Organic farming in vegetables

Some of the adverse effects are soil erosion, depletion of organic matter in soil, nutrient deficiencies, low water availability, salinization, fertilizer and pesticide contamination of

ORGANIC FARMING

IN VEGETABLES

ICAR - Indian Institute of Vegetable Research TUE O F VEG E TA BLE

1 INTRODUCTION

India is an agrarian economy and the agriculture sector in India contributes about

17 percent of country’s GDP and provides employment to approximately two third of the population (United Nation Development Programme Fact sheet 2011) India with its varied agro-climatic zones is amenable to grow a wide variety of vegetable crops India, with production level of 176.2 million metric tonnes of vegetables, is the second largest vegetable producer country after China, in the world, accounting for 14% of the total world vegetable production Vegetables are important constituents

of Indian diet as they are rich source of carbohydrate, proteins, vitamins, minerals, glucosinolates, antioxidants, fibre, etc Vegetables and fruits are consumed for nutrition, maintenance of health and many for their therapeutic values and prevention

of diseases The indiscriminate use of chemical inputs in agriculture fears/concerns the contamination of foods with agrochemicals The consumers are concerned about the vegetables they eat Both the international and domestic communities are becoming more and more conscious on issues like residues of poisonous agrochemicals in vegetables and their associated health and environmental hazards This therefore made us to think about alternate form of agriculture to produce food devoid of contaminants Organic agriculture is one among the broad spectrum of production methods that are supportive of the environment and restricts the use of synthetic inputs

India is the second most populous country in the world With the increasing population, the cultivable land resource is shrinking day by day To meet the food, fibre, fuel, fodder and other needs of the growing population, the productivity of agricultural land and soil health needs to be improved Green Revolution ushered through use of modern agriculture technologies such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient-responsive, high-yielding varieties of crops, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials, etc., undoubtedly has increased production and labour efficiency in the post-independence era and made our countries self-sufficient in food production But indiscriminate and excessive use of chemicals during this period has put forth a question mark on sustainability of agriculture in the long run and concerns have been raised time and again over its adverse effects on soil productivity and environment Some of the adverse effects are soil erosion, depletion of organic matter in soil, nutrient deficiencies, low water availability, salinization, fertilizer and pesticide contamination of food and water bodies and erosion of bio-diversity calling attention for sustainable production technology which will address soil health, human health and environmental health and eco-friendly agriculture Besides in the present era of global warming and climate change, the face of agriculture has to be more environments friendly, hence the main emphasis should be for development of production technologies which are sustainable in long run Therefore, in sustaining agricultural production against the finite natural resource base, the demands has shifted from the “resource degrading” chemical agriculture to a “resource protective” biological or organic agriculture Organic farming appears to be one of the options for sustainability As a result, there

is a resurgence of interest in organic farming globally, which holds sustainability of natural resources and environment supreme along with natural taste and nutritional quality of the produce During the last two decades, ‘Organic Agriculture’ has emerged as a dynamic ‘Alternate Farming System’ There has been a paradigm shift and interest to adopt organic vegetable production systems, which are ecologically and economically viable and socially just Organic farming of vegetables production favours maximum use of organic materials and discourages use of synthetic agro-inputs to ensure conservation of natural resources and healthy environment The primarily goal of organic vegetable production is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil, plants, animals and people

In view of growing awareness of health and environment issues, organic farming especially of vegetables is gaining momentum across the world and emerging fast

as an attractive source of rural income generation Organic products are increasingly preferred in developed countries and in major urban centers in India There is high demand for organic food in domestic and international market which is growing around 20-25 percent annually; as a result the area under organic farming has been increasing consistently India with its varied climate and variety of soils has an enormous potential for organic vegetable production The wide product base, high volume of production round the year, strategic geographic location, high international demand, abundant sunlight and availability of labour at comparatively low cost make India an apt location for organic vegetable production

