International financial management (9/e): part 1

part 1 book “international financial management” has contents: international flow of funds, international financial markets, exchange rate determination, currency derivatives, government influence on exchange rates, international arbitrage and interest rate parity, forecasting exchange rates,… and other contents.

Jeff Madura

Florida Atlantic University

International Financial Management ninth edition

COPYRIGHT © 2008, 2006

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Jeff Madura

Part 1: The International Financial Environment 1

1 Multinational Financial Management: An Overview 2

2 International Flow of Funds 22

3 International Financial Markets 50

4 Exchange Rate Determination 85

5 Currency Derivatives 103

6 Government Influence on Exchange Rates 154

7 International Arbitrage and Interest Rate Parity 188

8 Relationships among Inflation, Interest Rates, and Exchange Rates 214

Part 3: Exchange Rate Risk Management 249

9 Forecasting Exchange Rates 250

10 Measuring Exposure to Exchange Rate Fluctuations 280

11 Managing Transaction Exposure 307

12 Managing Economic Exposure and Translation Exposure 346

Part 4: Long-Term Asset and Liability Management 369

13 Direct Foreign Investment 370

14 Multinational Capital Budgeting 387

15 International Acquisitions 422

16 Country Risk Analysis 446

17 Multinational Cost of Capital and Capital Structure 472

18 Long-Term Financing 500

Part 5: Short-Term Asset and Liability Management 529

19 Financing International Trade 530

20 Short-Term Financing 549

21 International Cash Management 569

Appendix A: Answers to Self Test Questions 606

Appendix B: Supplemental Cases 618

Appendix C: Using Excel to Conduct Analysis 640

Appendix D: International Investing Project 647

Appendix E: Discussion in the Boardroom 650

Glossary 658

Index 665

Facing Agency Problems, 3

Governance: How SOX Improved Corporate Governance

of MNCs, 3

Management Structure of an MNC, 4

Why Firms Pursue International Business, 5

Theory of Comparative Advantage, 6

Imperfect Markets Theory, 6

Product Cycle Theory, 6

How Firms Engage in International Business, 7

International Trade, 8

Licensing, 8

Franchising, 9

Joint Ventures, 9

Acquisitions of Existing Operations, 9

Establishing New Foreign Subsidiaries, 9

Summary of Methods, 10

Valuation Model for an MNC, 11

Domestic Model, 11

Valuing International Cash Flows, 12

Uncertainty Surrounding an MNC’s Cash Flows, 14

Organization of the Text, 15

Summary, 16

Point Counter-Point: Should an MNC Reduce Its Ethical

Standards to Compete Internationally?, 16

Self Test, 16

Questions and Applications, 17

Advanced Questions, 17

Discussion in the Boardroom, 19

Running Your Own MNC, 19

Blades, Inc Case: Decision to Expand Internationally, 19 Small Business Dilemma: Developing a Multinational Sporting Goods Corporation, 20

Internet/Excel Exercises, 21

Chapter 2: International Flow of Funds 22

Balance of Payments, 22

Current Account, 22 Capital and Financial Accounts, 23

International Trade Flows, 25

Distribution of U.S Exports and Imports, 26 U.S Balance-of-Trade Trend, 26

International Trade Issues, 28

Events That Increased International Trade, 28 Trade Friction, 31

Governance: Should Managers Outsource to Satisfy Shareholders?, 32

Factors Affecting International Trade Flows, 34

Impact of Infl ation, 34 Impact of National Income, 34 Impact of Government Policies, 35 Impact of Exchange Rates, 35 Interaction of Factors, 36

Correcting a Balance-of-Trade Defi cit, 36

Why a Weak Home Currency Is Not

a Perfect Solution, 37

International Capital Flows, 38

Distribution of DFI by U.S Firms, 38 Distribution of DFI in the United States, 39 Factors Affecting DFI, 40

Factors Affecting International Portfolio Investment, 41

Impact of International Capital Flows, 41

Agencies That Facilitate International Flows, 42

International Monetary Fund, 42 World Bank, 43

World Trade Organization, 44 International Financial Corporation, 44

International Development Association, 45

Bank for International Settlements, 45

Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development, 45

Regional Development Agencies, 45

How International Trade Affects an MNC’s Value, 45

Summary, 46

Point Counter-Point: Should Trade Restrictions Be Used to

Influence Human Rights Issues?, 46

Self Test, 46

Questions and Applications, 47

Advanced Questions, 47

Discussion in the Boardroom, 47

Running Your Own MNC, 47

Blades, Inc Case: Exposure to International

Flow of Funds, 48

Small Business Dilemma: Identifying Factors That Will Affect

the Foreign Demand at the Sports Exports Company, 48

Internet/Excel Exercises, 49

Chapter 3: International

Financial Markets 50

Foreign Exchange Market, 50

History of Foreign Exchange, 50

Foreign Exchange Transactions, 51

Foreign Exchange Quotations, 54

Interpreting Foreign Exchange Quotations, 56

Forward, Futures, and Options Markets, 58

International Money Market, 59

Origins and Development, 60

Money Market Interest Rates among Currencies, 61

Standardizing Global Bank Regulations, 61

International Credit Market, 63

Syndicated Loans, 63

International Bond Market, 64

Eurobond Market, 64

Development of Other Bond Markets, 65

International Stock Markets, 66

Issuance of Stock in Foreign Markets, 66

Issuance of Foreign Stock in the United States, 66

Listing of Stock by Non-U.S Firms on U.S Stock

Exchanges, 67

Governance: Effect of Sarbanes-Oxley Act on Foreign

Stock Offerings, 67

Investing in Foreign Stock Markets, 67

How Stock Market Characteristics Vary among

Advanced Questions, 73 Discussion in the Boardroom, 74 Running Your Own MNC, 74

Blades, Inc Case: Decisions to Use International Financial Markets, 74

Small Business Dilemma: Use of the Foreign Exchange Markets by the Sports Exports Company, 75

Factors That Influence Exchange Rates, 89

Relative Inflation Rates, 89 Relative Interest Rates, 90 Relative Income Levels, 92 Government Controls, 92 Expectations, 93 Interaction of Factors, 93

Speculating on Anticipated Exchange Rates, 95

Summary, 97 Point Counter-Point: How Can Persistently Weak Currencies Be Stabilized?, 97

Self Test, 98 Questions and Applications, 98

Advanced Questions, 99 Discussion in the Boardroom, 100 Running Your Own MNC, 100

Blades, Inc Case: Assessment of Future Exchange Rate Movements, 101

Small Business Dilemma: Assessment by the Sports Exports Company of Factors That Affect the British Pound’s Value, 101

Internet/Excel Exercises, 102

Chapter 5: Currency Derivatives 103

Comparison of Currency Futures and Forward

Contracts, 110

Pricing Currency Futures, 110

Credit Risk of Currency Futures Contracts, 111

Speculation with Currency Futures, 111

How Firms Use Currency Futures, 112

Closing Out a Futures Position, 113

Trading Platforms for Currency Futures, 114

Currency Options Market, 114

Option Exchanges, 114

Over-the-Counter Market, 114

Currency Call Options, 115

Factors Affecting Currency Call Option

Premiums, 115

How Firms Use Currency Call Options, 116

Speculating with Currency Call Options, 117

Currency Put Options, 119

Factors Affecting Currency Put Option

Premiums, 119

Hedging with Currency Put Options, 120

Speculating with Currency Put Options, 120

Contingency Graphs for Currency Options, 122

Contingency Graph for a Purchaser of a Call

Option, 122

Contingency Graph for a Seller of a Call Option, 123

Contingency Graph for a Buyer of a Put Option, 124

Contingency Graph for a Seller of a Put

Option, 124

Governance: Should an MNC’s Managers Use Currency

Derivatives to Speculate?, 124

Conditional Currency Options, 124

European Currency Options, 126

Discussion in the Boardroom, 132

Running Your Own MNC, 132

Blades, Inc Case: Use of Currency Derivative

Instruments, 133

Small Business Dilemma: Use of Currency Futures

and Options by the Sports Exports Company, 134

Part 1 Integrative Problem:

The International Financial

Environment, 152

Part 2: Exchange

Influence on Exchange Rates 154

Exchange Rate Systems, 154

Fixed Exchange Rate System, 154 Freely Floating Exchange Rate System, 156 Managed Float Exchange Rate System, 158 Pegged Exchange Rate System, 158 Currency Boards Used to Peg Currency Values, 161 Dollarization, 163

Classifi cation of Exchange Rate Arrangements, 163

A Single European Currency, 164

Membership, 165 Impact on European Monetary Policy, 165 Impact on Business within Europe, 165 Impact on the Valuation of Businesses in Europe, 166 Impact on Financial Flows, 166

Impact on Exchange Rate Risk, 167 Status Report on the Euro, 167

Government Intervention, 167

Reasons for Government Intervention, 167 Direct Intervention, 168

Indirect Intervention, 171

Intervention as a Policy Tool, 172

Infl uence of a Weak Home Currency on the Economy, 172

Infl uence of a Strong Home Currency on the Economy, 172

Summary, 174 Point Counter-Point: Should China Be Forced to Alter the Value of Its Currency?, 174

Self Test, 175 Questions and Applications, 175

Advanced Questions, 176 Discussion in the Boardroom, 176 Running Your Own MNC, 176

