Qualitative research methods for community development robert mark silverman, kelly l patterson, routledge, 2016 scan

1.1 Methods, Key Contributions, and Links to Professional 1.2 Example of Displaying Qualitative Data in a Table Format 13 2.2 Example of Coding from an Interview with the Executive Direc

Qualitative Research Methods for

Community Development

Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development teaches the basic skills,

tools, and methods of qualitative research with special attention to the needs

of community practitioners This book teaches students entering planning, community development, nonprofit management, social work, and similar applied fields the core skills necessary to conduct systematic research designed

to empower communities and promote social change

Focusing on the basic elements of qualitative research, such as field

obser-vation, interviewing, focus groups, and content analysis, Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development provides an overview of core methods and

theoretical underpinnings of successful research The book provides examples from past research used in transformative community projects across multiple disciplines From housing, community organizing, neighborhood planning, and urban revitalization, this book gives students the skills they need to under-take their own projects, and provides professionals a valuable reference for their future research

The book serves as a primary text for courses in applied qualitative research, and as a reference book for professionals and community-based researchers

In addition to content detailing core methods used in qualitative research,

it includes a chapter that provides guidance for the dissemination of tive results to a spectrum of audiences applying qualitative methods to action research and community empowerment

qualita-Robert Mark Silverman is a Professor and the PhD Program Director in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University at Buffalo

He is co-editor of Schools and Urban Revitalization: Rethinking Institutions and Community Development (2013); and Fair and Affordable Housing in the US: Trends, Outcomes, Future Directions (2011).

Kelly L Patterson is an Assistant Professor in the School of Social Work at

the University at Buffalo She is co-editor of Schools and Urban Revitalization: Rethinking Institutions and Community Development (2013); and Fair and Affordable Housing in the US: Trends, Outcomes, Future Directions (2011).

“Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development is an engaging and

practical ‘how to’ guide in the design, implementation, analysis, and tion of qualitative research Replete with numerous case examples and sections

dissemina-on topics such as underlying theoretical cdissemina-ontexts, ethical cdissemina-oncerns, and the use

of new technologies, the book is an invaluable resource for community-based scholars, students, and practitioners.”

Anna Maria Santiago, Leona Bevis & Marguerite Haynam Professor of Community Development, Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel School of

Applied Social Sciences, Case Western Reserve University

“At last! A qualitative methods text pitched to professional disciplines The text provides an engaging overview of methods, followed by practical primers

on collecting and analyzing qualitative data A concise but clear data analysis chapter leads off the practical approach, unfolding the relationship between a researcher and his or her qualitative data and its sources: ethics, tools for coding and creating meaning, the importance of iteration, and the value of collabora-tion The text teaches and shows by example how to communicate in ways

‘interesting and memorable,’ as well as oriented towards progressive change It will be an excellent choice for students and professionals embarking on qualita-tive research.”

Gwendolyn H Urey, Professor of Urban & Regional Planning,

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

“This book offers solid guidance to community development and social fare students and practitioners on how to design, collect, analyze, and publish qualitative data for the purposes of improving services and empowering com-munities Detailing rigorous standards while using approachable examples, it is well-organized, comprehensive, insightful, and a delight to read.”

wel-Corianne Payton Scally, CEO, HOUSERS, LLC and former Associate Professor of Urban Planning, University at Albany, SUNY

First published 2015

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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

The right of Robert Mark Silverman and Kelly L Patterson to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and

78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Silverman, Robert Mark,

1967-Qualitative research methods for community development / Robert Mark Silverman and Kelly L Patterson 1 Edition.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1 Community development 2 Qualitative research I Patterson, Kelly L II Title.

We dedicate this book to Elijah and Emalyn

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1 Qualitative Research for Students and Professionals 1

2 Qualitative Analysis as an Iterative Process 23

3 Field Notes and Observations 41

1.1 Methods, Key Contributions, and Links to Professional

1.2 Example of Displaying Qualitative Data in a Table Format 13

2.2 Example of Coding from an Interview with the Executive

Director of a Nonprofit Social Welfare Organization in

2.3 Example of Coding from Field Notes from an Informal

Discussion with the Executive Director of a Community

2.4 Example of Coding from Photographs from a Neighborhood

2.5 Example of Memos from a Study of a Community

2.6 Example of Diagraming Codes from Content Analysis of

Community Reactions to Proposed BNMC Expansion Planning 383.1 Example of Jottings from Observation of Buffalo, NY’s Light

3.3 Characteristics of Casual Conversations and Informal

Interviews 513.4 The Process for Writing Full Field Notes, “Dos and Don’ts” 54

4.2 Wording and Style of Grand-Tour Questions and Probes 644.3 Three Foundational Sampling Techniques Used in Qualitative

Research 674.4 Examples of Nonverbal Cues used in Qualitative Interviewing 70

5.3 Example of a Questioning Route Introduction and Informed

Figures ix

5.4 Example of an Advance Letter to Recruit Focus Group

Participants 905.5 Example of a Script for a Follow-Up Telephone Call to

6.2 Characteristics of Manifest and Latent Content Analysis 99

6.5 Example of Data Presentation Based on Latent Content

7.1 Example of Displaying Qualitative Data in a Table Format 1087.2 Example of the Narrative Format of Data Presentation 111

7.4 Example of Displaying Qualitative Results Using a Diagram 1147.5 Example of Displaying Qualitative Results Using a Diagram 115

About the Authors

Robert Mark Silverman is a Professor and the PhD Program Director in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University at Buffalo

He holds a PhD in Urban Studies from the University of Milwaukee He also holds a BS in Political Science and a Masters in Public Administration from Arizona State University His research focuses on community development, the nonprofit sector, community-based organi-zations, education reform, and inequality in inner city housing markets

Wisconsin-He has published in Urban Affairs Review, Urban Studies, Urban Education, National Civic Review, Action Research, Community Development, Journal of Black Studies, Journal of Social History, and other peer reviewed journals He

is co-editor of Schools and Urban Revitalization: Rethinking Institutions and Community Development (2013); and Fair and Affordable Housing in the US: Trends, Outcomes, Future Directions (2011) He is also editor of Community- Based Organizations: The Intersection of Social Capital and Local Context in Contemporary Urban Society (2004).

Kelly L Patterson is an Assistant Professor in the School of Social Work

at the University at Buffalo She holds a PhD in Urban Studies from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, a Masters in Public Affairs from the University at Buffalo, and a BA in Sociology from North Carolina Central University Her research focuses on rent vouchers, fair housing, discrimina-tion, social policy, and the African-American experience She has published

in the Journal of Community Practice, Journal of Urban Affairs, Housing Policy Debate, Housing and Society, Journal of Social Service Research, Journal of Black Psychology, and other peer reviewed journals She is co-editor of Schools and Urban Revitalization: Rethinking Institutions and Community Development (2013); and Fair and Affordable Housing in the US: Trends, Outcomes, Future Directions (2011).

