THE IMPACT OF TASK BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Applying taskbased language teaching into improving speaking skills at a language center. This thesis shows you how oral performance has been improved and students attitude towards TBLT. Lots of effective recommendations are introduced to help ELT teachers in teaching speaking skills.

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THESIS TITLE:

THE IMPACT OF TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

ON LEARNERS’ ORAL COMMUNICATION PERFORMANCE:

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AT VUS

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by

LE DO NGOC HANG

Supervised by

Dr NGUYEN HOANG TUAN

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2013

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify my authorship of the thesis entitled “THE IMPACT OF TASK-BASED

PERFORMANCE: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AT VUS” as a fulfillment for Master‟s Programs at Ho Chi Minh City Open University, issued by the Higher Degree Committee

No other authors‟ works have been cited without due acknowledgement in the content

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Le Do Ngoc Hang, being a candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the Open University relating to the retention and use of Master‟s Thesis deposited in the Library

I totally agree that the originality of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research or for care or loan

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In my „study exploration and adventure‟ to complete this thesis, several individuals have advocated me I would like to acknowledge wholeheartedly their assistance, cooperation and encouragement which all made substantial contribution to the accomplishment of this study Without them, this study would not have been finalized

Firstly, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my thesis supervisor, Dr Nguyen Hoang Tuan, who gave me critical comments, ultra-intensive support, and extremely considerable encouragement throughout this study It is an honor to have had Dr Nguyen Hoang Tuan as an advisor during my research and a role model for my forthcoming teaching profession

Secondly, I would like to acknowledge the support from School of Graduate Studies, particularly Dr Pham Vu Phi Ho and Mr Trinh Thai Van Phuc, who have greatly and materially assisted me in doing this thesis

In addition, my sincere gratitude also goes to all of the teachers, staff and students of the two classes at VUS who enthusiastically joined my research with their endless patience and full cooperation leading to the emerge of this thesis

Last but not least, a million thanks I would like to send to my family, in particular, my loving husband and my tiny baby, who have encouraged me with unlimited sympathy when I am deep in the demoralization Besides, I am also immensely grateful to all of

my friends who always care for me and stay by my side to mobilize me to finalize the study

ABSTRACT

The emergence of task-based language teaching has ceaselessly made substantial contribution in the field of educational curriculum, in general or the development of language teaching methodology, in particular With the premium placed on learner- centeredness and goal orientation, TBLT appears to be one of the most congruous and effective English teaching methods for classroom teachers to enhance students’ English oral communication performance Few task-based related researches, nevertheless, have been conducted in Vietnam, especially in English language centers

As a result, this thesis aims at exploring the effectiveness of TBLT implementation into enhancing students’ oral communication performance at Vietnam USA Society English language center in district 4 in Ho Chi Minh City as well as investigating students’ attitudes towards TBLT implementation procedures

This thesis was conducted for teenagers aged from at one of VUS centers in district 4 from March 25 th , 2013 to July 13 th , 2013 The main methodology design of this paper was experimental Consequently, tests, questionnaires and classroom observations were carefully selected to collect fruitful data in forms of students’ scores and their attitudes which were then analyzed and interpreted after the intervention of TBLT

With the strong evidence via t-tests from students’ oral communication performance scores after treatment, it was proved that TBLT showed its effectiveness in enhancing students’ oral communication performance in three of four investigated criteria containing fluency, comprehensibility and task achievement One of the criteria, which

is accuracy sub-divided into three smaller categories: grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, could not be improved after the treatment The slight downward tendency of this criterion, however, was not statistically significant Generally

speaking, the operational effectiveness of TBLT is indisputable In response to the second issue, this paper discovered that students expressed their positive attitudes towards TBLT implementation through the analysis of their questionnaires

In accordance with the findings of this thesis, some recommendations for classroom teachers as well as researchers who are interested in this teaching method would be completely presented at the end of this thesis

Key words: Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), tasks, oral communication performance, speaking skill

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LISTS OF TABLES, CHARTS AND DIAGRAM xi

ABBREVIATIONS xiii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 Statement of the problem 2

1.3 Objectives of the study 3

1.4 Significance of the study 4

1.5 Structure of the thesis 4

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Task-based Language Teaching 6