Blades, Inc Case: Assessment of Government Influence on Exchange Rates, 177

Small Business Dilemma: Assessment of Central Bank Intervention by the Sports Exports Company, 178 Internet/Excel Exercises, 178

Appendix 6: Government Intervention during the Asian Crisis, 179

Chapter 7: International Arbitrage and Interest

International Arbitrage, 188

Locational Arbitrage, 188

Triangular Arbitrage, 191

Covered Interest Arbitrage, 194

Comparison of Arbitrage Effects, 197

Interest Rate Parity (IRP), 198

Derivation of Interest Rate Parity, 198

Determining the Forward Premium, 199

Graphic Analysis of Interest Rate Parity, 200

How to Test Whether Interest Rate

Parity Exists, 202

Interpretation of Interest Rate Parity, 202

Does Interest Rate Parity Hold?, 203

Considerations When Assessing Interest Rate

Parity, 204

Forward Premiums across Maturity Markets, 205

Changes in Forward Premiums, 206

Governance: How Arbitrage Reduces the Need to Monitor

Discussion in the Boardroom, 211

Running Your Own MNC, 211

Blades, Inc Case: Assessment of Potential Arbitrage

Opportunities, 211

Small Business Dilemma: Assessment of Prevailing

Spot and Forward Rates by the Sports Exports

Company, 213

Internet/Excel Exercises, 213

Chapter 8: Relationships

among Inflation, Interest Rates,

and Exchange Rates 214

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), 214

Interpretations of Purchasing Power Parity, 214

Rationale behind Purchasing Power Parity

Theory, 215

Derivation of Purchasing Power Parity, 216

Using PPP to Estimate Exchange Rate Effects, 217

Graphic Analysis of Purchasing Power Parity, 218

Testing the Purchasing Power Parity Theory, 219

Why Purchasing Power Parity Does Not Occur, 222

Purchasing Power Parity in the Long Run, 223

International Fisher Effect (IFE), 223

Relationship with Purchasing Power Parity, 223

Implications of the IFE for Foreign Investors, 224

Derivation of the International Fisher Effect, 225

Graphic Analysis of the International

Fisher Effect, 227

Tests of the International Fisher Effect, 229

Why the International Fisher Effect Does Not Occur, 231

Comparison of the IRP, PPP, and IFE Theories, 231

Summary, 232 Point Counter-Point: Does PPP Eliminate Concerns about Long-Term Exchange Rate Risk?, 233

Self Test, 233 Questions and Applications, 234

Advanced Questions, 235 Discussion in the Boardroom, 237 Running Your Own MNC, 237

Blades, Inc Case: Assessment of Purchasing Power Parity, 238

Small Business Dilemma: Assessment of the IFE by the Sports Exports Company, 239

Internet/Excel Exercises, 239

Part 2 Integrative Problem:

Exchange Rate Behavior, 240

Midterm Self Exam, 241

Part 3: Exchange Rate

Chapter 9: Forecasting Exchange Rates 250

Why Firms Forecast Exchange Rates, 250 Forecasting Techniques, 252

Technical Forecasting, 253 Fundamental Forecasting, 254 Market-Based Forecasting, 258 Mixed Forecasting, 261

Graphic Evaluation of Forecast Performance, 266

Comparison of Forecasting Methods, 269 Forecasting under Market Effi ciency, 269

Governance: Governance of Managerial Forecasting, 270

Using Interval Forecasts, 270

Methods of Forecasting Exchange Rate Volatility, 271

Summary, 272 Point Counter-Point: Which Exchange Rate Forecast Technique Should MNCs Use?, 272

Self Test, 273

Questions and Applications, 273

Advanced Questions, 275

Discussion in the Boardroom, 277

Running Your Own MNC, 277

Blades, Inc Case: Forecasting Exchange Rates, 277

Small Business Dilemma: Exchange Rate Forecasting by

the Sports Exports Company, 278

Internet/Excel Exercises, 278

Chapter 10: Measuring

Exposure to Exchange Rate

Fluctuations 280

Is Exchange Rate Risk Relevant?, 280

Purchasing Power Parity Argument, 280

The Investor Hedge Argument, 280

Currency Diversification Argument, 281

Stakeholder Diversification Argument, 281

Economic Exposure of Domestic Firms, 292

Measuring Economic Exposure, 292

Translation Exposure, 295

Does Translation Exposure Matter?, 295

Determinants of Translation Exposure, 296

Examples of Translation Exposure, 297

Discussion in the Boardroom, 304

Running Your Own MNC, 304

Blades, Inc Case: Assessment of Exchange Rate

Exposure, 304

Small Business Dilemma: Assessment of Exchange

Rate Exposure by the Sports Exports

Company, 305

Internet/Excel Exercises, 306

Chapter 11: Managing Transaction Exposure 307

Transaction Exposure, 307

Identifying Net Transaction Exposure, 307 Adjusting the Invoice Policy to Manage Exposure, 308

Governance: Aligning Manager Compensation with Hedging Goals, 308

Hedging Exposure to Payables, 308

Forward or Futures Hedge on Payables, 309 Money Market Hedge on Payables, 309 Call Option Hedge, 310

Summary of Techniques Used to Hedge Payables, 313

Selecting the Optimal Technique for Hedging Payables, 313

Optimal Hedge versus No Hedge, 316 Evaluating the Hedge Decision, 316

Hedging Exposure To Receivables, 317

Forward or Futures Hedge on Receivables, 317

Money Market Hedge on Receivables, 317 Put Option Hedge, 318

Selecting the Optimal Technique for Hedging Receivables, 320

Optimal Hedge versus No Hedge, 323 Evaluating the Hedge Decision, 323 Comparison of Hedging Techniques, 324 Hedging Policies of MNCs, 325

Alternative Hedging Techniques, 329

Leading and Lagging, 329 Cross-Hedging, 329 Currency Diversifi cation, 329

Summary, 330 Point Counter-Point: Should an MNC Risk Overhedging?, 330

Self Test, 331 Questions and Applications, 331

Advanced Questions, 334 Discussion in the Boardroom, 338 Running Your Own MNC, 338

Blades, Inc Case: Management of Transaction Exposure, 338

Small Business Dilemma: Hedging Decisions by the Sports

A Case Study in Hedging Economic Exposure, 352

Savor Co.’s Dilemma, 352

Assessment of Economic Exposure, 352

Assessment of Each Unit’s Exposure, 353

Identifying the Source of the Unit’s

Exposure, 353

Possible Strategies to Hedge Economic

Exposure, 354

Savor’s Hedging Solution, 356

Limitations of Savor’s Optimal Hedging

Strategy, 356

Hedging Exposure to Fixed Assets, 356

Managing Translation Exposure, 357

Use of Forward Contracts to Hedge Translation

Point Counter-Point: Can an MNC Reduce the Impact

of Translation Exposure by Communicating, 360

Self Test, 360

Questions and Applications, 361

Advanced Questions, 361

Discussion in the Boardroom, 362

Running Your Own MNC, 362

Blades, Inc Case: Assessment of Economic

Exposure, 363

Small Business Dilemma: Hedging the Sports Exports

Company’s Economic Exposure to Exchange

Rate Risk, 364

Internet/Excel Exercises, 364

Part 3 Integrative Problem:

Exchange Rate Risk

Management, 366

Part 4: Long-Term Asset and Liability Management 369

Chapter 13: Direct Foreign Investment 370

Motives for Direct Foreign Investment, 370

Revenue-Related Motives, 370 Cost-Related Motives, 371

Governance: Selfish Managerial Motives for DFI, 373

Comparing Benefi ts of DFI among Countries, 373 Comparing Benefi ts of DFI over Time, 374

Benefi ts of International Diversifi cation, 375

Diversifi cation Analysis of International Projects, 377

Diversifi cation among Countries, 379

Decisions Subsequent to DFI, 380 Host Government Views of DFI, 380

Incentives to Encourage DFI, 380 Barriers to DFI, 381

Government-Imposed Conditions to Engage

in DFI, 382

Summary, 382 Point Counter-Point: Should MNCs Avoid DFI in Countries with Liberal Child Labor Laws?, 382

Self Test, 383 Questions and Applications, 383

Advanced Questions, 384 Discussion in the Boardroom, 384 Running Your Own MNC, 384

Blades, Inc Case: Consideration of Direct Foreign Investment, 385

Small Business Dilemma: Direct Foreign Investment Decision by the Sports Exports Company, 386 Internet/Excel Exercises, 386

Chapter 14: Multinational Capital Budgeting 387

Subsidiary versus Parent Perspective, 387

Tax Differentials, 387 Restricted Remittances, 388 Excessive Remittances, 388 Exchange Rate Movements, 388 Summary of Factors, 388

Input for Multinational Capital Budgeting, 389 Multinational Capital Budgeting Example, 391