We would like to thank a number of people who provided us with the impetus

to write this book Much of the content of this book grew out of our years spent teaching qualitative methods in the Sociology Department at Wayne State University and the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University at Buffalo We are particularly appreciative of Henry Taylor Jr for his sustained advocacy for the development of qualitative methods courses in the field of community development and planning We are indebted to the students who enrolled in those classes for giving us insights about the method-ological needs of those engaged in community-based research Some of those students (e.g., Maggie Cowell, Samuel Rose, Jade Lewis, Gavin Luter, and Lari Warren-Jeanpiere) have gone on to write theses and dissertations using quali-tative methods, as well as publish and co-publish their applied research using skills obtained in our classes We also acknowledge the input of numerous col-leagues who teach similar courses and use qualitative methods in their research Over the years we have benefited from exchanging war stories with them about their classroom and field research experiences Finally, we would like

to thank Judith Newlin, Fritz Brantley, and other members of the Routledge team for their assistance during the development of this project

BNMC Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus

CAT Coding Analysis Toolkit

CDC community development corporation

HUD U.S Department of Housing and Urban DevelopmentIRB institutional review board

LISC Local Initiatives Support Corporation

MDOT Michigan Department of Transportation

MSHDA Michigan State Housing Development AuthorityNFTA Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority

NIMBY not in my backyard

PAR participatory action research

PHA public housing authority

QDAS qualitative data analysis software

1 Qualitative Research for

Students and Professionals

Dawn of a New Era

It is an exciting time to be a qualitative researcher The need for qualitative and mixed-methods research in the applied professions has grown in response

to new challenges confronted by community development practitioners These challenges stem from: shifting population demographics, fiscal constraints in the public sector, growing demand for social services, increased experimentation with education reform, emerging concerns about public health, and heightened awareness of other factors impacting the quality of life

in communities The simultaneous ascent of these new challenges has raised our awareness of their interconnectedness and the need for comprehensive and inter-disciplinary analysis In addition to the sheer volume of new social issues and policy questions professionals confront, there is growing demand for civic engagement and citizen empowerment in the community development process

In part, demand for greater citizen input grows out of increased competition for scarce resources in society However, it is also a reflection of the expansion

of democratic institutions and values in the modern world This progression

is reflected by the emergence of new governance structures at the local, state, and national levels It is also echoed in the growing demands for citizen par-ticipation and empowerment in public policy processes Practitioners in the applied professions occupy a unique space in our changing world They work

on the front lines of policy implementation and have firsthand knowledge of the challenges institutions confront in our times As a result, practitioners are often asked to identify community needs and interpret community develop-ment outcomes for policy makers and their constituencies

We have witnessed the growth in practitioner driven research across the professions Urban planners are increasingly asked to analyze, evaluate, and propose new models for community development that are responsive to the public Social workers assess the needs of communities, design programs, and interventions, and evaluate their outcomes Public and nonprofit administra-tors develop strategies to deliver services in communities and increasingly work with residents to ensure that these activities unfold in an equitable manner

2 Qualitative Research

Reforms in public education have led to increased interactions between schools and communities, and a growing interest in studying the outcomes of new education policies In the field of public health, professionals have increas-ingly focused on studying how to promote healthy communities and assessing the effectiveness of strategies adopted to achieve this goal

We have also witnessed the integration of community development across the professions The growth in inter-disciplinary work has increased the demand for the development of new methods for policy research and evaluation Practitioners have increasingly turned to qualitative methods to analyze community development policies that bridge traditional disciplinary boundaries Qualitative methods are particularly valuable to research focus-ing on social welfare and community development policies that bridge the professions In part, this is the case because these policies increasingly focus

on comprehensive approaches to community development that integrate: housing, social services, education, public health, workforce development, and other components Qualitative methods allow researchers to examine the intersection of these components of community development policies and to generate a holistic understanding of them Qualitative methods also provide practitioners from disparate professions with a common language

to analyze and evaluate inter-disciplinary work This is important since disciplinary specific tools for analysis do not always facilitate the synthesis

of research results Qualitative methods add an integrative dimension to multi-methods strategies for policy analysis In addition to these attributes, qualitative methods and the results from qualitative research are accessible

to a broad audience

One of the primary advantages of qualitative research is that it makes data analysis and research results more accessible to a broad spectrum of individu-als and groups in society As a result, it is a truly democratic and empowering approach to data collection and analysis Unlike their quantitative counterparts, qualitative methods are more accessible to constituencies affected by com-munity development policies Qualitative data are composed of: field notes, interview transcripts, photographic documents, audio recordings, film, archi-val records, and other data that are readily available to investigators and the general public These characteristics make qualitative data transparent and rela-tively easy to replicate The democratic and empowering nature of qualitative research is also reinforced by the use of appropriate technologies in the col-lection and analysis of qualitative data Many of the tools used in qualitative research are found in everyday settings They include paper and pencils, basic word processing software, digital cameras and recording devices, web-cams and video links, and related applications found in smartphone technologies Even more advanced qualitative data analysis software (QDAS) packages require few prerequisite skills and are relatively easy to learn

The democratic and accessible nature of qualitative methods add to their power as an approach to research that focuses on exploring emergent themes and advancing dialogue about pressing social problems The qualitative approach

Qualitative Research 3

provides a broad spectrum of individuals and groups in society tools to engage

in systematic research Qualitative analysis applies a relatively universal set of analytic techniques to the various types of data collected during the research process These techniques are: accessible to individuals with different levels of research experience, adaptable to a spectrum of research settings, and replica-ble across studies Qualitative methods serve as a vehicle for the expansion of participants in the data collection and analysis processes Methods are flexible They allow research to be pursued in a variety of contexts by: sole investiga-tors, research teams, and using participatory action research (PAR) designs The dissemination of qualitative research results is equally flexible Research findings can be targeted to multiple audiences and disseminated using multiple mediums Qualitative research reports can be written for academic and profes-sional audiences Excerpts from qualitative studies can be incorporated into community newsletters and the popular media The richness of qualitative data also allows for the dissemination of research using images, audio clips, and film

on the internet and through social media

Qualitative research is grounded in a long tradition across the social sciences and professions This tradition has included a number of community studies focusing on neighborhoods and urban life, social movements, and the local public policy process The impetus for many past qualitative studies was the rapid change in the social fabric of communities due to: mass immigration dur-ing the industrial revolution, economic disruption during the Great Depression, residential displacement caused by urban renewal, efforts to desegregate neigh-borhoods and schools beginning in the 1960s, and other multifaceted problems social welfare and community development professionals were called upon to address Today, there has been a resurgence in the application of qualitative methods to professional practice This resurgence is in response to similar chal-lenges that prompted the adoption of qualitative methods in the past In many contemporary communities: demographics are rapidly changing, poverty and economic dislocation are systemic problems, stresses on the built environment have produced a variety of negative externalities for the environment and public health, and residential segregation and educational inequality remain intransigent barriers to social progress Qualitative methods provide profession-als with valuable tools for the development and evaluation of policies aimed at addressing these problems

Connecting Theory to Professional Practice

Qualitative methods are informed by theory that focuses on explaining new challenges faced by communities and generating a holistic understanding of them There are numerous theoretical perspectives that inform qualitative methods In this discussion we focus on a discrete set that inform profes-sional practice Our emphasis is on general theory that applies to applied qualitative research The five perspectives discussed form a foundation for qualitative research in community development and social welfare practice

4 Qualitative Research

They include:

● ethnographic research, which provides researchers with an orientation for observing the world and discovering underlying patterns in social and institutional relationships;

● the grounded theory approach, which provides researchers with a tematic framework for organizing and analyzing qualitative data, and generating new theoretical explanations for phenomenon observed in the field;

sys-● the case study approach, which establishes a sampling framework for tative analysis, in terms of identifying both critical cases for analysis and criteria for comparative case research;

quali-● mixed methods research, which argues for the incorporation of multiple methods in a single study; and

