Reflectometers are instruments used for measuring the luster or sharpness of reflection of a fin- ished surface. Reflectometers Instruments used to measure the colour or gloss of foods based on their reflec- tance of light. 361 Refractive index Relative density Refractive index Measure of the bending or refrac- tion of a beam of light on entering a denser medium (the ratio between the sine of the angle of incidence of the ray of light and the sine of the angle of refraction). Constant for pure substances under standard condi- tions. Used analytically, for example, as a measure of sugar or total solids in solutions, and in determin- ing the purity of oils. Refractometry Measurement of refractive index using one of the several types of refractometer. Refrigerants Substances with low vaporization temperatures used to promote the refrigeration con- ditions necessary for chilling foods and beverages. Ideal refrigerants have good thermodynamic prop- erties, and are noncorrosive and safe. Examples in- clude ammonia, ice and solid carbon dioxide (dry ice). Refrigerated foods Chilled foods requiring re- frigeration prior to consumption. Refrigerated storage Process of keeping objects, usually foods, at a temperature that is significantly lower than that of the surrounding environment in or- der to extend their shelf life by a few days. Refrig- eration or cold storage of foods is a gentle method of preservation, having minimal adverse effects upon flavour, texture and nutritional values. Re- frigeration keeps spoilage reactions (microbial or en- zymic) to a minimum, but does not kill microorgan- isms or inactivate enzymes; instead it slows down their deteriorative effects. Household refrigerators are usually run at a temperature of 4-7qC. Commercial refrigerators are operated at a slightly lower tempera- ture. Refrigerated transport Specially designed transport vehicles, such as lorries, rail cars, aeroplanes or cargo ships, with refrigeration systems on board which are designed to protect frozen and perishable foods from high ambient temperatures. The refrigeration systems also cool the hot air mass in the cargo container, and remove the stored heat from the structure of the cargo body. Product integrity is maintained through avoid- ance of temperature fluctuation. Refrigeration Process by which heat is removed from an enclosed space or from a substance for the purpose of lowering the temperature. Refrigeration is chiefly used to store foods and beverages at low temperatures, thus inhibiting the destructive action of microorgan- isms. Cooling caused by the rapid expansion of gases (refrigerants) is the primary means of refrig- eration. Refrigerators Appliances or compartments kept arti- ficially cool by the use of refrigerants, and used to store foods and beverages. Mechanical refrigerators have four basic elements: an evaporator; a compressor; a condenser; and a refrigerant flow control (expansion valve). A refrigerant circulates among the four ele- ments, changing from liquid to gas and back to liquid. In the evaporator, liquid refrigerant evaporates under reduced pressure, so absorbing latent heat of vapori- zation and cooling the surroundings. The evaporator is at the lowest temperature in the system and heat flows to it. This heat is used to vaporize the refrigerant. The refrigerant vapour is sucked into a compressor, a pump that increases the pressure and then exhausts it at a higher pressure to the condenser. To complete the cycle, the refrigerant must be condensed back to liquid, and, in doing this, it gives up its latent heat of vapori- zation to a cooling medium such as water or air. Regenerated cellulose Alternative term for cello- phane. Reggianito cheese Argentinean hard cheese made from cow milk. Similar to Parmigiano Reggiano cheese. Used mostly for grating, in cooking or in toppings on pasta dishes. Regional foods Foods produced in, and often tradi- tionally associated with, a particular geographical re- gion. Examples include Cornish pasties and Roquefort cheese. Similar to ethnic foods which are foods associated with a particular nation rather than a particular region. Reheating Application of heat to a food that has al- ready been thermally processed but then cooled. Cook chill foods and ready meals often need reheating before consumption. Rehydrated foods Products made by reconstitu- tion of dried foods, e.g. dried vegetables, with water. Rehydration Process by which the water or moisture removed in making dried foods is replaced, so re- storing it to near its original quality. Reindeer Large migratory ruminant animals (Rangifer tarandus) belonging to the Cervidae family. Wild rein- deer are hunted and domesticated reindeer are farmed as a source of reindeer meat. In some countries, e.g. Sweden, careful management of wild reindeer herds produces a regular crop of animals that can be culled for meat production. Reindeer meat is sometimes re- ferred to as venison. Reindeer meat Meat from reindeer. It has a low content