Background, 391 Analysis, 392

Factors to Consider in Multinational Capital Budgeting, 395

Exchange Rate Fluctuations, 395

Infl ation, 396

Financing Arrangement, 397

Blocked Funds, 400

Uncertain Salvage Value, 401

Impact of Project on Prevailing Cash Flows, 402

Host Government Incentives, 403

Real Options, 403

Adjusting Project Assessment for Risk, 404

Risk-Adjusted Discount Rate, 404

Point Counter-Point: Should MNCs Use Forward Rates to

Estimate Dollar Cash Flows of Foreign Projects?, 406

Self Test, 407

Questions and Applications, 407

Advanced Questions, 410

Discussion in the Boardroom, 412

Running Your Own MNC, 412

Blades, Inc Case: Decision by Blades, Inc., to Invest in

Thailand, 412

Small Business Dilemma: Multinational Capital Budgeting

by the Sports Exports Company, 414

Internet/Excel Exercises, 414

Appendix 14: Incorporating

International Tax Laws in

Multinational Capital Budgeting, 415

Chapter 15: International

Acquisitions 422

Background on International Acquisitions, 422

Trends in International Acquisitions, 423

Model for Valuing a Foreign Target, 423

Market Assessment of International

Acquisitions, 424

Assessing Potential Acquisitions after the Asian

Crisis, 424

Assessing Potential Acquisitions in Europe, 425

Governance: Impact of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act on the

Example of the Valuation Process, 427

International Screening Process, 427

Estimating the Target’s Value, 428

Changes in Valuation over Time, 431

Why Valuations of a Target May Vary among MNCs, 433

Estimated Cash Flows of the Foreign Target, 433

Exchange Rate Effects on the Funds Remitted, 434 Required Return of Acquirer, 434

Other Types of Multinational Restructuring, 434

International Partial Acquisitions, 434 International Acquisitions of Privatized Businesses, 435

International Alliances, 435 International Divestitures, 436

Restructuring Decisions as Real Options, 437

Call Option on Real Assets, 437 Put Option on Real Assets, 438

Summary, 438 Point Counter-Point: Can a Foreign Target Be Assessed Like Any Other Asset?, 439

Self Test, 439 Questions and Applications, 439

Advanced Questions, 440 Discussion in the Boardroom, 443 Running Your Own MNC, 443

Blades, Inc Case: Assessment of an Acquisition in Thailand, 443

Small Business Dilemma: Multinational Restructuring by the Sports Exports Company, 445

Internet/Excel Exercises, 445

Chapter 16: Country Risk Analysis 446

Why Country Risk Analysis Is Important, 446 Political Risk Factors, 447

Attitude of Consumers in the Host Country, 447 Actions of Host Government, 447

Blockage of Fund Transfers, 448 Currency Inconvertibility, 448 War, 449

Bureaucracy, 449 Corruption, 449

Financial Risk Factors, 450

Indicators of Economic Growth, 450

Types of Country Risk Assessment, 451

Macroassessment of Country Risk, 451 Microassessment of Country Risk, 452

Techniques to Assess Country Risk, 453

Checklist Approach, 453 Delphi Technique, 453 Quantitative Analysis, 454 Inspection Visits, 454 Combination of Techniques, 454

Measuring Country Risk, 454

Variation in Methods of Measuring Country Risk, 457

Using the Country Risk Rating for Decision Making, 457

Comparing Risk Ratings among Countries, 457

Actual Country Risk Ratings across Countries, 457

Incorporating Country Risk in Capital Budgeting, 459

Adjustment of the Discount Rate, 459

Adjustment of the Estimated Cash Flows, 459

How Country Risk Affects Financial

Decisions, 462

Governance: Governance over the Assessment

of Country Risk, 462

Reducing Exposure to Host Government Takeovers, 463

Use a Short-Term Horizon, 463

Rely on Unique Supplies or Technology, 463

Hire Local Labor, 463

Borrow Local Funds, 463

Discussion in the Boardroom, 469

Running Your Own MNC, 469

Blades, Inc Case: Country Risk Assessment, 469

Small Business Dilemma: Country Risk Analysis at the

Sports Exports Company, 471

Internet/Excel Exercises, 471

Chapter 17: Multinational Cost

of Capital and Capital Structure 472

Background on Cost of Capital, 472

Comparing the Costs of Equity and Debt, 472

Cost of Capital for MNCs, 473

Cost-of-Equity Comparison Using the CAPM, 475

Implications of the CAPM for an MNC’s Risk, 476

Costs of Capital across Countries, 477

Country Differences in the Cost of Debt, 477

Country Differences in the Cost of Equity, 478

Combining the Costs of Debt and Equity, 480

Estimating the Cost of Debt and Equity, 480

Using the Cost of Capital for Assessing Foreign

Projects, 481

Derive Net Present Values Based on the Weighted

Average Cost of Capital, 481

Adjust the Weighted Average Cost of Capital for the

Risk Differential, 482

Derive the Net Present Value of the Equity

Investment, 482

The MNC’s Capital Structure Decision, 486

Infl uence of Corporate Characteristics, 486

Infl uence of Country Characteristics, 487

Revising the Capital Structure in Response to Changing Conditions, 488

Interaction between Subsidiary and Parent Financing Decisions, 489

Impact of Increased Debt Financing by the Subsidiary, 490

Impact of Reduced Debt Financing by the Subsidiary, 491

Summary of Interaction between Subsidiary and Parent Financing Decisions, 491

Local versus Global Target Capital Structure, 492

Offsetting a Subsidiary’s High Degree of Financial Leverage, 492

Offsetting a Subsidiary’s Low Degree of Financial Leverage, 492

Limitations in Offsetting a Subsidiary’s Abnormal Degree of Financial Leverage, 492

Summary, 493 Point Counter-Point: Should the Reduced Tax Rate on Dividends Affect an MNC’s Capital Structure?, 493 Self Test, 494

Questions and Applications, 494

Advanced Questions, 495 Discussion in the Boardroom, 497 Running Your Own MNC, 497

Blades, Inc Case: Assessment of Cost of Capital, 497 Small Business Dilemma: Multinational Capital Structure Decision at the Sports Exports Company, 499 Internet/Excel Exercises, 499

Chapter 18: Long-Term Financing 500

Long-Term Financing Decision, 500

Sources of Equity, 500 Sources of Debt, 501

Governance: Stockholder versus Creditor Conflict, 501

Cost of Debt Financing, 501

Measuring the Cost of Financing, 502 Actual Effects of Exchange Rate Movements on Financing Costs, 504

Assessing the Exchange Rate Risk of Debt Financing, 506

Use of Exchange Rate Probabilities, 506 Use of Simulation, 506

Reducing Exchange Rate Risk, 507

Offsetting Cash Infl ows, 507 Forward Contracts, 508 Currency Swaps, 508 Parallel Loans, 510 Diversifying among Currencies, 514

Interest Rate Risk from Debt Financing, 515

The Debt Maturity Decision, 515

The Fixed versus Floating Rate Decision, 517

Hedging with Interest Rate Swaps, 517

Plain Vanilla Swap, 517

Discussion in the Boardroom, 524

Running Your Own MNC, 524

Blades, Inc Case: Use of Long-Term Financing, 524

Small Business Dilemma: Long-Term Financing Decision by

the Sports Exports Company, 525

Internet/Excel Exercises, 526

Part 4 Integrative Problem:

Long-Term Asset and Liability

Trade Finance Methods, 533

Accounts Receivable Financing, 533

Factoring, 533

Letters of Credit (L/Cs), 534

Banker’s Acceptance, 538

Working Capital Financing, 540

Medium-Term Capital Goods Financing

(Forfaiting), 541

Countertrade, 541

Agencies That Motivate International Trade, 542

Export-Import Bank of the United States, 542

Private Export Funding Corporation

(PEFCO), 544

Overseas Private Investment Corporation

(OPIC), 544

Summary, 545

Point Counter-Point: Do Agencies That Facilitate

International Trade Prevent Free Trade?, 545

Financing 549

Sources of Short-Term Financing, 549

Short-Term Notes, 549 Commercial Paper, 549 Bank Loans, 549

Internal Financing by MNCs, 550

Governance: Governance over Subsidiary Short-Term Financing, 550

Why MNCs Consider Foreign Financing, 550

Foreign Financing to Offset Foreign Currency Infl ows, 550

Foreign Financing to Reduce Costs, 551

Determining the Effective Financing Rate, 552 Criteria Considered for Foreign Financing, 553

Interest Rate Parity, 553 The Forward Rate as a Forecast, 554 Exchange Rate Forecasts, 555

Actual Results from Foreign Financing, 558 Financing with a Portfolio of Currencies, 558

Portfolio Diversifi cation Effects, 561 Repeated Financing with a Currency Portfolio, 562

Summary, 564 Point Counter-Point: Do MNCs Increase Their Risk When Borrowing Foreign Currencies?, 564

Self Test, 564 Questions and Applications, 565

Advanced Questions, 566 Discussion in the Boardroom, 567 Running Your Own MNC, 567

Blades, Inc Case: Use of Foreign Short-Term Financing, 567

Small Business Dilemma: Short-Term Financing by the Sports Exports Company, 568

Internet/Excel Exercises, 568

Chapter 21: International Cash Management 569

Multinational Management of Working Capital, 569

Subsidiary Expenses, 569 Subsidiary Revenue, 570 Subsidiary Dividend Payments, 570 Subsidiary Liquidity Management, 570