● PAR, which adds a focus on empowerment to the research process by transforming research subjects into co-investigators

Our emphasis on these five perspectives is bound by a radical ethos that drives social welfare and community development Within that ethos we view the professional practitioner as a transformational researcher who uses research as

a tool to advocate for change, provide information and data to disenfranchised groups, and empower communities

From our perspective, theory provides a foundation for research in fessional practice and we see the researcher as a change agent in society In essence, we see the role of the community development and social welfare practitioner in a similar light to Grabow and Heskin’s (1973) description of the role of the radical planner in the planning profession In the following quote from Grabow and Heskin (1973: 112) we substitute the words “community development and social welfare” and “practitioner” for “planning” and “plan-ner” respectively:

pro-In this radical definition of [community development and social welfare], who is the [practitioner]? In our definition the [practitioner]

is active: a radical agent of change He or she is not, as are so many of today’s professionals, a creature of divided loyalty, one who owes as much or more to the profession as to the people Instead, the job is to

facilitate social experimentation by the people The radical [practitioner]

is a nonprofessional professional: no longer one with a property right entitled [“community development and social welfare,”] but rather

an educator and at the same time a student of the ecological ethic as revealed in the consciousness of the people Such an individual strives for self-actualization of oneself and of the others with whom one lives Finally, he or she is not apart from the people: the [“practitioner”] is one

of us, or all of us

Qualitative Research 5

In this reformulation, we offer a radical definition of community opment and social welfare that provides a normative framework for the application of qualitative research to community development and social welfare problems From this perspective social action and advocacy is inter-woven with the practice of qualitative research Consequently, the five theoretical perspectives described here are elevated from relatively neutral instruments used in research to tools of praxis The key contributions of each method and their links to professional practice and community empower-ment are summarized in Figure 1.1 and then elaborated upon in the section that follows

devel-Method Key Contributions Links to Professional Practice and

● critical framework for analysis

● focus on deconstructing power relations

● focus on critical cases

● tangible and accessible to a broad audience

● pragmatic focus on a single case

or set of cases drawn from the local context

● use of appropriate technology

Mixed-Methods ● allows for the layering of

data collected with multiple methods

● flexibility in the integration of quantitative and qualitative data

● facilitates the aggregation and summary of qualitative findings

● cost-effective and pragmatic use

of available data

● meets the data expectations

of multiple audiences in community and policy circles

● provides dimensionality and multiple measures of a common problem under investigation PAR ● introduces a co-investigator’s

role for participants in the research process

● non-hierarchical approach and inclusive approach to data collection, analysis, and dissemination

● develops community-based research capacity

● transfers skills and technology

to the community to facilitate future autonomous research

● focuses on community generated interventions

Figure 1.1 Methods, Key Contributions, and Links to Professional Practice and Community

Empowerment.

a common definition of ethnographic research has emerged that entails the holistic analysis of a social setting from the perspective of individuals embed-ded in its social and institutional context Ethnographic research often involves sustained periods of field research where an investigator makes focused observa-tions and records those observations in detailed field notes One of the goals of ethnography it to gain an insider’s perspective on the setting and relationships being observed This means that the researcher’s role often extends beyond that of a passive observer, and can include participating in the setting being studied, as well as interacting with individuals in it In addition to fieldwork and participant observation research, ethnography can entail various degrees of data collection through informal and formal interviews Informally, researchers will gain insights into a social problem through conversations and impromptu queries that take place in a field setting After reflecting on field observations, ethnographers may also pursue more systematic interviews with individuals or groups found in a social setting.

Blending field observations with interviews represents one approach to ducting systematic, holistic research in an ethnographic study Ethnographers also incorporate content analysis, archival data, meta-analysis, demographic, and other quantitative measures into their research The incorporation of data from multiple perspectives is a central component of the ethnographic approach, since the goal of such research is to develop a multilayered understanding of

con-a resecon-arch question While pursuing this gocon-al, ethnogrcon-aphers sometimes work

in teams when collecting data and analyzing them in order to bring multiple perspectives to the forefront Research teams are often constructed purposively

in order to bring in the perspectives of team members from different sional backgrounds, age cohorts, race and gender groupings, and social classes The focus of ethnographic research is on the development of a multifaceted,

profes-or thick, description of a research topic This is achieved by layering multiple methods in a systematic and iterative research design The characteristics that

have come to define ethnography have been described as a theory of description

(Nader, 2011)

The focus of ethnography on describing a research problem is of particular value to community development and social welfare professionals when they are confronted with the need to address new challenges faced by a commu-nity or their clientele However, there is another dimension of ethnographic research that is relevant to professional practice This dimension grows out of the literature on critical ethnography (Thomas, 1992; Marshall & Rossman, 1999; Brewer, 2000) From this perspective, ethnography should go beyond

Qualitative Research 7

describing the facets of a social setting It should deconstruct the power tions in society that underlie the issues that community development and social welfare practitioners seek to understand Critical ethnography represents

rela-a deeper understrela-anding of chrela-allenges threla-at communities frela-ace in contemporrela-ary society, and is focused on generating policy recommendations that alter the power structure and promote social change From a critical ethnographic per-spective, the researcher seeks to understand how paradigms, ideologies, systems

of inequality, and institutional arrangements shape the research settings that he

or she studies

Critical ethnographers are also reflexive in their analysis and make conscious efforts to identify biases that they bring to the research process These biases may stem from their personal biographies, as well as race, class, gender, and other ascribed characteristics At a minimum, critical ethnography acknowl-edges the effects these biases have on research However, the goal of critical ethnography is to draw from a reflexive stance and incorporate social action and change into the research process This is achieved by informing research with critical analysis and developing recommendations from research results that alter existing power relations and systems of inequality in society The centrality of critical analysis to ethnographic theory makes it complementary

to the radical definition of the community development and social welfare practice described earlier in this chapter

Grounded Theory Approach

The grounded theory approach is a qualitative methodology focused on

the-ory building The seminal publication that defined this methodology was The Discovery of Grounded Theory by Glaser and Strauss (1967) Although this book

was published decades ago, the methods outlined in it resonate through temporary qualitative studies Glaser and Strauss outlined a systematic approach

con-to qualitative data collection focused on generating new theoretical insights that explain the underlying structures that shaped communities and social life This approach was based on the use of theoretical sampling techniques and

an iterative, constant comparative method to analyze data Although much

of the early development of the grounded theory approach was based on data collected through participant observation and semi-structured interviewing, Glaser and Strauss advocated for broadening the scope of qualitative data sources to include archival, print material and other documentary qualitative data, “as far afield as deeds, jokes, photographs, and city plans” (1967: 161) The central focus of the grounded theory approach is the development

of theoretical explanations for basic research questions For instance, a munity development practitioner may be interested in learning what factors influence an individual’s choice to reside in a particular type of neighborhood

com-Or, a social worker may be interested in the patterns of behavior that lead to things such as substance abuse or absenteeism in public schools Regardless

of the topic of interest, grounded theory begins with a concrete question for

8 Qualitative Research

systematic analysis Based on that question, the researcher makes decisions about where to collect data in an iterative manner In essence, theoretical sampling entails a process of: collecting data purposively to inform a research question, conducting preliminary data analysis, and then identifying additional sources of data in response to that analysis The focus of theoretical sampling is twofold First and foremost, a researcher makes decisions about who to observe

or interview, and what types of documentary data to collect based on his or her research question Second, the researcher expands the scope of his or her sample based on what is learned about the research question through prelimi-nary data analysis When expanding the scope of a sample, the emphasis is on identifying new data sources that tease out nuances of the emerging theory and provide counter examples of what has already been observed This iterative process oscillates between data collection, preliminary analysis, and sampling, with the purpose of generating new theory