Under organic farming nutrient management is of utmost importance as the soil fertility has to be not only maintained but also to be improved All synthetic fertilizers are prohibited in organic farming A healthy biologically active soil is the source of crop nutrition A live, healthy soil with proper management and effective crop rotation can sustain optimum productivity over the years, without any loss

in fertility The sustenance of crop yields is linked to the capacity of cycling and manipulation of essential nutrients The capacity to produce usable biomass depends upon the adequacy and balance of macro and micro nutrients in the plant Organic sources of nutrition contain all the essential nutrients The application of appropriate quantity of organic manures can not only sustain the yield of vegetable crops but can also enhance it The basic idea of nutrient supplementation in organic farming

is to replenish the requirement of nutrients through the use of permitted inputs There are a number of organic sources of nutrients and among them green manures, compost, vermicompost, organic cakes, biofertilizers and biodynamic preparations are important In organic farming, efforts are made to minimize losses of nutrients and maximize the input use efficiency It has been estimated that in India every year 280 million tonnes, cattle dung, 273 million tonnes, crop residues, 285 million tonnes compost and 6351 million cubic meter domestic wastes are produced which can be reused and recycled effectively in order to promote organic farming in India Organic farming of vegetables is still in its infancy in India and there is not much work done in this field

2 BASIC CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLES OF

ORGANIC FARMING

The concept of organic farming is not clear to many concerns (Palaniappan and Annadurai, 1999) Many people consider that traditional agriculture, sustainable agriculture, Jaivik Krishi etc, as organic farming Some people are of the idea that the use of organic manures and natural methods of plant protection instead of using synthetic fertilisers/ pesticides is organic farming But this is not true Organic farming in real sense envisages comprehensive management approach to improve the health of underlying productivity of the soil (Palaniappan and Annadurai, 1999) Above all, the success of organic farming depends to a great extent on the efficiency

of agronomic management adopted to stimulate and augment the underlying productivity of the soil resources All the management practices followed in organic farming are governed by the principles of ecology and are within the ecological means

The basic concepts behind Organic farming are:

• It concentrates on building up the biological fertility of the soil so that the crops take the nutrients they need from the steady turnover within the soil nutrients produced in this way are released in harmony with the needs of the plants

• Control of pests, diseases, and weeds is achieved largely by the development

of an ecological balance within the system and by the use of bio-pesticides and various cultural techniques such as crop rotation, mixed cropping, and cultivation

• Organic farmers recycle all wastes and manures within a farm but the export of the products from the farm results in a steady drain of nutrients

• In a situation, where conservation of energy and resources is considered to

be important, community or country would make every effort to recycles

to all urban and industrial wastes back to agriculture and thus the system would be only being small inputs of new resources to “top up” soil fertility The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) states that “Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health

of soils, ecosystems and people It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for

all involved.” According to Codex Alimentarius (FAO/WHO), organic agriculture

is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro- ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of

off-farm inputs, taking in to account that regional conditions require locally adapted system This is accomplished by using where possible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to full fill any specific function within the system Organic agriculture relies on a number of farming practices that take full advantage of ecological cycles According to IFOAM, organic agriculture is guided by following four principles:

Principle of health: Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of

soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible This principle points out that the health of individuals and communities cannot be separated from the health

of ecosystems - healthy soils produce healthy crops that foster the health of animals and people

Principle of ecology: Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological

systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems It states that production is to be based on ecological processes, and recycling Nourishment and well-being are achieved through the ecology of the specific production environment

Principle of fairness: Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure

fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world, both among people and in their relations to other living beings

Principle of care: Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary

and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to internal and external demands and conditions Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and increase productivity, but this should not be at the risk of jeopardizing health and well-being

These principles of organic farming encourage:

i To work as much as possible within a closed system, and draw upon local resources:

ii ii)To maintain the long-term fertility of soils

iii To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural techniques

iv To produce foodstuffs of high nutritional quality and sufficient quantity

v To reduce the use of fossil energy in agricultural practice to a minimum

vi To give livestock conditions of life that confirm to their physiological need.vii To make it possible for agricultural producers to earn a living through their work and develop their potentialities as human being

3 APPROACHES TO PRODUCE ORGANIC

VEGETABLES

Varieties of concern and problems of modern agriculture gave birth to various new concepts of farming such as organic farming, biodynamic agriculture, natural farming, eco-farming, etc The essential concept of these practices remains the same,

i.e., back to nature, where the philosophy is to feed the soil rather than the crops to

maintain soil health and it is a means of giving back to the nature what has been taken from it (Funtilana, 1990) The organic agriculture is called in different names

by different people, however, the basic concept and philosophy remains the same A number of terminologies are available as mentioned below:

i Organic farming

It is a holistic production management system that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, minimizes pollution of air, soil and water, and optimizes the health and productivity of independent communities of life, plants, animals and people It uses the organic amendments to supply nutrition to the soil and crop

i Bulky organic manures (viz FYM, vermicopost etc.)