Centralized Cash Management, 571

Governance: Monitoring of MNC Cash Positions, 571

Techniques to Optimize Cash Flows, 572

Accelerating Cash Inflows, 572

Minimizing Currency Conversion Costs, 573

Managing Blocked Funds, 575

Managing Intersubsidiary Cash Transfers, 575

Complications in Optimizing Cash Flow, 576

Company-Related Characteristics, 576

Government Restrictions, 576

Characteristics of Banking Systems, 576

Investing Excess Cash, 576

How to Invest Excess Cash, 577

Centralized Cash Management, 577

Determining the Effective Yield, 579

Implications of Interest Rate Parity, 581

Use of the Forward Rate as a Forecast, 581

Use of Exchange Rate Forecasts, 582

Diversifying Cash across Currencies, 585

Dynamic Hedging, 586

Summary, 586

Point Counter-Point: Should Interest Rate Parity Prevent

MNCs from Investing in Foreign Currencies?, 587

Self Test, 587 Questions and Applications, 587

Advanced Questions, 588 Discussion in the Boardroom, 589 Running Your Own MNC, 589

Blades, Inc Case: International Cash Management, 589 Small Business Dilemma: Cash Management at the Sports Exports Company, 590

Internet/Excel Exercises, 590

Appendix 21: Investing in a Portfolio of Currencies, 592

Part 5 Integrative Problem:

Short-Term Asset and Liability Management, 596

Final Self Exam, 598

Appendix A: Answers to Self Test Questions, 606 Appendix B: Supplemental Cases, 618

Appendix C: Using Excel to Conduct Analysis, 640 Appendix D: International Investing Project, 647 Appendix E: Discussion in the Boardroom, 650 Glossary, 658

Index, 665

Businesses evolve into multinational corporations (MNCs) so that they can capitalize

on opportunities Their fi nancial managers must be able to detect opportunities, assess exposure to risk, and manage the risk The MNCs that are most capable of responding

to changes in the international fi nancial environment will be rewarded The same can

be said for the students today who may become the future managers of MNCs

Intended Market

International Financial Management, Ninth Edition, presumes an understanding of

basic corporate fi nance It is suitable for both undergraduate and master’s level courses

in international fi nancial management For master’s courses, the more challenging questions, problems, and cases in each chapter are recommended, along with special projects

Organization of the Text

International Financial Management, Ninth Edition, is organized fi rst to provide a

background on the international environment and then to focus on the managerial aspects from a corporate perspective Managers of MNCs will fi rst need to under-stand the environment before they can manage within it

The fi rst two parts of the text provide the macroeconomic framework for the text Part 1 (Chapters 1 through 5) introduces the major markets that facilitate international business Part 2 (Chapters 6 through 8) describes relationships between exchange rates and economic variables and explains the forces that infl uence these relationships.The remainder of the text provides a microeconomic framework, with a focus

on the managerial aspects of international fi nancial management Part 3 (Chapters 9 through 12) explains the measurement and management of exchange rate risk Part 4 (Chapters 13 through 18) describes the management of long-term assets and liabili-ties, including motives for direct foreign investment, multinational capital budgeting, country risk analysis, and capital structure decisions Part 5 (Chapters 19 through 21) concentrates on the MNC’s management of short-term assets and liabilities, including trade fi nancing, other short-term fi nancing, and international cash management.Each chapter is self-contained, so that professors can use classroom time to focus

on the more comprehensive topics and rely on the text to cover the other concepts The management of long-term assets (chapters on direct foreign investment, multi-national capital budgeting, multinational restructuring, and country risk analysis)

is covered before the management of the long-term liabilities (chapters on capital structure and long-term fi nancing), since the fi nancing decisions are dependent on

the investments Yet, concepts are explained with an emphasis of how management of long-term assets and long-term liabilities is integrated For example, the multinational capital budgeting analysis demonstrates how the feasibility of a foreign project may be dependent on the fi nancing mix Some professors may prefer to teach the chapters on managing long-term liabilities before the chapters on managing long-term assets The strategic aspects such as motives for direct foreign investment are covered before the operational aspects such as short-term fi nancing or investment For profes-sors who prefer to cover the MNC’s management of short-term assets and liabilities before the MNC’s management of long-term assets and liabilities, the parts can be re-arranged because they are self-contained

Professors may limit their coverage of chapters in some sections where they believe the text concepts are covered by other courses or do not need additional attention be-yond what is in the text For example, they may limit their attention given to the chap-ters in Part 2 (Chapters 6 through 8) if students take a course in inter national econom-ics If professors focus on the main principles, they may limit their coverage of Chapters

5, 15, 16, and 18 In addition, they may limit their attention given to Chapters 19 through 21 if they believe that the text description does not require elaboration

Approach of the Text

International Financial Management, Ninth Edition, focuses on management

deci-sions that maximize the value of the fi rm It is designed in recognition of the unique styles of instructors for reinforcing key concepts within a course Numerous meth-ods of reinforcing these concepts are provided in the text so instructors can select the methods and features that fi t their teaching styles

• Part-Opening Diagram A diagram is provided at the beginning of each part to

illustrate how the key concepts covered in that part are related This offers some information about the organization of chapters in that part

• Objectives A bulleted list at the beginning of each chapter identifi es the key

con-cepts in that chapter

• Examples The key concepts are thoroughly described in the chapter and

sup-ported by examples and illustrations

• Governance This feature is infused throughout the text in recognition of its

increasing popularity and use in explaining concepts in international fi nancial management

• Web Links Websites that provide useful related information regarding key

con-cepts are identifi ed

• Summary A bulleted list at the end of each chapter summarizes the key concepts

This list corresponds to the list of objectives at the beginning of the chapter

• Point/Counter-Point A controversial issue is introduced, along with opposing

ar-guments, and students are asked to determine which argument is correct and plain why

• Self Test Questions A “Self Test” at the end of each chapter challenges students on

the key concepts The answers to these questions are provided in Appendix A

• Questions and Applications Many of the questions and other applications at

the end of each chapter test the student’s knowledge of the key concepts in the chapter

• Continuing Case At the end of each chapter, the continuing case allows students

to use the key concepts to solve problems experienced by a fi rm called Blades, Inc (a producer of roller blades) By working on cases related to the same MNC over

a school term, students recognize how an MNC’s decisions are integrated

• Small Business Dilemma The Small Business Dilemma at the end of each

chap-ter places students in a position where they must use concepts introduced in the chapter to make decisions about a small MNC called Sports Exports Company

• Internet/Excel Exercises At the end of each chapter, there are exercises that

ex-pose the students to applicable website information, enable the application of cel to related topics, or a combination of these For example, students learn how

Ex-to obtain exchange rate information online and apply Excel Ex-to measure the value

at risk

• Integrative Problem An integrative problem at the end of each part integrates the

key concepts of chapters within that part

• Midterm and Final Examinations A midterm self-exam is provided at the end of

Chapter 8, which focuses on international macro and market conditions ters 1 through 8) A fi nal self-exam is provided at the end of Chapter 21, which focuses on the managerial chapters (Chapters 9 through 21) Students can com-pare their answers to those in the answer key provided

• Supplemental Cases Supplemental cases allow students to apply chapter concepts

to a specifi c situation of an MNC All supplemental cases are located in Appendix

B at the end of the text

• Running Your Own MNC This project (provided at www.thomsonedu.com/fi nance/ madura) allows each student to create a small international business and apply key concepts from each chapter to run the business throughout the school term

• Online Analysis of an MNC This project (provided at www.thomsonedu.com/

fi nance/madura) allows each student to select an MNC and determine how the key concepts from each chapter apply to that MNC throughout the school term

• International Investing Project This project (in Appendix D and also provided

at www.thomsonedu.com/fi nance/madura) allows students to simulate investing in stocks of MNCs and foreign companies and requires them to assess how the val-ues of these stocks change during the school term in response to international economic conditions

• Discussion in the Boardroom This project (in Appendix E and also provided at

www.thomsonedu.com/fi nance/madura) allows students to play the role of ers or board members of a small MNC that they created and make decisions about that fi rm

manag-The variety of end-of-chapter and end-of-part exercises and cases offer many nities for students to engage in teamwork, decision making, and communication

opportu-Online Resources

The text website at www.thomsonedu.com/fi nance/madura provides numerous resources for both students and instructors

• Online Quizzes Online quizzes reinforce student comprehension of chapter

con-cepts Answers are provided for immediate feedback, so students know why the correct answer is correct The quizzes may be sent to the student’s instructor for grading or credit

• References References to related readings are provided for every chapter

• Internet Links Links noted in each chapter are provided for easy access with

a click

Other Supplements

The following supplements are available to students and instructors:

For the Student

• PowerPoint Lecture Slides A PowerPoint presentation package of lecture slides is

available on the text website and the Instructor’s Resource CD as a lecture aid for instructors and a study aid for students In addition, key fi gures from the text are also provided in a separate PowerPoint package, also included on the website and Instructor’s Resource CD

• South-Western Finance Resource Center The South-Western Finance Resource

Center, found at www.thomsonedu.com/fi nance, provides unique features, customer service information, and links to book-related websites It also has resources such

as Finance in the News, FinanceLinks Online, Wall Street Analyst Reports from the Gale Group, and more Learn about valuable products and services to help with your fi nance studies, or contact the fi nance editors at South-Western