Glaser and Strauss referred to this iterative process as central to the constant comparative method of qualitative analysis This method provides a system-

atic framework for collecting and analyzing qualitative data and generating grounded theory The first step in the constant comparative method involves the coding of data into as many categories as possible that relate to the research question being examined in a study Once field notes, interview transcripts, and documentary materials from each source of data are coded, the researcher integrates categories across the data sources Data integration occurs through-out the research process As new data are collected and analyzed, they are integrated with existing data This process entails the recoding of data through-out the research process which leads to the refinement of emergent codes and concepts used to build theory Through this iterative process a set of robust concepts emerges that answer core issues raised in a research question The emergence of these concepts signals that a point of theoretical saturation has been reached and the researcher can shift his or her focus from data collection

to more fine grained analysis and theory construction

By nature, the grounded theory approach is a form of inductive research It begins with a question for which existing theory and paradigms do not provide answers Consequently, it is not driven by existing theories or designed to test them Instead, it is designed to identify underlying structures that shape com-plex problems and develop new theoretical explanations for them Because the grounded theory approach is often adopted by researchers when existing theories prove insufficient to address problems encountered in the field, it also has the potential to usher in change The role that the grounded theory approach can have in the social change process is of particular relevance to community development professionals and social workers For practition-ers, the grounded theory approach can reveal the underlying structures that shape communities and the problems faced by the people living in them An understanding of these structures and the development of theories that explain their connection to everyday life can advance the practical work of commu-nity development professionals and social workers Moreover, new theory can

of critical theory Concepts and theories that are generated using this approach can be disseminated in order to inform communities about root causes of their struggles The impact that grounded theory can have on the collective con-sciousness of disenfranchised groups should not be underestimated, since new ideas can have an empowering effect, particularly when they are focused on the analysis of structures of inequality in society The potential for the grounded theory approach to be applied to praxis is also relatively untapped There is fer-tile ground for community development and social work practitioners to apply the grounded theory approach to PAR in order to promote social change at the grassroots level The potential benefits of developing community-based skills in the application of grounded theory are far reaching Social movements and the disenfranchised groups they represent will become formidable when they are armed with theories of social change developed through the system-atic analysis of the challenges facing communities

Case Study Approach

Quantitative research focuses on: the aggregation of large data sets, distilling data down to discrete and relatively abstracted measures, and drawing gen-eralizable conclusions about their common features In contrast, qualitative analysis focuses on the unique characteristics of a phenomenon that are not accounted for or explained by positivist approaches to research While quan-titative researchers find extreme cases and outliers problematic, qualitative analysts embrace them Qualitative researchers are distinguished by their pen-chant for ferreting out the nuances of a phenomenon observed in the real world and developing textured narratives that make them accessible to a broad audience Although all qualitative research has this tendency, the case study approach to qualitative analysis is one of the best illustrations of it

The case study approach emphasizes depth of analysis over breadth It focuses

on developing a multifaceted analysis of a phenomenon and uses thick description

to illuminate it Decisions about the appropriate sample size to use in a tive study are driven by theoretical imperatives tied to a research question rather than a predetermined number of observations needed to satisfy statistical criteria based on probability sampling Moreover, the decision on who to interview or what documentary data to include in a qualitative sample is driven by the desire to account for variation in the research setting Extreme cases or examples that rep-resent nuances in a population of interest are sought out by qualitative researchers Data collected from a diverse set of individuals in a population are used to inform analysis and produce a granulated and textured narrative The search for extreme cases in qualitative analysis is exemplified in the case study approach

qualita-10 Qualitative Research

The case study approach is based on the assumption that extreme or tional examples of a phenomenon yield the most textured data for qualitative analysis This is because extreme cases exaggerate core characteristics of a phe-nomenon and provide researchers with clear examples for the development

excep-of concepts and the subsequent formulation excep-of theory In our experience, we have found the use of case study analysis advantageous when studying neigh-borhood governance Our analysis of homeowners’ associations was based on a critical case where residents and a developer were engaged in a dispute over the formation of a new homeowners’ association (Silverman & Patterson, 2004) Although this was not the typical environment that homeowners’ associations operated in, the extreme case allowed us to focus on the underlying political and economic structures of these organizations and apply theories related to urban growth machines to this context

In addition to examining single cases, qualitative researchers can juxtapose

a number of extreme examples of a phenomenon in comparative case study

research Duncan’s (2000) analysis of rural poverty in her book Worlds Apart is

one example of this approach being used effectively in community research Duncan applied the comparative case study approach to her analysis of rural towns in Appalachia, the Mississippi Delta, and a New England town A com-parative analysis of culture, social class, race relations, and civic engagement in these three distinct settings allowed Duncan to offer new insights about factors that contribute to persistent poverty in society

The case study approach has particular utility to community development practitioners and social workers, since much of their work is embedded in a fixed location As a result, these professionals have intimate knowledge of the communities they serve and understand the unique characteristics of the chal-lenges faced by their local constituencies and clients Case study research is also

a pragmatic option for community development and social work professionals, since they often have limited resources to commit to research Case studies allow for applied research to be conducted in a context that is relevant to local communities Furthermore, the scope of data and methods used in case stud-ies is relatively accessible to researchers and the communities they study The results from case study research also tend to be disseminated in a format that is accessible to interested populations These groups include other local profes-sionals, community residents, and local policy makers

The case study approach is also applicable to community-based research focused on empowering residents to define the scope of challenges they face

in their communities and the policy reforms needed to address them The framework for case study analysis is tangible and relevant to residents engaged

in community-based research It entails basic skills in field research and tive data analysis Community-based case studies have the added advantage of applying systematic data collection to a local set of issues while being amenable

qualita-to the use of appropriate technology For instance, many community-based case studies can be completed with the use of widely available research tools such as recording devices that are incorporated into smartphone technology

Qualitative Research 11

Data can also be analyzed using common word processing software available

on personal computers When the analysis is completed, that same software can

be used to produce reports and policy briefs for dissemination in hard copy and electronic document formats In many respects, expanded access to basic tech-nology has made it possible for disenfranchised groups to undertake research autonomously and engage in the local policy process in ways that previously required higher levels of technical support from institutions

Mixed Methods Research

Mixed methods analysis is often described as an approach to research where quantitative and qualitative data are integrated in the same study This can involve the analysis of both types of data side-by-side during each step of the research process or it can involve the presentation of qualitative and quantita-tive data separately in a single study or across studies dealing with the same subject matter (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2010) Mixed methods are argued

to add perspectives or layers of complexity to a study that a single method cannot provide There are many examples of mixed methods being used in qualitative studies For example, Silverman (2003; 2009) used Census data

to contextualize and frame research on citizen participation in Detroit and Buffalo From that foundation, in-depth interviews were conducted with executive directors of community-based organizations focusing on the scope

of public participation in their organizations In their book Climbing Mount Laurel, Massey et al (2013) blended qualitative interviews, survey research,

and other quantitative data to evaluate the development of affordable ing in the suburbs of New Jersey Their mixed methods approach provided a multilayered view of the impact that affordable housing had on a local com-munity and its residents