ii Green manure (viz dhaincha, sunnhemp etc.)

iii Concentrated organic manures (viz groundnut cakes, neem cake etc.)

ii Natural farming

It was developed in Japan during 1930 by Mokichi Okada who later formed

the “Mokichi Okada Association (MOA)” Natural farming is at par with organic

farming in many ways but gives special emphasis on soil health through composts and use of microbial preparations

iii Ecological agriculture

It is labour intensive system which is based on techniques of crop cultivation

It involves all attention to promote renewable source of energy (draught animal power), electric energy from garbage disposal and biogas from organic wastes It also involves water use efficiency through conjunctive use of rain, tank, underground well and river water Practices which improve crop productivity (genetic and agronomic) i.e hybrid vigour, gene pyramiding, multiple cropping, Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM) and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) are the essential components of ecological farming

iv Agnihotra

Agnihotra is a process of purification of the atmosphere as a cumulative effect

of various scientific principles harnessed to give rise to an unparalleled purifying and

healing phenomenon The process of Agnihotra consists of making two offerings to

the fire exactly at the time of sunrise and sunset along with the chanting of two small

Sanskrit mantras Agnihotra balances the cycle of nature and nourishes the human

life It cleanses the negative effects of pollution

v Rishi Krishi (Rishi Kheti)

This system was evolved by Mr Mohan Shankar Deshpande in Maharashtra and

is being promoted by large number of farmers in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh

In this system, the following aids are used to maintain soil fertility and crop yield

a) Angara: Bhomi Sanskar is being performed to make the soil fertile wherein 15

kg rhizosphere soil of banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis) is broadcasted over an acre

of land It has lot of earthworms and other beneficial microbes, which improves the soil fertility

b) Amrit Pani: Amrit Pani is prepared by mixing 20 kg cow dung, ½ kg honey, ¼ kg

ghee All ingredients are mixed and kept overnight This is used to treat the seeds

field and plants(Beej Sanskar, Jala Sanskar and Vanaspati Sanskar).

c) Panchya Gavya: It basically consists of five products from cow i.e dung (5 kg),

urine (5 litres), milk (3 litres), curd (3 litres) and ghee (1 kg) These are mixed with sugarcane juice, tender coconut water, ripe banana and toddy and incubated for 15 days The mixture is stirred daily for proper mixing and fermentation Mixture is diluted in 1:10 ratio with water, filtered and sprayed on the crop

vi Homeopathy farming

It is a kind of farming with homeopathic aids i.e Homeo nutrients and

Homeopathic plant protection measures

vii Biodynamic agriculture or Vedic Kheti

Biodynamic farming is defined as working with energies, which create and maintain life It involves certain principles and practices for healthy soil, healthy plant and healthful food for human beings and feed for animals In the system, energies from cosmos, earth, cow and plants are systematically and synergistically harnessed It is based on the knowledge that soil, plants, animals and men work together in one agricultural cycle

Biodynamic preparations

Steiner prescribed nine different preparations to aid fertilization, and described how these were to be prepared Steiner believed that these preparations mediated terrestrial and cosmic forces into the soil The prepared substances are numbered 500 through 508, where the first two are used for preparing fields whereas the latter seven are used for making compost

BD 500: It is a humus mixture prepared by filling the horn of a cow with cow manure

and burying it in the ground (40–60 cm below the surface) in the autumn It is left to decompose during the winter and recovered for use the following spring

BD 501: It is prepared by stuffing crushed and powdered quartz into a horn of a cow

and buried into the ground in spring and taken out in autumn It can be mixed with

500 but usually prepared on its own (mixture of 1 tablespoon of quartz powder to 250 liters of water) The mixture is sprayed under very low pressure over the crop during the wet season, in an attempt to prevent fungal diseases It should be sprayed on an overcast day or early in the morning to prevent burning of the leaves

Both 500 and 501 are used on fields by stirring about one teaspoon of the contents of a horn in 40–60 liters of water for an hour, creating vortexes in alternate directions