For the Instructor

• Instructor’s Manual The Instructor’s Manual contains the chapter theme,

top-ics to stimulate class discussion, and answers to end-of-chapter Questions, Case Problems, Continuing Cases (Blades, Inc.), Small Business Dilemmas, Integrative Problems, and Supplemental Cases The Instructor’s Manual is available on the text website and the Instructor’s Resource CD

• Test Bank An expanded Test Bank contains a large set of questions in

multiple-choice or true/false format, including content questions as well as problems The Test Bank is available on the text website and the Instructor’s Resource CD

• ExamView™ Computerized Testing The ExamView computerized testing

pro-gram contains all of the questions in the Test Bank ExamView is an easy-to-use test creation software compatible with Microsoft Windows Instructors can add or edit questions, instructions, and answers and select questions by previewing them

on the screen Instructors can also create and administer quizzes online, whether over the Internet, a local area network (LAN), or a wide area network (WAN)

• PowerPoint Presentation Slides Revised for this edition, these PowerPoint slides

are intended to enhance lectures and provide a guide for student note-taking Versions 1 and 2, the Basic Lecture Slides and the Expanded Lecture Slides, can

be downloaded from the text website Version 3 and Enhanced PowerPoint ture Slides are available on the CD-ROM

• South-Western Finance Resource Center The South-Western Finance Resource

Center, found at www.thomsonedu.com/fi nance, provides unique features, ing Finance in the News, FinanceLinks Online, Wall Street Analysts Reports, the Digital Finance Case Library, and more, as well as customer service informa-tion and relevant product information and links You may learn how to become

includ-an author with South-Western, request review copies, contact the fi ninclud-ance editors, register for Thomson Investors Network, and more

• Thomson Investors Network This offer is complimentary to adopters! Instructors using International Financial Management, Ninth Edition, may receive a com-

plimentary password to Thomson Investors Network This website provides dividual investors with a wealth of information and tools, including portfolio-tracking software, live stock quotes, and company and industry reports Contact your South-Western sales rep for more information about this offer

in-Acknowledgments

Several people have contributed to this textbook First, the motivation to write the textbook was primarily due to encouragement by professors Robert L Conn (Miami University of Ohio), E Joe Nosari and William Schrode (Florida State University), Anthony E Scaperlanda (Northern Illinois University), and Richard A Zuber (Uni-versity of North Carolina at Charlotte)

Many of the revisions and expanded sections contained in this edition are due to comments and suggestions from students who used previous editions In addition, many professors reviewed various editions of the text and had a major infl uence on its content and organization All are acknowledged in alphabetical order:

Raj Aggarwal, John Carroll University

Alan Alford, Northeastern University

H David Arnold, Auburn University

Robert Aubey, University of Wisconsin

Bruce D Bagamery, Central Washington University

James C Baker, Kent State University

Gurudutt Baliga, University of Delaware

Laurence J Belcher, Stetson University

Richard Benedetto, Merrimack College

Bharat B Bhalla, Fairfi eld University

Rahul Bishnoi, Hofstra University

Rita Biswas, State University of New York–Albany

Steve Borde, University of Central Florida

Sarah Bryant, George Washington University

Francisco Carrada-Bravo, American Graduate School of International Management

Andreas C Christofi , Azusa Pacifi c UniversityRonnie Clayton, Jacksonville State UniversityAlan Cook, Baylor University

W P Culbertson, Louisiana State UniversityMaria deBoyrie, New Mexico State UniversityAndrea L DeMaskey, Villanova UniversityMike Dosal, SunTrust Bank (Orlando)Robert Driskill, Ohio State UniversityAnne M Drougas, Dominican UniversityMilton Esbitt, Dominican UniversityLarry Fauver, University of MiamiPaul Fenton, Bishop’s UniversityRobert G Fletcher, California State University–Bakersfi eldStuart Fletcher, Appalachian State University

Jennifer Foo, Stetson UniversityRobert D Foster, American Graduate School of International ManagementHung-Gay Fung, University of Baltimore

Juli-Ann E Gasper, Texas A&M UniversityFarhad F Ghannadian, Mercer UniversityJoseph F Greco, California State University–FullertonDeborah W Gregory, Bentley College

Nicholas Gressis, Wright State UniversityIndra Guertler, Babson College

Ann M Hackert, Idaho State UniversityJohn M Harris, Jr., Clemson UniversityAndrea J Heuson, University of MiamiGhassem Homaifar, Middle Tennessee State UniversityJames A Howard, University of Maryland

Nathaniel Jackendoff, Temple UniversityPankaj Jain, University of MemphisKurt R Jesswein, Texas A&M InternationalSteve A Johnson, University of Texas–El PasoManuel L Jose, University of Akron

Rauv Kalra, Morehead State UniversityHo-Sang Kang, University of Texas–DallasFrederick J Kelly, Seton Hall UniversityRobert Kemp, University of VirginiaColeman S Kendall, University of Illinois–ChicagoDara Khambata, American University

Doseong Kim, University of AkronElinda F Kiss, University of MarylandThomas J Kopp, Siena CollegeSuresh Krishman, Pennsylvania State UniversityMerouane Lakehal-Ayat, St John Fisher CollegeBoyden E Lee, New Mexico State UniversityJeong W Lee, University of North DakotaRichard Lindgren, Graceland UniversityCharmen Loh, Rider University

Carl Luft, DePaul University

K Christopher Ma, KCM Investment Co

Richard D Marcus, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

Anna D Martin, Fairfi eld University

Leslie Mathis, University of Memphis

Ike Mathur, Southern Illinois University

Wendell McCulloch, Jr., California State University–Long Beach

Carl McGowan, University of Michigan–Flint

Fraser McHaffi e, Marietta College

Stuart Michelson, Stetson University

Penelope E Nall, Gardner-Webb University

Vivian Okere, Providence College

Edward Omberg, San Diego State University

Prasad Padmanabhan, San Diego State University

Ali M Parhizgari, Florida International University

Anne Perry, American University

Larry Prather, East Tennessee State University

Abe Qastin, Lakeland College

Frances A Quinn, Merrimack College

S Ghon Rhee, University of Rhode Island

William J Rieber, Butler University

Ashok Robin, Rochester Institute of Technology

Tom Rosengarth, Westminster College

Kevin Scanlon, Notre Dame University

Jacobus T Severiens, Kent State University

Peter Sharp, California State University–Sacramento

Dilip K Shome, Virginia Tech University

Joseph Singer, University of Missouri–Kansas City

Naim Sipra, University of Colorado–Denver

Jacky So, Southern Illinois University–Edwardsville

Luc Soenen, California Polytechnic State University–San Luis Obispo

Ahmad Sohrabian, California State Polytechnic University–Pomona

Caroline Spencer, Dowling College

Angelo Tarallo, Ramapo College

Amir Tavakkol, Kansas State University

Stephen G Timme, Georgia State University

Eric Tsai, Temple University

C Joe Ueng, University of St Thomas

Mahmoud S Wahab, University of Hartford

Ralph C Walter III, Northeastern Illinois University

Elizabeth Webbink, Rutgers University

Ann Marie Whyte, University of Central Florida

Marilyn Wiley, Florida Atlantic University

Rohan Williamson, Georgetown University

Larry Wolken, Texas A&M University

Glenda Wong, De Paul University

Mike Yarmuth, Sullivan University

Yeomin Yoon, Seton Hall University

David Zalewski, Providence College

Emilio Zarruk, Florida Atlantic University

Stephen Zera, California State University–San Marcos

Beyond the suggestions provided by reviewers, this edition also benefi ted from the input of many people who I met outside the United States and who were willing

to share their views about international fi nancial management In addition, I thank

my colleagues at Florida Atlantic University, including John Bernardin, Antoine

Giannetti, and Kim Gleason I also thank Joel Harper (Oklahoma State University), Victor Kalafa (Cross Country Inc.), Thanh Ngo (Florida Atlantic University), Oliver Schnusenberg (University of North Florida), and Alan Tucker (Pace University) for their suggestions

I acknowledge the help and support from the people at South-Western, ing Mike Reynolds (Executive Editor), Jason Krall (Marketing Manager), Mike Guendelsberger (Developmental Editor), Adele Scholtz (Senior Editorial Assistant), and Angela Glassmeyer (Senior Marketing Coordinator) A special thanks is due to Scott Dillon (Associate Content Project Manager) and Pat Lewis (Copy Editor) for their efforts to ensure a quality fi nal product

includ-Finally, I wish to thank my wife, Mary, and my parents, Arthur and Irene M adura, for their moral support

Jeff Madura

Florida Atlantic University

Jeff Madura is the SunTrust Bank Professor of Finance at Florida Atlantic

Univer-sity He has written several textbooks, including Financial Markets and Institutions

His research on international fi nance has been published in numerous journals,

in-cluding Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, Journal of Banking and Finance, Financial Management, Journal of Inter- national Money and Finance, Journal of Financial Research, Financial Review, Jour- nal of Multinational Financial Management, and Global Finance Journal He has re-

ceived awards for excellence in teaching and research and has served as a consultant for international banks, securities fi rms, and other multinational corporations He has served as a director for the Southern Finance Association and Eastern Finance Asso-ciation and has been president of the Southern Finance Association

Part 1 (Chapters 1 through 5) provides an overview of the multinational corporation (MNC) and the environment in which it operates Chapter 1 explains the goals of the MNC, along with the motives and risks of international business Chapter 2 describes the international flow of funds between countries Chapter 3 describes the international financial markets and how these markets facilitate ongoing operations Chapter 4 explains how exchange rates are determined, while Chapter 5 provides

background on the currency futures and options markets Managers of MNCs must understand the international environment described in these chapters in order to make proper decisions.