Although descriptions of mixed methods research frequently highlight the integration of qualitative and quantitative data, we view the mixed methods approach to analysis as more dynamic We argue that virtually all qualitative research is mixed methods by nature Although all qualitative researchers do not include quantitative measures in their analysis, most use multiple quali-tative methods side-by-side in their studies For example, researchers often engage in participant observation research and in-person interviewing in the same study Similarly, qualitative researchers mix other methods such as focus groups, content analysis, meta-ethnography, and historical analysis in studies From this perspective, the mixed methods approach is a defining characteristic

of qualitative analysis

Given that qualitative researchers routinely draw from multiple methods

in their analysis, one might ask why discussions of mixed methods research often focus on the blending of qualitative and quantitative data We believe the answer to that question is threefold First, there are valid reasons to incor-porate quantitative data into a qualitative study Quantitative measures can add context to descriptions of a research setting and provide baseline measures to

12 Qualitative Research

support a more fine-grained analysis that qualitative analysis utilizes Pairing statistical analysis with qualitative methods can also highlight contrasts between general tendencies in a population of interest and unique characteristics of out-liers and extreme cases

In addition to developing context in a study and highlighting contrasts between a population and cases, there is a second explanation for why dis-cussions of mixed methods research tend to emphasize the use quantitative and qualitative data In their efforts to describe the value of contrasts in data analysis, some methodologists simply overlook the more nuanced variations of mixed methods research in qualitative research We stress that mixed methods research goes beyond the blending of qualitative and quantitative methods in order to highlight the depth and dimensionality that a variety of methods can bring to a study The fact that some methodologists overlook the obvious and miss this elephant in the room is something that we seek to correct

There is one other explanation for why discussions of mixed methods research tend to emphasize the use of quantitative and qualitative data It is pragmatic There are practical reasons for using mixed methods in analysis One involves the costs of conducting research In many cases, qualitative analy-sis requires intensive investments of time and resources Participant observation requires extensive time in the field to collect data Interviewing can be a time-consuming activity in terms of scheduling meetings and conducting interviews,

as well as transcribing and coding data In large-scale, multi-site studies these activities may entail additional costs associated with travel and logistics One strategy to control such costs is to pair qualitative analysis with quantitative analysis Quantitative data are often available from institutional and other sec-ondary sources at a relatively low cost compared to the collection of original data Even when it is necessary to collect quantitative data, it is often less time consuming to administer a survey than undertake extensive field research

In addition to blending qualitative and quantitative data to address time and resource constraints, there is another pragmatic reason to pursue this type

of mixed methods analysis Sometimes it is necessary to incorporate tive data into a qualitative study in order to reach a broader audience Despite increased exposure to qualitative analysis in academic and professional fields, many remain skeptical of research that lacks a quantitative component We and other qualitative researchers share multiple experiences with resistance to qualitative methods when submitting articles for peer review and presenting research findings at conferences and in public forums Objections to qualitative methods are typically articulated in a few ways Some simply dismiss qualitative methods as impressionistic or antidotal Others argue that qualitative methods are not empirically grounded or hypothesis driven Essentially, this critique defines any analysis that is not derived from a deductive, positivist framework

quantita-as non-research Still, some detractors object to the narrative style of qualitative research and recast it as a form of journalism

Although experience teaches us that some members of academic and sional communities will always object to qualitative analysis, we have found

profes-Qualitative Research 13

two strategies can assist in addressing objections to qualitative methods First,

it is essential that qualitative researchers document the methods used in their analysis up front The development of a detailed methods section for a qualita-tive report is essential, since it documents the rationale and steps taken during data collection and analysis A qualitative researcher’s first line of defense against unwarranted attacks is a detailed discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the research methods used in a study In the methods section, it is paramount

to stress the systematic nature of the data collection and analysis process

In addition to documenting the systematic nature of methods used in tative analysis, we have found that many skeptics can be pacified to some degree when selected quantitative data are incorporated into our research In many instances, this involves the presentation of Census or other demographic data from a secondary source to contextualize the research setting where the qualitative inquiry took place Simply put, some academics and professionals have a primordial need to see a summary table of basic data at the onset of a research report In cases where secondary data are not applicable to a qualita-tive study, we recommend that researchers develop summary tables based on their data that can be incorporated into the introductory section or methods section of a report Figure 1.2 displays an example of a table summarizing qualitative data from Silverman’s (2009) analysis of citizen participation in Buffalo Summary tables can simply report basic demographics for individuals observed or interviewed during a research project, or they can summarize con-cepts identified during analysis From a pragmatic standpoint, we have found that well placed, relevant summary tables make qualitative research appealing

Figure 1.2 Example of Displaying Qualitative Data in a Table Format.

Source: Silverman (2009).

Note: This information came from open-ended interviews with executive directors of

community-based housing organizations in Buffalo, NY When asked about race, respondents treated Latinos as a racial group in their responses This is an important discrepancy to note when comparing data in this table with US Census data where Latinos are treated as a separate ethnic group.

14 Qualitative Research

The use of mixed methods in research conducted by community ment professionals and social workers is common One of the core activities that community development practitioners engage in is the development of neighborhood plans Jones (1990) published the seminal guide for developing neighborhood plans In it he describes how planners and citizens can mix a variety of qualitative and quantitative data sources in order to produce neigh-borhood planning documents A similar mixed methods approach is applied during community asset mapping exercises of the type described by Kretzman and McKnight (1993) Social workers and other professionals rely heavily

develop-on mixed methods when cdevelop-onducting community needs assessments as well (Soriano, 2012) The main benefits of using mixed methods in community development and social work practices are: the added dimensionality brought

to applied research, the optimization of time and resource allocation, and the ability to speak to diverse audiences with varying data needs and expecta-tions The use of mixed methods provides similar benefits to community-based groups engaged in action research In addition to those benefits, participation

in the research process provides community-based groups with opportunities

to develop research capacity

Participatory Action Research: A Tool to Empower Communities

and Promote Social Change

During the past few decades, PAR has become increasingly popular among scholars and professionals interested in community-based models for collaborative research (Stoecker, 1999; Stringer, 1999; Strand et al., 2003; Berg & Lune, 2012) This approach to research is distinct because it changes the relationship between researchers and research subjects Traditionally, this relationship has been researcher driven, where issues related to design, measurement, and analysis were predominately shaped by a scholar or professional who studied

a group of research subjects The researcher-driven model often resulted in recommendations and interventions that were somewhat divorced from the immediate experiences of the communities they were prescribed for This lack of salience was a source of frustration for researchers and communities Moreover, the researcher-driven model contributed to a degree of community dependence on researchers for expertise, technical assistance, and advocacy in policy circles In essence, research was a top-down enterprise that produced policy that was somewhat detached from community needs and perpetuated community dependence on experts

The development of PAR transformed the relationship between researchers and research subjects First, it elevated the role of research subjects to co-investigators In this new role, members of communities become active participants at multiple stages of the research process They have input in the framing of research questions and research design They are engaged in the collection and analysis of data At the conclusion of a study they also disseminate findings and advocate for policy reform In addition to being