BD 502: Yarrow blossoms (Achillea millefolium) are stuffed into urinary bladders

from Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), placed in the sun during summer, buried in earth

during winter and retrieved in the spring

BD 503: Chamomile blossoms (Matricaria recutita) are stuffed into small intestines

from cattle buried in humus-rich earth in the autumn and retrieved in the spring

BD 504: Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) plants in full bloom are stuffed together

underground surrounded on all sides by peat for a year

BD 505: Oak bark (Quercus robur) is chopped in small pieces, placed inside the

skull of a domesticated animal, surrounded by peat and buried in earth in a place where lots of rain water runs past

BD 506: Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale) are stuffed into the mesentery of

a cow and buried in earth during winter and retrieved in the spring

BD 507: Valerian flowers (Valeriana officinalis) are extracted into water.

BD 508: Horsetail (Equisetum)

One to three grams of each preparation is added to a dung heap by digging 50 cm deep holes with a distance of 2 meters from each other, except for the 507 preparation, which is stirred into 5 liters of water and sprayed over the entire compost surface All preparations are thus used in homeopathic quantities Each compost preparation is designed to guide a particular decomposition process in the composting mass

Astronomical planting calendar

In biodynamic farming, it is considers that there are astronomical influences

on soil and plant development, for example, what phase of the moon is most appropriate for planting, cultivating or harvesting various kinds of crops This aspect

of biodynamics has been termed “astrological” in nature

4 ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA 4.1 Historical perspective and background

Although the term ‘organic farming’ is getting popularity in recent times, but Organic farming is not a recent origin in India It was initiated 10000 years back when ancient farmers started cultivation depending on natural sources only There is brief mention of several organic inputs in our ancient literatures like Rigveda, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Kautilya Arthasashthra, etc In Rigveda, the use of animal dung as manure was emphasized Atharvaveda indicated the importance of green manure, which was practiced before 1000 BC ( Bhattacharya and Chakra borty, 2005; Bisoyi, 2003) Kautilaya’s Arthashastra recorded manure like oil cakes, excreta of animals, etc In fact, organic agriculture has its roots in traditional agricultural practices that evolved in countless villages and farming communities over the millennium India has traditionally practiced organic agriculture, and farmers were following organic cultivation till the advent of chemical fertilizer and pesticides in the middle

of the last century (1950) that dramatically changed the face of agriculture The process of modernization, particularly the green revolution technologies, has led to the increased use of chemicals However, continuous use of these high energy inputs indiscriminately, now leads to decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health and environments The realization has now dawned that it is essential to make another turnaround if severe environmental

damage is to be stemmed However, the approach is not to return per se to traditional

methods but to integrate modern knowledge to develop a sustainable system

In the modern era, as per the documented evidence, the organic farming in India started long back in 1900 by Sir Albert Howard, British Agronomist in a local village in North India Development of Indore Method of aerobic compost (Howard, 1929), Bangalore method of anaerobic compost (Acharya, 1934), NADEP Compost (ND Pandari Panda, Yeotmal,1980) initiated organic agriculture in India

4.2 Scope of organic farming in India

India is bestowed with lot of potential to produce all varieties of organic products due to its various agro-climatic regions India is endowed with various types of naturally available organic form of nutrients in different parts of the country and it will help for organic cultivation of crops substantially In several parts of the country, the inherited tradition of organic farming is an added advantage There is diversity

in climates100-10,000 mm rainfall, hill, desert, strong traditional farming system- crop-tree animal, innovative farmers, vast dry lands (60% agricultre land), least use

of chemicals In India, only 40% of total cultivable area is covered with fertilizers where irrigation facilities are available and in the remaining 60% of arable land, which is mainly rain-fed, negligible amount of fertilizers is being used Farmer’s

in these areas often use organic manure as a source of nutrients that are readily available either in their own farm or in their locality The North-Eastern region of India provides considerable opportunity for organic farming due to least utilization

of chemical inputs It is estimated that 18 million hectares of such land is available

in the NE, which can be exploited for organic production Infact, the rainfed, tribal, north east and hilly regions, of the country where negligible chemicals are used practicing subsistent agriculture for a long period, these areas are organic by default With the sizable acreage under naturally organic/default organic cultivation, India has tremendous potential to grow crops organically and emerge as a major supplier

of organic products in the world’s organic market This hold promises for the organic producers to tap the market which is growing steadily in the domestic market and

to the export market India is an exporting country and does not import any organic products The main market for exported products is the European Union, USA, Far east and Gulf countries The report of the Task Force on Organic Farming appointed

by the Government of India also observed that in vast areas of the country, where limited amount of chemicals issued and have low productivity, could be exploited as potential areas for organic agriculture (Anonymous, 2001)