Part 1: The International

Multinational Corporation (MNC)

1: Multinational Financial

Management: An Overview

Multinational corporations (MNCs) are defi ned as

fi rms that engage in some form of international business

Their managers conduct international fi nancial

manage-ment, which involves international investing and fi

nanc-ing decisions that are intended to maximize the value of

the MNC The goal of their managers is to maximize the

value of the fi rm, which is similar to the goal of managers

employed by domestic companies.

Initially, fi rms may merely attempt to export products

to a particular country or import supplies from a foreign

manufacturer Over time, however, many of them

recog-nize additional foreign opportunities and eventually

es-tablish subsidiaries in foreign countries Dow Chemical,

IBM, Nike, and many other fi rms have more than half of

their assets in foreign countries Some businesses,

such as ExxonMobil, Fortune Brands, and

Palmolive, commonly generate more than half of their

sales in foreign countries A prime example is the

Coca-Cola Co., which distributes its products in more

than 160 countries and uses 40 different currencies

Over 60 percent of its total annual operating income is

typically generated outside the United States.

Even smaller U.S fi rms commonly generate more

than 20 percent of their sales in foreign markets,

in-cluding AMSCO International (Pennsylvania), Ferro

(Ohio), Interlake (Illinois), Medtronic (Minnesota), Sybron

(Wisconsin), and Synoptics (California) These U.S fi rms that conduct international business tend to focus on the niches that have made them successful in the United States Seventy-fi ve percent of U.S fi rms that export have fewer than 100 employees.

International fi nancial management is important even to companies that have no international business because these companies must recognize how their foreign competitors will be affected by movements in exchange rates, foreign interest rates, labor costs, and infl ation Such economic characteristics can affect the foreign competitors’ costs of production and pricing policies.

This chapter provides background on the goals of an MNC and the potential risk and returns from engaging in international business.

The specific objectives of this chapter are to:

■ identify the management goal and organizational structure of the MNC,

■ describe the key theories that justify international business,

■ explain the common methods used to conduct national business, and

inter-■ provide a model for valuing the MNC.

Managing the MNC

The commonly accepted goal of an MNC is to maximize shareholder wealth agers employed by the MNC are expected to make decisions that will maximize the stock price and therefore serve the shareholders Some publicly traded MNCs based outside the United States may have additional goals, such as satisfying their respective governments, banks, or employees However, these MNCs now place more emphasis

Man-on satisfying shareholders so that they can more easily obtain funds from shareholders

to support their operations There are even some fi rms in Russia, Poland, and nia that have issued stock to investors and are focused on satisfying their shareholders Our focus in this text is on the U.S.-based MNC and its shareholders, but the con-cepts commonly apply to MNCs based in other countries

Slove-The focus of this text is on MNCs whose parents wholly own any foreign iaries, which means that the U.S parent is the sole owner of the subsidiaries This is the most common form of ownership of U.S.-based MNCs, and it enables fi nancial managers throughout the MNC to have a single goal of maximizing the value of the entire MNC instead of maximizing the value of any particular foreign subsidiary.

subsid-Facing Agency Problems

Managers of an MNC may make decisions that confl ict with the fi rm’s goal to mize shareholder wealth For example, a decision to establish a subsidiary in one lo-cation versus another may be based on the location’s appeal to a particular manager rather than on its potential benefi ts to shareholders A decision to expand a subsidiary may be motivated by a manager’s desire to receive more compensation rather than to enhance the value of the MNC This confl ict of goals between a fi rm’s managers and shareholders is often referred to as the agency problem.

maxi-The costs of ensuring that managers maximize shareholder wealth (referred to

as agency costs) are normally larger for MNCs than for purely domestic fi rms for

sev-eral reasons First, MNCs with subsidiaries scattered around the world may rience larger agency problems because monitoring managers of distant subsidiaries

expe-in foreign countries is more diffi cult Second, foreign subsidiary managers raised expe-in different cultures may not follow uniform goals Third, the sheer size of the larger MNCs can also create large agency problems Fourth, some non-U.S managers tend

to downplay the short-term effects of decisions, which may result in decisions for eign subsidiaries of the U.S.-based MNCs that are inconsistent with maximizing shareholder wealth

for-Parent Control of Agency Problems The parent corporation of

an MNC may be able to prevent agency problems with proper governance It should clearly communicate the goals for each subsidiary to ensure that all subsidiaries focus

on maximizing the value of the MNC rather than their respective subsidiary values The parent can oversee the subsidiary decisions to check whether the subsidiary man-agers are satisfying the MNC’s goals The parent can also implement compensation plans that reward the subsidiary managers who satisfy the MNC’s goals A common incentive is to provide managers with the MNC’s stock (or options to buy the stock at

a fi xed price) as part of their compensation, so that they benefi t directly from a higher stock price when they make decisions that enhance the MNC’s value

Corporate Control of Agency Problems There are also various forms of corporate control that can help prevent agency problems and therefore ensure that managers make decisions to satisfy the MNC’s shareholders If the MNC’s manag-ers make poor decisions that reduce its value, another fi rm may be able to acquire it at a low price and will likely remove the weak managers In addition, institutional investors such as mutual funds or pension funds that have large holdings of an MNC’s stock have some infl uence over management because they can complain to the board of directors

if managers are making poor decisions They may attempt to enact changes in a poorly performing MNC, such as the removal of high-level managers or even board mem-bers The institutional investors may even work together when demanding changes in

an MNC because an MNC would not want to lose all of its major shareholders

How SOX Improved Corporate Governance of MNCs

One limitation of the corporate control process is that investors rely on the reporting by the firm’s managers for information If managers are serving themselves rather than the inves- tors, they may exaggerate their performance There are many well-known examples (such as Enron and WorldCom) in which large MNCs were able to alter their financial reporting so that investors would not be aware of their financial problems

G O V E R N A N C E

Enacted in 2002, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) ensures a more transparent process for managers to report on the productivity and financial condition of their firm It requires firms to implement an internal reporting process that can be easily monitored by executives and the board of directors Some of the common methods used by MNCs to improve their internal control process are:

• Establishing a centralized database of information

• Ensuring that all data are reported consistently among subsidiaries

• Implementing a system that automatically checks data for unusual discrepancies relative

Management Structure of an MNC

The magnitude of agency costs can vary with the management style of the MNC A centralized management style, as illustrated in the top section of Exhibit 1.1, can re-duce agency costs because it allows managers of the parent to control foreign subsid-iaries and therefore reduces the power of subsidiary managers However, the parent’s managers may make poor decisions for the subsidiary if they are not as informed as subsidiary managers about fi nancial characteristics of the subsidiary

Alternatively, an MNC can use a decentralized management style, as illustrated in the bottom section of Exhibit 1.1 This style is more likely to result in higher agency costs because subsidiary managers may make decisions that do not focus on maximiz-ing the value of the entire MNC Yet, this style gives more control to those manag-ers who are closer to the subsidiary’s operations and environment To the extent that subsidiary managers recognize the goal of maximizing the value of the overall MNC and are compensated in accordance with that goal, the decentralized management style may be more effective

Given the obvious tradeoff between centralized and decentralized management styles, some MNCs attempt to achieve the advantages of both styles That is, they al-low subsidiary managers to make the key decisions about their respective operations, but the parent’s management monitors the decisions to ensure that they are in the best interests of the entire MNC

How the Internet Facilitates Management Control The Internet is making it easier for the parent to monitor the actions and performance of its foreign subsidiaries

The parent of Jersey, Inc., has subsidiaries in Australia and Italy The subsidiaries are in different time zones, so communicating frequently by phone is inconvenient and expen- sive In addition, financial reports and designs of new products or plant sites cannot be easily communicated over the phone The Internet allows the foreign subsidiaries to e-mail updated information in a standardized format to avoid language problems and to send images of finan- cial reports and product designs The parent can easily track inventory, sales, expenses, and earnings of each subsidiary on a weekly or monthly basis Thus, the use of the Internet can re- duce agency costs due to international business ■

E X A M P L E

Why Firms Pursue International Business

The commonly held theories as to why fi rms become motivated to expand their business internationally are (1) the theory of comparative advantage, (2) the imper-fect markets theory, and (3) the product cycle theory The three theories overlap to a

Exhibit 1.1 Management Styles of MNCs

Financing at

Subsidiary A

Financing at Subsidiary B

Capital Expenditures

at Subsidiary A

Capital Expenditures

at Subsidiary B

Financing at

Subsidiary A

Financing at Subsidiary B

Capital Expenditures

at Subsidiary A

Capital Expenditures

at Subsidiary B

Centralized MultinationalFinancial Management

Decentralized MultinationalFinancial Management

degree and can complement each other in developing a rationale for the evolution of international business.