Qualitative Research 15

active participants in the research enterprise, PAR focuses on the development

of community-based research capacity This dimension of the participatory research model involves the transfer of skills and technology to communities,

as well as the introduction of a critical stance to communities The former provides grassroots groups with the tools to conduct autonomous, sustained research that is relevant to local needs and interests The latter provides them with an orientation to critically examine the underlying structures that shape constraints and opportunities faced by communities Combined, the development of research capacity and the introduction to critical analysis have

an empowering effect on communities From this foundation, communities are better equipped to participate in the policy process and pursue social change Although PAR can draw from a variety of methodological approaches, qualitative methods are particularly applicable to community-based research This is because the skills used in qualitative analysis are highly accessible and the technologies used in qualitative research are increasingly available to a broad cross-section of society Today, the advantages of pursuing qualitative community-based research are strengthened by the increased availability of other data on the internet For instance, community-based research can be contextualized and augmented with data available from the U.S Census and other federal, state, and local agencies Likewise, increased access to personal computers, smartphone technology, and social media has democratized the abilities of community-based researchers to collect data, analyze data, and dis-seminate findings

It is not surprising that community development professionals and social workers have been among the first to engage in PAR Both professions have

a tradition of working on applied community problems and approach them from a critical perspective Some examples of this work include applications of PAR to: community mapping and needs assessment exercises (Amsden & Van Wynsberghe, 2005), neighborhood planning (Silverman et al., 2008; Wallace

& Teixeira, 2013), and participatory photography (Prins, 2010; Kaplan, 2013) There is growing interest in the integration of PAR with advocacy work tradi-tionally done by community development and social work practitioners This has reinforced the shift away from hierarchical relationships between profes-sionals and the communities they serve and greater emphasis on collaboration and community empowerment

Ethical Consideration for Community Development and

Social Welfare

Community development and social work professionals who use qualitative methods occupy a paradoxical position with regard to discussions of research ethics In one respect, they conduct research on topics that are potentially sensitive and may involve vulnerable populations However, they take an advocacy stance when conducting research and view their work as a catalyst for the promotion of social change Often, participation in the research process is

16 Qualitative Research

considered emancipatory for marginalized groups and a tool for their erment For instance, Leisey (2008) argues that victims of domestic violence benefited from participating in qualitative interviews and that the selection of this method served as a data collection tool and social work intervention The use of qualitative methods as a tool for data collection and the empowerment

empow-of marginalized groups are even more firmly grounded in studies that apply PAR to community development and social welfare issues (DeTardo-Bora, 2004; Brydon-Miller & Greenwood, 2006)

Notwithstanding this perspective, academic and professional studies are fraught with examples of unethical behavior Misconduct by researchers spans disciplines and methodological approaches One of the most notorious exam-ples of a breach of ethics in research comes from the field of medicine It was the Tuskegee experiment, which involved a 40-year study where African-American men were denied information about the diagnosis of, and treatment for, syphilis During this study doctors serendipitously collected data on the progression of that venereal disease from the 1930s to the 1970s while the men enrolled in the experiment continued to suffer irreversible damage to their health Other infamous studies that breached ethical standards involved psychological experiments conducted on humans During the early 1960s the Milgram experiment on obedience to authority was conducted by psycholo-gists at Yale University In this study, research participants were deceived into believing they were administering electrical shocks to individuals in another room as a penalty for not answering a series of questions correctly This decep-tion placed research participants under high levels of stress, since they were led to believe that that were physically harming other research participants Another scandalous study was the Stanford prison experiment that took place

in the early 1970s In this experiment students were recruited by faculty to take

on the role of guards and inmates in a mock prison located in the basement

of the university’s psychology department The prison simulation exposed research participants to highly stressful and abusive conditions Also, the stu-dent participants were of the mind that they could not voluntarily withdraw from the study after the prison simulation had commenced In response to these and other studies, Congress passed the National Research Act in 1974 This law created the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research The Commission was charged with the task of creating guidelines and regulations for the protection of human subjects

in research

One of the primary mechanisms developed by the Commission to tect human subjects was the requirement for research studies to be reviewed and approved by institutional review boards (IRBs) or similar bodies The policies that IRBs are charged with implementing are designed to mini-mize risks to research participants by requiring transparency in methods and

pro-an informed consent process before a study cpro-an commence As a general principle, research participants are not allowed to be harmed physically, psy-chologically, or financially due to their exposure to the research process In

Qualitative Research 17

addition to minimizing their exposure to risk, participants’ confidentiality is

to be protected and their decision to join in a study is expected to be tary and free from coercion The scope of IRB oversight directly relates to the level of risk associated with a study and the characteristics of participants who are recruited to be a part of research High risk studies and those that involve the participation of vulnerable populations receive the greatest scru-tiny from IRBs

Typically, researchers are required to undergo training in the principles of ethical research conduct before initiating a study and submitting their research plans for review and approval by an IRB It is widely perceived that many

of the guidelines and regulations that apply to human subject protection are designed to address issues encountered in the medical sciences, experimental psychology, and other clinical settings This orientation causes many quali-tative analysts to experience trepidations when embarking upon naturalistic research and submitting it for IRB review The crux of this issue lies in the divergence that sometimes exists between IRBs and qualitative researchers over the interpretation of risks to research participants Bosk (2004) describes this issue and suggests that qualitative researchers make explicit the appropri-ate standards for review that should be applied to qualitative research In our research, we have found that good communication with IRBs when prepar-ing a proposal for review is also beneficial For instance, many professional studies conducted by community development practitioners and social work-ers involve public observations, interviews with public officials, and program evaluation Studies of this nature are often exempt from IRB review or subject

to expedited review processes due to the minimal risks that they entail

In other cases where studies involve more than minimal risks or able populations (e.g., youth, prisoners, substance abusers, pregnant women, the cognitively impaired), researchers are obligated to include procedures in their studies that meet IRB requirements for the protection of human sub-jects These requirements tend to include more extensive: informed consent processes, safeguards to protect participants’ confidentiality, debriefing policies, custodial ascent, and restrictions on exposure to risk during the research pro-cess The downside of these requirements is that qualitative researchers may face added constraints when recruiting research participants who are deemed

vulner-to be members of vulnerable populations (Leisey, 2008) We have ruminated about whether seminal community studies conducted before the passage of the National Research Act would receive IRB approval today For instance,

William Foote Whyte’s seminal research that produced Street Corner Society may

not survive IRB scrutiny today At the very least, added layers of informed sent and other IRB requirements would have influenced the manner in which data were collected, analyzed, and reported for that study and others like it Just as in the past, ethical standards for research continue to evolve today

con-in response to changcon-ing academic and professional norms In addition to normative expectations for research, ethical standards also must respond to innovations in technology and new sources of data used in qualitative research

18 Qualitative Research

One area where the nexus of technology and research is increasingly salient is web-based research Increasingly, qualitative researchers use the internet and social media to collect data Video conferencing technology is now used to expedite the interviewing process by qualitative researchers The application

of these technologies in qualitative research raises a number of new issues for IRBs related to data collection, storage, and security These technologies also present new issues for researchers related to risk reduction and debriefing of individuals who participate in a study Like video conferencing technology, the growing use of digital devices, smartphones, and other portable electronics

in qualitative research requires the development of new procedures to ensure that data are secure Increasingly, data storage is done on virtual servers using cloud storage systems and IRBs often require password protected data encryp-tion to ensure data are secured