As regards the availability of major organic nutritional inputs (NPK) in India, it

is estimated that around 700 mt of agricultural wastes available in the country every year, but most of it is not properly used This implies a theoretical availability of 5 tonnes of organic manure/hectare arable land/year, which is equivalent to about 100

kg NPK/ha/yr (Tondon, 1997) The estimate of National Centre of Organic Farming, Ghaziabad (Bhattacharya and Kumar 2005) is as follows: a) Crop residue = 3.865million tonnes b) Animal dung = 3.854 million tonnes c) Green manure = 0.223 million tonnes d) Biofertilizer = 0.370 million tonnes There are several alternatives for supply of soil nutrients from organic sources like compost, FYM, Crop residues, vermicompost, biofertilizers, etc Technologies have been developed to produce large quantities of nutrient-rich manure/compost There are specific biofertilizers for cereals, millets, pulses and oilseeds that offer a great scope to further reduce the gap between nutrient demand and supply Besides, there is enough scope of using biodynamic preparation, Amrit Pani , Jeeva Amrit, etc on on-farm production basis

5 ORGANIC FARMING IN VEGETABLE CROPS

Vegetables in addition to being a source of highly digestible carbohydrate and nutritionally complete protein, are also an excellent source of essential nutrients,

Thiamin and vitamins A and C, etc Green leafy Vegetables such as amaranth, bathua and spinach etc., are cheaper source of folic acid Vegetables are the best resource for overcoming micronutrient deficiencies Judicious mix of vegetables can provide the recommended daily allowance for vitamin, folate as well as significant amounts

of other essential mineral nutrients required for human health Moreover, most of the vegetables, being short duration crops, fit very well in the different multiple and inter-cropping system and are capable of giving very high yields and very high economic returns to the growers in a short period of time, besides generating on farm and off farm employment as a result, in recent years major emphasis is given for commercial exploitation of vegetable crops Organics added in its cultivation will lead to more value addition providing better income and a sustainable production.According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization report about 17% of Indians are too undernourished to lead a productive life Main issue

is the lack of balanced nutrition in the diet Around 51% men and 48% women have high fat diets Almost three in five men and an equal number of women have low intake of fruit and vegetables This emphasizes the need for balanced nutrition in the diet Vegetables being nutritionally rich, thus, offer vast potential for ensuring food and nutritional security and eradicating malnutrition for millions of people of our country Most of the fruits and vegetables are consumed in fresh conditions The indiscriminate use of chemical inputs in agriculture fears/concerns the contamination

of foods with agrochemicals and may lead to various kinds of health hazards Hence there is need to produce food free of contaminants Organic vegetable production, besides feeding the burgeoning population of the country, increases the farmers’ income providing them economic security India has an enormous potential for organic production of vegetables and generate revenue through export

India grows the largest number of

vegetables from temperate to humid tropics and

from sea-level to snowline More than 70 types

of vegetables are grown in our country, which

generate high income and employment, for

small farmers particularly in peri urban areas

Major vegetables grown in India are potato,

onion, tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, bean, egg

plant, cucumber and gherkhins, frozen peas,

garlic and okra The country has exported 6,

99,600.34 MT of Fresh Vegetables other than Onion to the world for the worth of

Rs 2119.50 crores during the year 2015-16 The major destinations for Indian fruits and vegetables are UAE, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Netherland, Sri Lanka, Nepal, UK, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Qatar.