of fat. In farmed or harvested reindeer, stress during gathering, herding, selection, feeding, road transport and lairage may result in glycogen deple- tion and hence deterioration of meat quality. Relative density Ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference material. For liquids or solids, relative density is the ratio of the density (usu- 362 Relative humidity Resins ally at 20qC) to the density of water (at its temperature of maximum density (4qC). Synonym for specific gravity (sp. gr.). Relative humidity The moisture content of air expressed as the percentage of the maximum possible moisture content of that air at the same temperature and pressure. Commonly abbreviated to RH. Relishes Pickles or condiments with a strong, usually piquant, flavour that are served as an accom- paniment to foods. Renaturation Reconstruction of proteins or nu- cleic acids that have previously been denatured, such that the molecules resume their original function. Some proteins can be renatured by reversing the condi- tions that brought about denaturation. Rendement Napole genes Autosomal swine genes which affect pork quality. The rendement na- pole phenotype is determined by 2 alleles: a dominant mutant allele (RN - ) and a recessive normal allele (rn + ). Expression of the mutant allele leads to excessive gly- cogen levels in swine muscle which is converted to lactic acid after slaughter. Pork from these animals has greater acidity and a lower water holding ca- pacity than pork from swine with rn + /rn + genotype. The RN - genotype may also negatively affect colour, drip loss, cooking loss and processing yield of pork. Rendering Process applied on a large scale to produc- tion of animal fats such as tallow, lard, bone fat and whale oils. Consists of cutting or chopping the fatty tissue into small pieces that are boiled in open vats or cooked in steam digesters. The fat gradually liberated from the cells floats to the surface of the water, where it is collected by skimming. Membranous matter is separated from the aqueous phase by pressing in hy- draulic or screw presses; in this way, additional fat is obtained. Centrifuges may also be employed in render- ing. Cells of the fatty tissues are ruptured in special disintegrators under close temperature control. The protein tissue is separated from the liquid phase in a desludging type of centrifuge, following which a sec- ond centrifuge separates the fat from the aqueous pro- tein layer. Compared with conventional rendering, cen- trifugal methods provide a higher yield of better- quality fat, and the separated protein has potential as an edible meat product. Rennetability The ease with which milk is coagulated using rennets. Rennets Enzymes used to cause coagulation of milk during cheesemaking. Traditionally extracted from the abomasum of young ruminants, mainly calves (animal rennets, calf rennets), but other forms (e.g. microbial rennets, vegetable rennets, GM rennets) are now used as alternatives to this type of preparation. The active enzyme is chymosin, but pepsin is also present. Rennet substitutes Enzymes used as alternatives to animal rennets for coagulation of milk during cheesemaking. Developed due to shortages of the animal products and in cases where a vegetarian cheese is desired. Substitutes include microbial ren- nets, vegetable rennets and GM rennets. Rennin Alternative term for chymosin. Reporter genes Genes encoding easily assayed products under the control of regulatory elements from other genes. Regulation and localization of gene ex- pression of the gene of interest can then be studied following transformation into appropriate cells. Ex- amples include the genes encoding luciferases, ȕ - galactosidases, chloramphenicol acetyltransferases and green fluorescent protein. Resazurin A member of the quinone-imine group of dyes that is blue when fully oxidized but is reduced irreversibly to the pink-coloured resorufin when the redox potential is lowered sufficiently. On further reduction, the colourless hydroresorufin is formed. Measurement of resazurin reduction time can be used to determine the microbiological quality of raw milk. Reservoir water Water stored in reservoirs. Com- monly intended for purification to drinking water quality and distribution via the water supply system. Residence time distribution Distribution of times spent by the various components of a substance, e.g. a food product, through a process vessel. Residence time distribution (RTD) is a critical factor affecting the siz- ing of holding tubes for aseptic processing of par- ticulate foods. Also, in design of continuous steriliza- tion equipment for liquid food processing, knowledge of flow characteristics, especially residence time dis- tribution, is of prime importance. Residues The remainder or surplus after a separation procedure or other process. In a food context, usually refers to chemical contaminants of foods which can be derived from a variety of sources. Include agricul- tural chemicals (e.g. pesticides, fertilizers and vet- erinary drugs) and their degradation products or me- tabolites, and also chemicals resulting from environ- mental pollution (e.g. radioelements) and manufac- turing processes. Resins Group of organic chemicals, usually polymers, which are solid or semi-solid and have high electrical resistance. Used as chromatography support mate- rials and for manufacture of plastics, including those used as food packaging materials, e.g. epoxy resins used for coating of food containers. [...]