In our own research, we navigated new waters when using email as a source

of data for participant observation research (Silverman & Patterson, 2004)

In that instance, we were members of a public listserv where emails were exchanged about resident perceptions of neighborhood conditions and the politics surrounding a homeowners’ association We received IRB approval

to use data collected from emails exchanged on the listserv However, several precautions had to be taken, such as de-identifying the data, in order to pro-tect the confidentiality of individuals who participated on the public listserv The omnipresence of electronic technology and social media in contem-porary society raises new questions about expectations for privacy and the scope of public observation These issues have compelled IRBs to become increasingly vigilant in the development of guidelines and regulations for the protection of human subjects

Aside from formal rules and regulations designed to protect human subjects, qualitative researchers have an added tool at their disposal that encourages ethical conduct in research This tool is their reflexive stance Remaining cog-nizant of researcher bias adds a layer of protection to participants in a study Moreover, when reflexivity is wedded to critical analysis and a social change perspective, outcomes for participants become a central focus of the research enterprise For community development and social welfare practitioners, this has particular relevance, since research is often motivated by the desire to promote social justice and empower participants These underlying goals of applied research should be clearly identified to IRBs when studies are submit-ted for review so that the broader context of a study and its implications for participants is considered Likewise, the collaborative nature of PAR and the focus of this type of research on empowering participants should be clearly described to IRBs so that risk, informed consent, confidentiality, and volun-tarism are understood within the broader context of social action research Figure 1.3 summarizes the formal standards for research ethics and extensions offered by qualitative research

● the minimization of risk to participants

● voluntary participation and the lack of

coercion in research

● the lack of deception in research

● confidentiality

● informed consent process

● establishment of rapport and trust between researchers and participants

● the researcher’s reflexive stance and empathy with participants

● the researcher’s advocacy orientation

● the social justice goals of the research

Figure 1.3 Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research.

The Plan for the Book

For several years we have taught qualitative methods courses at the graduate and graduate levels Largely, those courses have been designed to prepare professionals to use qualitative methods in their applied work as well

under-as in their studies In teaching those courses we drew from a variety of ing qualitative texts However, none were ideal fits for the needs of students

exist-in the professions Most of these texts were written for the social sciences and did not focus on the type of research questions posed in professional disci-plines We had similar uneasiness with many of the existing research methods texts written for professional audiences These texts often included scant treatment of qualitative methods Typically, a single chapter of a text gave an overview of qualitative research, but the details of how to incorporate quali-tative methods into a professional study were lacking From our experience, professionals who relied on such materials to learn about qualitative research were ill-prepared to conduct systematic studies that applied these techniques

In large part, we attribute the prevalence of relatively weak qualitative sis in the professions to the dearth of appropriate instructional and reference materials for professional audiences

The purpose of this book is to remedy this problem by introducing professionals to the most commonly used qualitative methods in applied research We deliberately focus on the nuts and bolts of qualitative research

in this book in order to familiarize professionals with qualitative methods with an emphasis on techniques used to study communities and social wel-fare issues This focus places a strong emphasis on critical inquiry and the use of qualitative research as a social change mechanism Given that focus,

we purposely have sequenced the chapters of this book in a somewhat unconventional manner One distinguishing feature is that it begins with

a discussion of strategies for analyzing qualitative data We believe that all qualitative analysis should begin with a clear strategy for analyzing data, so

20 Qualitative Research

we present this up front in Chapter 2 and then move on to discussions of specific techniques for data collection in subsequent chapters Regardless of the techniques used to collect qualitative data, analysis is the central activ-ity of qualitative inquiry Analysis begins at the onset of a qualitative study and it continues throughout the research process In fact, a truism about analysis and data collection in qualitative research is that it is a single, itera-tive process We also believe it is appropriate to discuss data analysis up front because, regardless of the data collection technique, qualitative data tend to assume the same form, written narratives, and transcribed material Although data may come in the form of field notes, interview transcripts, and other print or visual material, a common set of analytic techniques can

The final chapter of this book discusses techniques used to disseminate qualitative research findings One emphasis of this chapter is on the doc-umentation of systematic methods used in the collection and analysis of qualitative data Chapter 7 also discusses how to present qualitative data in various mediums used by professionals We discuss the role of qualitative data in professional reports, public presentations, and web-based applications Dissemination techniques are critical since they can facilitate community empowerment and influence the policy process in ways that promote social justice and foster social change

Qualitative Research 21

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New York: Pearson.

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“Ethics creep: Governing social science research in the name of ethics.” Qualitative

Sociology, 27(4): 417–420.

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action research and human subjects review processes Action Research, 4(1): 117–128 Creswell, J.W and Plano Clark, V.L (2010) Designing and conducting mixed methods research

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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boards Action Research, 2(3): 237–253.

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IL: University of Chicago Press.

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the American Institute of Planners, 39(2): 106–114.

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Planners Press.

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Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

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toward finding and mobilizing a community’s assets Chicago, IL: ACTA Publications.

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and analysis, 3rd edition New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

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2 Qualitative Analysis as an

Iterative Process

The Chili Metaphor

Analyzing qualitative data is analogous to the process of making a pot of chili

At one point in time most Americans have been served chili at a restaurant, picnic, family gathering, or other event Chili is considered a comfort food and a favorite dish at many social gatherings and sporting events Part of the allure of chili is it is simultaneously simple and complex By definition it is a simple stew made with a blend of meats, chilies and/or chili powder, and other ingredients influenced by local culture and tastes There are chili purists who insist that beans and pasta should never be put into a pot of chili, and there are members of the Avant-garde who push the boundaries of chili, introducing meatless or vegan variations of the dish Yet, once a cook settles on his or her final list of ingredients, the cooking process is virtually the same Ingredients are mixed into a pot, stirred, covered, and simmered on a stovetop for three to four hours Although the basic components of chili remain simple, each cook’s interpretation of it produces a complex and distinctly original dish In addition

to being a delicious entrée, chili serves as a culinary reflection of the culture, history, and culinary perspective of its cook

Similar to cooking chili, qualitative analysis is simultaneously a simple and complex process It involves the examination of a relatively discrete set of data composed of field notes, interview transcripts, audio clips, photographic images, and various documents and archival materials Once data are assembled, they are coded and analyzed using a relatively uniform system Despite these commonalities across qualitative studies, the outcomes of analysis are heavily influenced by a researcher’s theoretical perspective, disciplinary training, personal biography, and other paradigms and perspectives he or she is influenced by Like any chili cook worth his or her salt, qualitative researchers take a reflexive stance when analyzing data This stance involves being vigilant about identifying ways that personal biases influence, frame, and potentially constrain the scope of analysis Assuming a reflexive stance and being transparent about bias allows a researcher to contextualize his or her analysis and identify areas from which to draw alternate perspective in order

to add dimension to a study

to a broad audience A defining characteristic of good chili is its unpretentious, down-to-earth quality People from all walks of life can appreciate the flavor and texture of chili, while connoisseurs can differentiate between cooks’ reci-pes Similarly, the litmus test of good qualitative analysis is its accessibility and relevance to multiple audiences At one level, qualitative analysis disseminates research results to the common man It is presented in a recognizable for-mat and devoid of jargon and unnecessary technical language Yet, embedded within this format are nuanced observations that augment a broader knowl-edge base

Development of a Systematic Research Design

Data analysis is the core activity in qualitative research It begins at the onset

of a qualitative study and it continues throughout the research process An axiom of data collection and analysis in qualitative research is that it is a single, iterative process This is illustrated in Figure 2.1, which highlights two distinguishing features of qualitative inquiry The first is the early introduction of data analysis in the research process The second is the manner

in which data collection and analysis oscillate during the course of research

In addition to being an iterative process that focuses on the examination and reexamination of data, systematic research design is a defining feature of qualitative inquiry Researchers use tried and tested techniques for recording, organizing, and analyzing data

Data collection Coding and analysis Data collection Coding and analysis Data collection Coding and analysis

Figure 2.1 The Iterative Process in Qualitative Research.