Vegetable consumption of an average Indian per capita per day (252g) is far less than recommended (300 g) Our demand by 2020 will be around 250 million tonnes

of vegetables Thus in order to feed the population, the only solution is the vertical expansion or by increasing the productivity per unit area per unit time as the potential available land and water resources is going to be limited Our strategy should be to produce more vegetables from less land, less water with less pesticides and with less detrimental to soil and environment as well Organic vegetable cultivation offers one

of the most sustainable farming systems with recurring benefits to not only long-term soil health but provides a lasting stability in production by importing better resistance against various biotic and abiotic stresses Organic vegetables fetch a premium price

of 10-50 % over conventional products There is high demand for organic food in domestic and international market Market of organic products is growing at faster rate (20-25%) as compared to conventional ones (5%) annually This growth rate is highest in Japan, USA, Australia and EU Export preference of organic vegetables offers a great scope to a country like India, which has inculcated the skill of growing organically since time immemorial

5.1 Characteristics of Organic Farming Systems in vegetables

Management of Organic farming is focussed on the whole farm system and its interactions with climate, environment, social as well as economic conditions, rather than considering the farm as comprises of individual enterprises The key characteristics of Organic Farming include:

• Protecting the long-term fertility of soils by maintaining organic matter levels, soil biological activity and careful mechanical intervention

• Nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of legumes and biological nitrogen fixation, as well as effective recycling of organic materials, including crop residues and livestock wastes

• Weed, disease and pests control relying primarily on crop rotation, natural predators, crop diversity, organic manuring, use of resistant varieties and limited thermal, biological and chemical intervention

• Supplementing crop nutrients, where necessary, by using nutrient sources which are made available to the plants indirectly but the action of soil micro organisms and chemical reactions of the soil

• The extensive management of livestock, paying full regards to their evolutionary adaptations behavioural needs, and animal welfare issues with respect to nutrition, housing, health, breading and rearing

• Careful attention to the impact of the farming system on the wider

environment and the conservation of wildlife and natural habitats (Padel and Lampkin, 1994).

5.2 Objectives of Organic Farming in Vegetable crops

The primary goal of organic vegetable production is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil, plant, animal and people

• To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity

• To encourage biological cycles within farming systems by involving the use of microorganisms, soil flora & fauna, plants and animals

• To maintain and increase the long-term fertility of soil and biodiversity

• To use renewable resources in locally organized production systems

• To work as much as possible within a close system with regard to organic matter and nutrient elements and draw up on local resources

• To avoid all forms of pollution that may results from Agricultural techniques

• To reduce the use of fossil energy in agricultural practice to the minimum

6 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR

ORGANIC VEGETABLES

The intensification of agriculture, excess and indiscriminate/imbalance use

of inorganic fertilizer and agrochemicals has deteriorated soil health badly with deficiency of macro and micronutrient Depleting soil organic carbon status, decreasing soil fertility and reduced factor productivity, increase in the cost of production and deteriorating environmental quality are other issues of concern (Yadav et al., 2016) Existing and emerging widespread deficiencies of nutrients are threatening the sustainable agricultural productivity, nutritional quality as well animal and human health as most of the nutrients that are required for human health come from the soil through either plants or animal products consumed by humans These indicate the weakening of natural resource base If we continue to exploit the natural resources at the current level, productivity and sustainability is bound to suffer Besides in the present era of global warming and climate changes, efforts must

be focused on reversing the trend in soil degradation by adopting efficient organic agriculture practices, to achieve sustainable higher productivity

Conventional agriculture is based on concept of fertilising the crop while in organic agriculture, it is for ‘fertilising the soil’ A living soil is the basis of organic farming The organic farming system takes local soil fertility as a key to successful production Plant uses nutrients from organic sources through mineralisation and billions of microorganisms are available in soil for this job Under present agricultural situation of inorganic conventional farming practices, due to loss of organic matter maintenance of optimum soil microbial load is a major problem Under organic farming practices, regular addition of organic fertiliser improves the soil quality The loss of nutrient in organic manure is also less due to its slow release It is always better to use on farm inputs

Nutrient management is the key factor for all farming systems In organic farming systems there is no place for synthetic chemicals therefore use of chemical fertilizers is abandoned, In organic farming, nutrient management depends on biologically derived nutrients through recycling of on- farm inputs As a strategy, the quantity of biomass removed for human food and fiber, cattle feed or firewood from an organic farm should be replaced with any other bio-waste on the farm Use

of organics in vegetable production should be practiced It does not involve the use

of any particular organic source of material or the use of a single organic farming practice The various types of organic farming (natural farming, ley farming, non-chemical farming, etc.) can be followed by adopting variety of methods of organic farming Depending upon the resource base of an ecosystem and time/cost factors, some methods may attain predominance in a given situation Sometimes, a particular requirement such as pest control may get pre-dominance over other aspects of

organic farming (for instance, control of boll worm in hybrid cotton is of utmost importance than other factors to increase the cotton yields) A particular method of organic farming to control pests may be emphasized Thus, each eco-system and each crop may require different set of methods of organic farming based on priority Sometimes, a mixture of many methods may have to be developed based on critical analysis of resources available at hand, cost of materials, convenience of their use and favourable situation for decomposition.