Theory of Comparative Advantage

Multinational business has generally increased over time Part of this growth is due

to the heightened realization that specialization by countries can increase tion effi ciency Some countries, such as Japan and the United States, have a technol-ogy advantage, while other countries, such as Jamaica, Mexico, and South Korea, have an advantage in the cost of basic labor Since these advantages cannot be easily transported, countries tend to use their advantages to specialize in the production of goods that can be produced with relative effi ciency This explains why countries such

produc-as Japan and the United States are large producers of computer components, while countries such as Jamaica and Mexico are large producers of agricultural and hand-made goods MNCs such as Oracle, Intel, and IBM have grown substantially in for-eign countries because of their technology advantage

When a country specializes in some products, it may not produce other products,

so trade between countries is essential This is the argument made by the classical ory of comparative advantage. Comparative advantages allow fi rms to penetrate for-eign markets Many of the Virgin Islands, for example, specialize in tourism and rely completely on international trade for most products Although these islands could produce some goods, it is more effi cient for them to specialize in tourism That is, the islands are better off using some revenues earned from tourism to import products rather than attempting to produce all the products that they need

the-Imperfect Markets Theory

If each country’s markets were closed from all other countries, there would be no ternational business At the other extreme, if markets were perfect, so that the factors

in-of production (such as labor) were easily transferable, then labor and other resources would fl ow wherever they were in demand The unrestricted mobility of factors would create equality in costs and returns and remove the comparative cost advantage, the rationale for international trade and investment However, the real world suffers from

imperfect market conditions where factors of production are somewhat immobile There are costs and often restrictions related to the transfer of labor and other re-sources used for production There may also be restrictions on transferring funds and other resources among countries Because markets for the various resources used in production are “imperfect,” MNCs such as the Gap and Nike often capitalize on a foreign country’s resources Imperfect markets provide an incentive for fi rms to seek out foreign opportunities

Product Cycle Theory

One of the more popular explanations as to why fi rms evolve into MNCs is the uct cycle theory. According to this theory, fi rms become established in the home mar-ket as a result of some perceived advantage over existing competitors, such as a need

prod-by the market for at least one more supplier of the product Because information about markets and competition is more readily available at home, a fi rm is likely to es-tablish itself fi rst in its home country Foreign demand for the fi rm’s product will ini-tially be accommodated by exporting As time passes, the fi rm may feel the only way

to retain its advantage over competition in foreign countries is to produce the uct in foreign markets, thereby reducing its transportation costs The competition in the foreign markets may increase as other producers become more familiar with the

prod-fi rm’s product The prod-fi rm may develop strategies to prolong the foreign demand for its product A common approach is to attempt to differentiate the product so that other

competitors cannot offer exactly the same product These phases of the cycle are trated in Exhibit 1.2 As an example, 3M Co uses one new product to penetrate for-eign markets After entering the market, it expands its product line

illus-There is more to the product cycle theory than is summarized here This sion merely suggests that, as a fi rm matures, it may recognize additional opportunities outside its home country Whether the fi rm’s foreign business diminishes or expands over time will depend on how successful it is at maintaining some advantage over its competition The advantage could represent an edge in its production or fi nancing approach that reduces costs or an edge in its marketing approach that generates and maintains a strong demand for its product

discus-How Firms Engage in International Business

Firms use several methods to conduct international business The most common methods are these:

• International trade

• Licensing

• Franchising

• Joint ventures

• Acquisitions of existing operations

• Establishing new foreign subsidiaries

Each method is discussed in turn, with some emphasis on its risk and return characteristics

Exhibit 1.2 International Product Life Cycle

Firm creates product to

accommodate local

demand.

1

Firm differentiates product

from competitors and/or

expands product line in

foreign country.

4a

Firm’s foreign business

declines as its competitive

advantages are eliminated.

4b

Firm exports product to accommodate foreign demand.

2

Firm establishes foreign subsidiary to establish presence in foreign country and possibly

to reduce costs.

3

or

International Trade

International trade is a relatively conservative approach that can be used by fi rms to penetrate markets (by exporting) or to obtain supplies at a low cost (by importing) This approach entails minimal risk because the fi rm does not place any of its capital at risk If the fi rm experiences a decline in its exporting or importing, it can normally re-duce or discontinue this part of its business at a low cost

Many large U.S.-based MNCs, including Boeing, DuPont, General Electric, and IBM, generate more than $4 billion in annual sales from exporting Nonetheless, small businesses account for more than 20 percent of the value of all U.S exports

How the Internet Facilitates International Trade Many fi rms use their websites to list the products that they sell, along with the price for each product This allows them to easily advertise their products to potential importers anywhere in the world without mailing brochures to various countries In addition, a

fi rm can add to its product line or change prices by simply revising its website Thus, importers need only monitor an exporter’s website periodically to keep abreast of its product information

Firms can also use their websites to accept orders online Some products such as software can be delivered directly to the importer over the Internet in the form of a

fi le that lands in the importer’s computer Other products must be shipped, but the Internet makes it easier to track the shipping process An importer can transmit its order for products via e-mail to the exporter The exporter’s warehouse fi lls orders When the warehouse ships the products, it can send an e-mail message to the im-porter and to the exporter’s headquarters The warehouse may even use technology to monitor its inventory of products so that suppliers are automatically notifi ed to send more supplies once the inventory is reduced to a specifi c level If the exporter uses multiple warehouses, the Internet allows them to work as a network so that if one warehouse cannot fi ll an order, another warehouse will

Licensing

Licensing obligates a fi rm to provide its technology (copyrights, patents, trademarks,

or trade names) in exchange for fees or some other specifi ed benefi ts For example, AT&T and Verizon Communications have licensing agreements to build and oper-ate parts of India’s telephone system Sprint Nextel Corp has a licensing agreement

to develop telecommunications services in the United Kingdom Eli Lilly & Co has

a licensing agreement to produce drugs for Hungary and other countries IGA, Inc., which operates more than 3,000 supermarkets in the United States, has a licensing agreement to operate supermarkets in China and Singapore Licensing allows fi rms to use their technology in foreign markets without a major investment in foreign coun-tries and without the transportation costs that result from exporting A major disad-vantage of licensing is that it is diffi cult for the fi rm providing the technology to en-sure quality control in the foreign production process

How the Internet Facilitates Licensing Some fi rms with an ternational reputation use their brand name to advertise products over the Internet They may use manufacturers in foreign countries to produce some of their products subject to their specifi cations

in-Springs, Inc., has set up a licensing agreement with a manufacturer in the Czech lic When Springs receives orders for its products from customers in Eastern Europe, it relies on this manufacturer to produce and deliver the products ordered This expedites the delivery process and may even allow Springs to have the products manufactured at a lower cost than if it produced them itself ■

Repub-H T T P : //

http://www.ita.doc.gov/td/

industry/otea

Outlook of international trade

conditions for each of

sev-eral industries.

E X A M P L E

Franchising obligates a fi rm to provide a specialized sales or service strategy, support assistance, and possibly an initial investment in the franchise in exchange for periodic fees For example, McDonald’s, Pizza Hut, Subway Sandwiches, Blockbuster Video, and Dairy Queen have franchises that are owned and managed by local residents in many foreign countries Like licensing, franchising allows fi rms to penetrate foreign markets without a major investment in foreign countries The recent relaxation of barriers in foreign countries throughout Eastern Europe and South America has re-sulted in numerous franchising arrangements

Joint Ventures

Ajoint venture is a venture that is jointly owned and operated by two or more fi rms Many fi rms penetrate foreign markets by engaging in a joint venture with fi rms that reside in those markets Most joint ventures allow two fi rms to apply their respective comparative advantages in a given project For example, General Mills, Inc., joined in

a venture with Nestlé SA, so that the cereals produced by General Mills could be sold through the overseas sales distribution network established by Nestlé

Xerox Corp and Fuji Co (of Japan) engaged in a joint venture that allowed rox Corp to penetrate the Japanese market and allowed Fuji to enter the photocopy-ing business Sara Lee Corp and AT&T have engaged in joint ventures with Mexican

Xe-fi rms to gain entry to Mexico’s markets Joint ventures between automobile facturers are numerous, as each manufacturer can offer its technological advantages General Motors has ongoing joint ventures with automobile manufacturers in several different countries, including Hungary and the former Soviet states

manu-Acquisitions of Existing Operations

Firms frequently acquire other fi rms in foreign countries as a means of penetrating foreign markets For example, American Express recently acquired offi ces in London, while Procter & Gamble purchased a bleach company in Panama Acquisitions allow

fi rms to have full control over their foreign businesses and to quickly obtain a large portion of foreign market share

Home Depot acquired the second largest home improvement business in Mexico This acquisition was Home Depot’s first in Mexico, but allowed it to expand its business after establishing name recognition there Home Depot is expanding in Mexico just as it did in Can- ada throughout the 1990s ■

An acquisition of an existing corporation is subject to the risk of large losses, however, because of the large investment required In addition, if the foreign opera-tions perform poorly, it may be diffi cult to sell the operations at a reasonable price.Some fi rms engage in partial international acquisitions in order to obtain a stake

in foreign operations This requires a smaller investment than full international sitions and therefore exposes the fi rm to less risk On the other hand, the fi rm will not have complete control over foreign operations that are only partially acquired

acqui-Establishing New Foreign Subsidiaries

Firms can also penetrate foreign markets by establishing new operations in foreign countries to produce and sell their products Like a foreign acquisition, this method requires a large investment Establishing new subsidiaries may be preferred to foreign acquisitions because the operations can be tailored exactly to the fi rm’s needs In ad-dition, a smaller investment may be required than would be needed to purchase exist-ing operations However, the fi rm will not reap any rewards from the investment until the subsidiary is built and a customer base established