2.2.1 Basic Assumption of TBLT 7

2.2.2 Pedagogical Principles of TBLT 8

2.2.3 Goals of TBLT 9

2.3 Tasks and Language Learning 11

2.3.1 What is a task? 11

2.3.2 The Role of Task in Language Learning 13

2.4 Components and Typology of Tasks 13

2.4.1 Components of Tasks 14

2.4.1.1 Goals 14

2.4.1.2 Input 15

2.4.1.3 Activities 16

2.4.1.4 Roles 16

2.4.1.5 Settings 18

2.4.2 Typology of Tasks 19

2.5 TBLT Implementation 24

2.5.1 Framework of TBLT 24

2.5.1.1 Pre-task phase 24

2.5.1.2 Task cycle 26

2.5.1.3 Language focus 28

2.5.2 Factors Affecting Implementation of TBLT 29

2.5.2.1 Task factors affecting implementation of TBLT 29

2.5.2.2 Learner related factors affecting implementation of TBLT 30

2.5.2.3 Teacher related factors affecting implementation of TBLT 32

2.5.2.4 Procedural factors affecting implementation of TBLT 32

2.6 Criticism of TBLT 34

2.6.1 Advantages 34

2.6.2 Drawbacks 36

2.7 Oral communication 37

2.7.1 The importance of oral communication 37

2.7.2 Components of oral communication performance 38

2.8 Summary 39

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY 40

3.1 Introduction 40

3.2 Research questions 40

3.3 Research site 40

3.4 Participants 41

3.5 Research design 43

3.6 Materials 44

3.6.1 Procedures of GTM lesson plans 45

3.6.2 Procedures of TBLT lesson plans 47

3.7 Data collection instruments 52

3.7.1 Tests 52

3.7.2 Questionnaire 54

3.7.3 Classroom Observations 56

3.8 Summary 57

Chapter 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 58

4.1 Introduction 58

4.2 Analyzing data and interpretation 58

4.2.1 Analysis of students‟ oral communication performance 58

4.2.1.1 Students‟ oral communication performance in the pre-test 58

4.2.1.2 Students‟ oral communication performance in the post-test 59

4.2.1.3 Comparisons of pre-test and post-test scores for each group 61

4.2.1.4 Comparison of means (X) and standard deviations (SD) on pre-tests and post-pre-tests 62

4.2.2 Analysis of the mean scores of four rudimentary criteria in the oral communication scoring rubric 63

4.2.2.1 Comparison of each criterion in the oral communication scoring rubric of the control group 63

4.2.2.2 Comparison of mean scores and S.D of pre-tests and post-tests of the control group 65

4.2.2.3 Comparison of each criterion in the oral communication scoring rubric of the experimental group 66

4.2.2.4 Comparison of mean scores and S.D of pre-tests and post-tests of

the experimental group 68

4.2.3 Analysis of students‟ attitudes on TBLT 69

4.2.3.1 Pre-task 69

4.2.3.2 Task cycle 70

4.2.3.2.1 Task 71

4.2.3.2.2 Planning 72

4.2.3.2.3 Report 73

4.2.3.3 Language focus 74

4.2.3.3.1 Analysis 74

4.2.3.3.2 Practice 75

4.2.4 Analysis of classroom observation 75

4.2.4.1 Pre-task 76

4.2.4.2 Task cycle 77

4.2.4.3 Language focus 79

4.2.5 Summary 80

4.3 Discussion of findings 80

4.3.1 Discussion of findings on learners‟ achievement 80

4.3.2 Discussion of findings on learners‟ attitudes towards TBLT 81

4.3.2.1 Pre-task phase 82

4.3.2.2 Task cycle 82

4.3.2.3 Language focus 83

4.4 Summary 83

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 84

5.1 Introduction 84

5.2 Fundamental conclusions 84

5.3 Limitation and delimitation of this thesis 85

5.4 Recommendations for teachers of English 86

5.5 Recommendations for further research 88

5.6 Summary 89

REFERENCES 90

APPENDICES 95

Appendix 1: TBLT typical lesson plan 95

Appendix 1A: Unit 7B (students‟ book) 98

Appendix 1B: Pre-task: handout 1 99

Appendix 1C: Pre-task: handout 2 100

Appendix 1D: Pre-task: handout 3 101

Appendix 1E: Task and report handout 102

Appendix 2: GTM typical lesson plan 103

Appendix 3: Questionnaire about students‟ attitudes of task-based language teaching procedure 106

Appendix 4: Summary of experimental students‟ attitudes of task-based language teaching procedures 112

Appendix 5: Observation checklist 115

Appendix 6A: Questions for the oral interview for YL7 122

Appendix 6B: Questions for the oral interview for YL8 125

Appendix 7: Oral communication performance scoring rubrics 128

Appendix 8: Score table of oral interview in the control and experimental group 129 Appendix 9A: Full sample recording scripts of students‟ oral communication performance scoring 5 131

Appendix 9B: Full sample recording scripts of students‟ oral communication performance scoring 6 133

Appendix 9C: Full sample recording scripts of students‟ oral communication

performance scoring 7 135

Appendix 9D: Full sample recording scripts of students‟ oral communication performance scoring 8 137

LISTS OF TABLES, CHARTS AND DIAGRAM TABLES Table 1: Goals of TBLT 10

Table 2: Learner „in the head‟ factors 31

Table 3: Procedural factors affecting the implementation of TBLT 34

Table 4: Summary of participants‟ age and gender 42

Table 5: Summary of years of learning English at pedagogic school and VUS 42

Table 6: Structure of experimental design (Vaus, 2007, p.32) 44

Table 7: Summary of five typical GTM lesson plans 47

Table 8: Summary of five typical TBLT lesson plans 51

Table 9: Mean scores and standard deviations of the control and experimental group 62 Table 10: Comparison of mean scores and S.D of pre-tests and post-tests in the control group 65