(Sesbania sp.), sunhemp and cowpea may be used as green manure which can fix atmospheric nitrogen to the extent of 60-100 kg/ha Generally, dhaincha (Sesbania esculenta, S rostrata) and sunhemp (Crotolaria juncia) are ploughed in the soil after

about 6 to 8 weeks of sowing when adequate vegetative growth is attained Use of green manure is highly beneficial for organic production and maintaining soil health Besides adding nutrients into the soil, green manures also improve the physical and microbial properties of the soil The benefits arising out of green manuring practice are limited by factors such as:

• Quantity of green matter incorporated

and actual nutrients contained in them

• Time taken for decomposition

• Favourable factors available in soil for

decomposition

• Stage of incorporation

• Release pattern of nutrients

Green manuring can be done either through in-situ growing of leguminous crops( Dhaincha, sun hemp and cowpea)or through ex-situ addition of green lopping from pongamia or gliricidia trees and other plants grown on bunds, Major nutrients content of some of the green manure crops has been presented in Table 1 a and b

Table 1(a): Productivity and nitrogen content (fresh wt basis) in some green manure

crops

Crop Green biomass (t/ ha) Nitrogen %

Subabul 09-11 0.80 Sunhemp 12-13 0.43 Dhaincha 20-22 0.43 Cowpea 15-16 0.49 Clusterbean 20-22 0.34 Berseem 15-16 0.43

Table 1(b): Nutrient content (dry wt basis) in some green manure crops

Crop Nutrient content (% on dry weight basis)

6.1.2 Farm yard manure

The term ‘farm yard manure’ is an expression to signify any manure prepared

in the backyard using the farm waste, cattle urine and dung Since very early ages, its use is prevalent in agriculture Although very little scientific attention was paid till 1970’s to scientifically study the method of preparing FYM and possibility of improving the quality of decomposition Three principal methods of preparing FYM are standardized on scientific lines in the last 15 to 20 years

1 Open pit method Allowing semi-aerobic decomposition of farm wastes

in underground pit This method gradually requires turning of the decomposition material frequently

underground pit This requires sealing the surface of the pit with dung slurry

3 Japanese method (vat

method)

Allowing aerobic decomposition of farm wastes in an above ground structures of stones/bricks or thatched walls upto height of 1 meter

The benefits derived by application of FYM are reported ever since the documentation on experimental results started Farm yard manure application can result into chain of effects in soil besides increasing the crop yield The response to applied FYM could be studied in four groups:

1 Improved crop yields

2 Improved physical properties of soil

3 Improved microbial activity

4 Residual benefits to succeeding crop

The willingness to associate with FYM preparation is lacking in the rural community and not the shortage of dung or crop residues There is no other reason why FYM is not available in adequate quantity, when quantity of dung and crop residues has substantially increased in the past 25 to 30 years Consumption of crop residues by cattle does not create a dearth of biomass for manure preparation If the dung and urine from cattle are effectively collected, nearly 70 to 80 per cent of energy fed to as crop residues can be recovered back As much as 80 to 90 per cent of

N, 60 to 70 per cent of P and 60 to 75 per cent of K contained in the crop residues fed

to cattle are excreted by them in the form of dung and urine In case of milch cows,

70 to 79 per cent of N, 50 to 59 per cent of P and 61 to 65 per cent of K are excreted

(Gaur et al., 1990) In this perspective, dung and urine from cattle are efficiently

converted energy from crop residues It is ridiculous to allow such huge resource of nutrients from the Indian cattle population, which is one of the largest, to go to waste.6.1.3 Enriched Compost

Composting of organic residues is the traditional source of nutrients for crops Though the concentration of nutrients is quite low in compost, its special merit lies in its capacity to supply almost all the essential micronutrients in addition to NPK, which are becoming deficient in the intensively cultivated areas The supply

of micronutrients particularly satisfies the hidden hunger in plants and safeguards against toxicity/injury Besides the supply of nutrients, compost improves the physical, chemical and biological health of the soil The compost can be further enriched by incorporation of biofertilizers, microbial inoculants, and rock phosphates etc.