E X A M P L E

to be DFI because they do not involve direct investment in foreign operations chising and joint ventures tend to require some investment in foreign operations, but

Fran-to a limited degree Foreign acquisitions and the establishment of new foreign sidiaries require substantial investment in foreign operations and represent the largest portion of DFI

sub-Many MNCs use a combination of methods to increase international business Motorola and IBM, for example, have substantial direct foreign investment but also derive some of their foreign revenue from various licensing agreements, which require less DFI to generate revenue

The evolution of Nike began in 1962 when Phil Knight, a business student at Stanford’s business school, wrote a paper on how a U.S firm could use Japanese technology to break the German dominance of the athletic shoe industry in the United States After gradu- ation, Knight visited the Unitsuka Tiger shoe company in Japan He made a licensing agree- ment with that company to produce a shoe that he sold in the United States under the name Blue Ribbon Sports (BRS) In 1972, Knight exported his shoes to Canada In 1974, he ex- panded his operations into Australia In 1977, the firm licensed factories in Taiwan and Korea

to produce athletic shoes and then sold the shoes in Asian countries In 1978, BRS became Nike, Inc., and began to export shoes to Europe and South America As a result of its export- ing and its direct foreign investment, Nike’s international sales reached $1 billion by 1992 and were more than $7 billion by 2007 ■

The manner by which an MNC’s international business affects its cash fl ows is lustrated in Exhibit 1.3 In general, the cash outfl ows associated with international business by the U.S parent are to pay for imports, to comply with its international arrangements, or to support the creation or expansion of foreign subsidiaries Con-versely, it will receive cash fl ows in the form of payment for its exports, fees for the services it provides within international arrangements, and remitted funds from the foreign subsidiaries The fi rst diagram in this exhibit represents a fi rm that has only domestic business activities The second diagram refl ects an MNC that engages in international trade Thus, its international cash fl ows result from either paying for im-ported supplies or receiving payment in exchange for products that it exports

il-The third diagram refl ects an MNC that engages in some international ments (which can include international licensing, franchising, or joint ventures) Any

arrange-of these international arrangements can require cash outfl ows by the MNC in eign countries to comply with the arrangement, such as the expenses incurred from transferring technology or funding partial investment in a franchise or joint venture These arrangements generate cash fl ows to the MNC in the form of fees for services (such as technology or support assistance) it provides

for-The fourth diagram refl ects an MNC that engages in direct foreign investment This type of MNC has one or more foreign subsidiaries There can be cash outfl ows from the U.S parent to its foreign subsidiaries in the form of invested funds to help

fi nance the operations of the foreign subsidiaries There are also cash fl ows from the foreign subsidiaries to the U.S parent in the form of remitted earnings and fees for services provided by the parent, which can all be classifi ed as remitted funds from the foreign subsidiaries

E X A M P L E

Valuation Model for an MNC

The value of an MNC is relevant to its shareholders and its debtholders When agers make decisions that maximize the value of the fi rm, they maximize shareholder wealth (assuming that the decisions are not intended to maximize the wealth of debt-holders at the expense of shareholders) Since international fi nancial management should be conducted with the goal of increasing the value of the MNC, it is useful to review some basics of valuation There are numerous methods of valuing an MNC, and some methods will lead to the same valuation The valuation method described

man-in this section can be used to understand the key factors that affect an MNC’s value

in a general sense

Domestic Model

Before modeling an MNC’s value, consider the valuation of a purely domestic fi rm

that does not engage in any foreign transactions The value (V) of a purely domestic

fi rm in the United States is commonly specifi ed as the present value of its expected

Exhibit 1.3 Cash Flow Diagrams for MNCs

Cash Outflows to Buy Supplies and Materials

Cash Inflows from Selling Products

Cash Outflows to Buy Supplies and Materials

Cash Inflows from Services Provided

Cash Outflows for Services Received

Foreign Subsidiaries

of U.S.-based MNC

Investment

in Foreign

Subsidiaries

Cash Inflows from Remitted Earnings

Cash Outflows to Provide Financing for Foreign Subsidiaries

cash fl ows, where the discount rate used refl ects the weighted average cost of capital and represents the required rate of return by investors:

V 5 a n t51

e3E1CF $,t2 4

11 1 k2 t f

where E(CF $,t ) represents expected cash fl ows to be received at the end of period t, n

represents the number of periods into the future in which cash fl ows are received, and

k represents the required rate of return by investors The dollar cash fl ows in period

t represent funds received by the fi rm minus funds needed to pay expenses or taxes, or

to reinvest in the fi rm (such as an investment to replace old computers or machinery) The expected cash fl ows are estimated from knowledge about various existing proj-ects as well as other projects that will be implemented in the future A fi rm’s decisions about how it should invest funds to expand its business can affect its expected future cash fl ows and therefore can affect the fi rm’s value Holding other factors constant, an increase in expected cash fl ows over time should increase the value of the fi rm

The required rate of return (k) in the denominator of the valuation equation

rep-resents the cost of capital (including both the cost of debt and the cost of equity) to the fi rm and is essentially a weighted average of the cost of capital based on all of the

fi rm’s projects As the fi rm makes decisions that affect its cost of debt or its cost of uity for one or more projects, it affects the weighted average of its cost of capital and therefore affects the required rate of return For example, if the fi rm’s credit rating

eq-is suddenly lowered, its cost of capital will probably increase and so will its required rate of return Holding other factors constant, an increase in the fi rm’s required rate

of return will reduce the value of the fi rm because expected cash fl ows must be counted at a higher interest rate Conversely, a decrease in the fi rm’s required rate of return will increase the value of the fi rm because expected cash fl ows are discounted

dis-at a lower required rdis-ate of return

Valuing International Cash Flows

An MNC’s value can be specifi ed in the same manner as a purely domestic fi rm’s However, consider that the expected cash fl ows generated by a U.S.-based MNC’s

parent in period t may be coming from various countries and may therefore be

de-nominated in different foreign currencies The foreign currency cash fl ows will be converted into dollars Thus, the expected dollar cash fl ows to be received at the end

of period t are equal to the sum of the products of cash fl ows denominated in each currency j times the expected exchange rate at which currency j could be converted into dollars by the MNC at the end of period t.

E1CF $,t2 5 am

j51 3E1CF j,t 2 3 E1S j,t2 4

where CF j,t represents the amount of cash fl ow denominated in a particular foreign

currency j at the end of period t, and S j,t represents the exchange rate at which the eign currency (measured in dollars per unit of the foreign currency) can be converted

for-to dollars at the end of period t.

Valuation of an MNC That Uses Two Currencies An MNC that does business in two currencies could measure its expected dollar cash fl ows in any period by multiplying the expected cash fl ow in each currency times the expected exchange rate at which that currency could be converted to dollars and then summing those two products If the fi rm does not use various techniques (discussed later in the text) to hedge its transactions in foreign currencies, the expected exchange rate in a given period would be used in the valuation equation to estimate the corresponding expected exchange rate at which the foreign currency can be converted into dollars in

that period Conversely, if the MNC hedges these transactions, the exchange rate at which it can hedge would be used in the valuation equation.

It may help to think of an MNC as a portfolio of currency cash fl ows, one for each currency in which it conducts business The expected dollar cash fl ows derived from each of those currencies can be combined to determine the total expected dol-lar cash fl ows in each future period The present value of those cash fl ows serves as the estimate of the MNC’s value It is easier to derive an expected dollar cash fl ow value for each currency before combining the cash fl ows among currencies within a given period, because each currency’s cash fl ow amount must be converted to a common unit (the dollar) before combining the amounts

Carolina Co has expected cash flows of $100,000 from local business and 1 million

Mexican pesos from business in Mexico at the end of period t Assuming that the peso’s

value is expected to be $.09, the expected dollar cash flows are:

E1CF $,t2 5 am

j51 3E1CF j,t 2 3 E1S j,t2 4

to derive the total dollar cash fl ows per period Finally, the cash fl ows in each period would be discounted to derive the value of the MNC

The general formula for the dollar cash fl ows received by an MNC in any lar period can be written as:

particu-E1CF $,t2 5 am

j51 3E1CF j,t 2 3 E1S j,t2 4

The value of an MNC can be more clearly differentiated from the value of a purely

domestic fi rm by substituting the expression [E(CF j,t)
E(S j,t )] for E(CF $,t) in the uation model, as shown here:

val-V 5 a n t51

da

m j51

3E1CF j,t 2 3 E1S j,t2 4

11 1 k2 t t

where CF j,t represents the cash fl ow denominated in a particular currency (including

dollars), and S j,t represents the exchange rate at which the MNC can convert the

for-eign currency at the end of period t Thus, the value of an MNC should be favorably affected by expectations of an increase in CF j,t or S j,t Only those cash fl ows that are

to be received by the MNC’s parent in the period of concern should be counted To

E X A M P L E