Qualitative Analysis 25

As noted in Chapter 1, systematic analysis begins with the formulation of

a research question Like all other aspects of qualitative analysis, the ment and refinement of a research question is an iterative process It involves the identification of a general set of propositions that are used to organize analysis These propositions are drawn from: existing concepts used to describe

develop-or explain a problem being examined, indigenous terms develop-or jargon used by people encountered in a research setting to describe aspects of a problem, and new concepts that emerge during the research process The scope of proposi-tions used to organize qualitative research will change during the course of the research process Initial assumptions may prove to be insufficient to accommo-date all of the facets and contingencies of a research problem as more is learned during data collection and analysis This will lead to the re-specification of a research problem

The developmental nature of qualitative inquiry necessitates a certain degree

of flexibility in the research process This approach to research essentially opens

a floodgate of information about a topic and then applies a systematic egy for analysis to the material in order to organize it in a purposive manner The sheer volume of data and the relatively open-ended nature of qualitative research can be a source of frustration for those new to it Researchers should remain conscious of the developmental nature of qualitative inquiry and its emphasis on the discovery of new knowledge Consequently, the anticipation

strat-of the need to adjust data collection strategies and coding schemes should be a component of a systematic research design In order to maintain the integrity

of research design, a log of methods and techniques used during the research process should be maintained and a record should be kept of changes made during the course of a study These notes are subsequently used to document the natural history of a study’s methodology

Sources and Forms of Qualitative Data

Qualitative analysis is anchored in data based on observations of how people engage with physical environments and social settings Data are often collected through participant observation, one-on-one interviews, and focus groups Qualitative analysis can also be based on data drawn from existing documents, public records, and archival materials Data include observable elements of a physical environment, artifacts people leave in those environments that docu-ment their activities, observations of what people do in those environments, and records of what people say about them These data are collected by quali-tative researchers using a number of tools Researchers take field notes and record information collected in various interview settings They collect written documents from organizations and research participants Increasingly, research-ers use photographic, video, and other data collected from the internet (Ball

& Smith, 1992; Best & Krueger, 2004; Banks, 2007; Gaber & Gaber, 2007)

26 Qualitative Analysis

Like other qualitative researchers, community development and social fare professionals must address two key issues when determining what data to use in a study The first involves the appropriateness of a specific data source

wel-to answer a given research question The decision wel-to use a specific type of data should always be driven by the research questions For instance, if a social worker is interested in learning about how people enrolled in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) perceive its effectiveness in addressing food security, he or she might include interviews and focus groups with recipi-ents in a data collection strategy However, other types of qualitative data may

be less relevant to a study with that focus For example, interviews with policy makers or non-program recipients may go beyond the scope of the research question Likewise, the use of data from the print media or other documents unrelated to program recipients may be less central to the research As a general rule of thumb, the selection of data for a qualitative study should be dictated

by a systematic research design and not done in an unstructured and tunistic manner Some qualitative researchers make the mistake of viewing the data selection process as an entirely open-ended free-for-all This approach can lead to extended bouts of superfluous data collection, and ensuing mayhem as researchers attempt to analyze a mound of data that is disconnected from a cen-tral research question Decisions about what data to collect should be targeted and driven by a systematic research design The maxim in the selection of data sources is on the quality and appropriateness of data sources over their sheer weight and girth

The second issue community development and social welfare professionals must address when determining what data to use in a study involves the acces-sibility of data Once a researcher knows what data he or she wants to collect,

an assessment of whether the data are accessible needs to be made Community development and social welfare professionals often face fewer barriers to accessing data due to the nature of their work Many community development practition-ers and social workers have established networks in the communities they study and often their research involves applied analysis of existing programs and public policies Because of their professional positions, community development practi-tioners and social workers are able to gain access to data with relative ease Their role as professionals and researchers is often recognized by gatekeepers at the community level Their credentials are typically well understood by individuals and organizations they seek to collect data from, and requirements to gain per-mission and participants’ consent to collect data are usually formally structured by the institutions that fund or sponsor studies

Software and Other Tools Used to Organize and Analyze

Qualitative Data

Once the decision is made about what data to collect, researchers need to establish a system for storing and organizing it Before the widespread use of personal computers, qualitative data were stored and organized in a hard copy

Qualitative Analysis 27

form Researchers would translate their handwritten notes and transcribe their interviews into typewritten documents Duplicate copies of those documents would be produced Those data records would be physically cut and sorted during coding Coded index cards would be created and organized on a pinup board, and researchers would physically sift and sort that data Lofland and Lofland (1995) describe traditional methods for storing and organizing qualita-

tive data in their classic text, Analyzing Social Settings Early in our careers we

used these laborious methods to analyze data Fortunately, those days have passed and more efficient tools for working with qualitative data are now avail-able to contemporary researchers

In terms of technology, the game changer in qualitative analysis was the advent of modern word processing software This software had features that were transformative for qualitative research First, it had a Windows-based operating system This allowed for documents to be stored and organized in file folders on a computer’s desktop The ability to store files in this manner provided researchers with increased flexibility in data analysis Using an elec-tronic filing system allows researchers to configure data in a number of ways

A chronological record of data that was collected during the course of a study can be maintained in a separate set of folders Simultaneously, folders can be created that organize data thematically The ability to save data in electronic files also made it more portable, since files could be shared on different elec-tronic devices and easily saved, copied, and transported In addition to the advantages of working with qualitative data in a Windows-based environment, modern word processing software allows researchers to reorganize text within

and across documents The keyword search and the cut and paste feature in word

processing software revolutionized qualitative analysis Before word processing software was available, the bulk of qualitative analysis was done manually using hardcopy documents Today, this technology is so ubiquitous that its impact

on qualitative research goes relatively unnoticed

For smaller, single investigator studies, the use of word processing ware is sufficient to conduct qualitative data analysis Hahn (2008) provides one of the more extensive discussions of how to use basic word processing

soft-and spreadsheet software for qualitative analysis in his book, Doing Qualitative Research Using Your Computer He details steps that allow for the coding and diagraming of qualitative data using Microsoft Office’s Word, Excel, and Access

programs The application of these and similar techniques is highly beneficial

to qualitative analysis, but general word processing and spreadsheet software has its limitations For larger studies, involving extensive data collection and multiple investigators, qualitative data analysis is increasingly done using spe-cialized QDAS

QDAS has many advantages over more general word processing and spreadsheet software QDAS is designed specifically for qualitative analysis and it has modules embedded in it that allow for multilevel coding and analysis of data Most specialized software packages allow data to be imported and exported in a variety of word processing and spreadsheet formats, so