... strengthen the rigidity of the casein network Roquefort cheese French semi-soft blue cheese made from ewe milk Traditionally ripened in natural Roquefortine 370 caves under the French village of Roquefort-surSoulzon Interior is creamy and white with blue to green-grey veins Cheese has a pungent flavour with a metallic tang Frequently used in dressings and salads Roquefortine A family of tremorigenic cyclopeptide... component of pectins, mucilage, gums and bacterial exopolysaccharides Also a common glycoside of plant pigments and flavonoids Alternatively known as 6-deoxymannose -L-rhamnosidases EC 3.2.1.40 Hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing -L-rhamnose residues in -Lrhamnosides Can be used to reduce the bitterness of citrus juices, depolymerize gellan gums and release flavour compounds in wines, thus increasing their... and fastened with small sticks or cloves Packed in brines and vinegar; may also be packed with spices, mayonnaise or other condi- Roquefort cheese ments Marketed as a semi-preserved product, often with added preservatives Rolls Small rounded portions of bread made from yeasts-leavened dough May have a soft or crisp crust Also called bread rolls Rolmops Alternative spelling for rollmops Romano cheese... vitamin A nutritional assays Retinoids Compounds consisting of four isoprenoid units joined in a head-to-tail manner Vitamin A is a generic descriptor for retinoids exhibiting qualitatively the biological activity of retinol While preformed vitamin A occurs only in foods of animal origin, retinoids such as -carotene are found in both animal foods and plant foods Retinoids have many activities in the body,... rum character Ageing in barrels and use of caramel colorants determines final colour Ruminants Herbivorous even-toed ungulate mammals belonging to the sub-order Ruminantia They include cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes and deer Ruminants regurgitate and re-chew feeds (chew the cud) and have a four-chambered stomach, comprising a rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum Composition of ruminant meat fats and... contains numerous species varying in flavour and quality Rust Reddish- or yellowish-brown flaky coating of iron oxide that is formed on iron or steel by oxidation, especially in the presence of moisture Rusts Diseases caused by rust fungi in plants, giving them a rusty appearance Rutabagas Alternative term for swedes Rutin Disaccharide derivative of quercetin, containing glucose and rhamnose Found... rod-shaped Gram negative bacteria with vesicular-type photosynthetic membranes Member of the Rhodobacteraceae family Occur in freshwater, marine and hypersaline habitats Some species, especially Rhodobacter sphaeroides, produce polyhydroxyalkanoates from food processing effluents Rhodococcus Genus of obligately aerobic, coccoid Gram positive bacteria of the family Nocardiaceae Occur in soil and aquatic... as riboflavinosis Ribonucleases Nucleases which hydrolyse ester bonds within RNA, acting as either endonucleases or exonucleases Includes members of EC 3.1.133.1.16 and EC 3.1.2 6-3 .1.31 Can be used for production of 5 - and 3 -ribonucleotides, which are useful as seasonings Also known as RNases Ribonucleic acids RNA Full form of the abbreviation Ribonucleosides Compounds that consist of purines and pyrimidines... Ricotta Salata Moliterna (made from ewe milk whey), Ricotta Piemontese (made from cow milk whey + 10% milk) and Ricotta Romana (a by-product of Pecorino Romano cheese production) Rifamycins Antibiotics belonging to the group of naphthalene-ringed ansamycins Natural forms are ac- Risk communication tive against Gram positive bacteria only, but derivatives are also effective against some Gram negative bacteria... proceeds, sensory quality of foods improves Ripening of fruits and vegetables can involve changes in colour and texture Flavour development is an important stage during the ripening of cheese Risk communication The exchange of information about health, environmental or food safety risks, so as to arrive at well-informed risks management decisions In risk communication the 4 elements to con- Risk factors . Alternatively known as 6-deoxymannose. - L -rhamnosidases EC 3.2.1.40. Hydrolyse termi- nal, non-reducing - L -rhamnose residues in - L - rhamnosides. Can. of sub- atomic particles (Į-particles and ȕ-particles) or elec- tromagnetic rays (X-rays and gamma rays). Radiofrequency Electromagnetic wave frequency