6.1.4 Vermicompost

Vermiculture technology is an aspect involving the use of earthworms as versatile natural bioreactors for effective recycling of non-toxic organic wastes to the soil They effectively harness the beneficial soil micro flora, destroy soil pathogens, and convert organic wastes into valuable products such as bio-fertilizers, bio-pesticides, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics, and growth hormones The term vermicompost refers to manure prepared out of large scale rearing of earthworms in an artificial or natural pit Earthworms can be used in specifically designed pits or in any ordinary FYM pits Frequently, a term vermiculture is also used to denote a culture of young earthworms which are let in any undigested compost pit or in an agricultural field directly They reproduce and grow in number The fecal waste from large number of earthworm is available as manure Generally, this method is adopted when soil has large undecomposed organic matter The establishment of required population of earthworms may take more time to contribute sizeable manure

Table 2: Average nutrient content of organic manures

6.1.5 Concentrated organic manures (Oil cakes)

Use of oil cakes as manures for increasing the crop yields is one of the conventional form of organic farming Before the use of fertilizers, the oil cakes were applied in granulated formulations to agricultural lands, so that the nutrients contained in them were made available to crops This added large amounts of organic carbon to the soil, which helped in enhancing microbial activity At present in the Indian scenario, use of oil cakes as a source of nutrients is largely limited because:

• Most of the edible oil cakes are fed to the cattle as concentrates

• Oil cakes usually supply limited amount of nutrients because of better oil extraction methods like solvent extraction as compared to traditional methods

• The extraction process is performed in oil industries which is located away from the agricultural fields thus increasing the cost of transportation per kg

of nutrient in the oil cake

Nevertheless, the potentiality of oil cakes for being used as manures is evident

in non- edible cakes (castor cake, linseed cake and neem cake) and oil bearing trees

(Terminalia chebula, Madhuca indica, Jatropha cucras)

6.1.6 Crop residue

Use of crop residues is essential in organic vegetable production, which increases the soil organic matter content, maintains soil fertility status, and in turn increases the crop yield Recyclable nutrients (N, P, K, S, Zn, Mn, Fe and Cu) from plant wastes can be used through scientific composting The technology for converting waste into compost has been developed but it needs refinement as per the location and situation specific adaptation This step would help in organic farming, reducing

Table 3: Nutrient content of some oil cakes

the cost of cultivation and improving the soil health Vegetable crops generate a large amount of crop residues after harvesting of economic part The embedded nutrients

in the residues can be potential source of organic nutrition These huge amounts of otherwise unused vegetable waste can be effectively recycled to produce valuable vermicompost and NADEP compost as per the principles of organic farming In

a study conducted on production of NADEP compost and vermicompost through recycling of crop residues at IIVR, Varanasi, revealed that vegetable residues are excellent source for production of organic manures The efficacy of these composts was evaluated in field experiments in organic vegetable production The hardy plant residues (such as brinjal, okra and cowpea) were subjected to NADEP compost preparation The study demonstrated that vermicompost produced from the combining mixture of non-legume and legume vegetable waste in 1:1 ratio with cow dung (40-50%) will provide the major nutrients in more balanced proportion compared to vermicompost from sole /individual family waste

Table 4: Quality and recover of vermicompost produced from vegetable wastes

( bottle gourd, pumpkin,

spong gourd, bitter gourd)

Table 5: Quality and recover of NADEP compost produced from vegetable wastes

2017) Chatterjee et al (2014) reported that vermicompost prepared from mixture

of non-legume and legume wastes at 2:1 emerged best considering the nutrient contents Use of such vermicompost recorded highest root length, root volume, root weight and root yield of carrot

A number of studies conducted by many workers have demonstrated the viability

of composting technology for utilization of fruit and vegetable wastes for production

of vermicompost Avinash Chauhan et al (2010) reported increase in Nitrogen,

Phosphorous and Potassium content of the vermicompost prepared from wastes of green peas, brinjal, French beans, cabbages, tomatoes, parts of cauliflower and carrot

collected from markets by Eisenia foetida Similarly Khwairakpam and Kalamdhad

(2011) reported that vegetable waste amended with cattle manure produced high

Table 6: Yield of Brinjal, Pea and cabbage cultivation under organic system