Table 11: Comparison of mean scores and S.D of pre-tests and post-tests of the experimental group 68

CHARTS Chart 1: Distribution of oral scores in control and experimental groups before TBLT treatment 59

Chart 2: Distribution of oral scores in control and experimental groups after TBLT treatment 60

Chart 3: Pre-test and post-test oral scores of each student in the control group 61

Chart 4: Pre-test and post-test oral scores of each student in the experimental group 61

Chart 5: Four rudimentary criteria in the oral communication scoring rubric of control group 64

Chart 6: Sub-criteria of accuracy in the oral communication scoring rubric of the control group 64

Chart 7: Four rudimentary criteria in the oral communication scoring rubric of the experimental group 67

Chart 8: Sub- criteria of accuracy in the oral communication scoring rubric of the experimental group 67

Chart 9: Students‟ attitudes towards pre-task phase 70

Chart 10: Students‟ attitudes towards task phase 71

Chart 11: Students‟ attitudes towards planning phase 72

Chart 12: Students‟ attitudes towards report phase 73

Chart 13: Students‟ attitudes towards analysis phase 74

Chart 14: Students‟ attitudes towards practice phase 75

DIAGRAM Diagram 1: Social Organization and Teaching Activity (Wright, 1987) 19

ABBREVIATIONS

CLT Communicative Language Teaching

EFL English as a Foreign Language

ELT English Language Teaching

MOET Ministry of Education and Training

SLA Second Language Acquisition

TBLL Task-Based Language Learning

TBLT Task-Based Language Teaching

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

In line with globalization and international integration in recent years, Bailey and Savage (1994) insist that oral communication is the prerequisite to communicate effectively in this globalized society This indispensable skill, nevertheless, is beyond teenagers‟ capacity in spite of the fact that they are exposed to English for many pedagogic years One of the most influential elements causing this unexpected result is teaching methodology Over the years, ELT has undergone a lot of positive transformations in the ongoing renovation of a plethora of pedagogical methods with a view to enabling learners to transcend form-and-structure-based and teacher-centered language model to a more meaningful communication and learner-centered one The emergence of TBLT, which has recently attracted great attention from teachers, researchers and linguists, seems to be a practical approach to the learning process Derived from the theory of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), TBLT – a strong version of it should achieve the realistic and authentic use of specific grammatical rules In other words, it provides a purpose for classroom activities which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake (Richards et al 1986:289) This drives teaching oral communication to a new direction, not only accuracy but fluency should be considered seriously Over two decades with a lot of professional researches and energetic debates, TBLT has proved its crucial role in teaching-and-learning a second language from methods with language acquisition to get our students reading, writing, listening and speaking Although TBLT has been implemented and experimented positively successfully in many countries or other institutions in Vietnam, there are still few researches related to this issue in Vietnamese context,

especially at an English language center like VUS With a desire of taking TBLT advantages of teaching effective communication in Vietnamese context, principles of TBLT should be recognized at very first This leads our research on the exploration of the implementation of TBLT in English classroom and discover to what extent students show their attitudes towards TBLT

1.2 Statement of the problem

A lot of remarkable effort has been made not only by teachers but also by researchers, linguists and curriculum designers in an effort to assist students to use the language efficiently and effectively, but students are still unable to reach the expected proficiency necessary for effective communication There are a large number of hindrances that prevent students from achieving English proficiency Teaching method seems to be one of the most prominent obstacles which are hard to be resolved both in and outside Vietnamese official schools

Although MOET have been implementing the new course materials embedded the CLT as the main teaching method, teachers seem not to be acquainted to; they do not implement it appropriately also because of the assessment system GTM, which seems

to remain to be the most popular method implemented at high schools in my country, displays its numerous disadvantages Firstly, grammar rules are the major emphasis through teachers‟ lecturing and translation is mostly used in most of English classes Students are largely trained to be skillful at dealing with most of the English multiple-choice tests on phonology, grammar, vocabulary and reading comprehension via formal instruction Nevertheless, this does not lead to students‟ well performance when they are required to get their intended meanings across when exposed to an English-speaking environment in spite of the fact that they have mastered hundreds of grammar

rules and tricks in doing tests in their formal English instruction Another hindrance is that this method fundamentally employs teacher-centered approach in which teachers monopolize the teaching and learning process (Nunan, 2004) Teachers‟ lecturing time mainly used in the traditional classroom is one of the de-motivating factors affecting students‟ language acquisition and learning motivation Consequently, after seven years of ongoing pedagogic instruction on English foreign language, effective communication in target language is still beyond their competence

Learning at English language centers is not an exception in this case There is an inconsistency in the selection of English teaching method among teachers in these institutions since they do not regulate teachers‟ freedom of choice to use any particular method As a result, a variety of teaching methods have been employed by various teachers for several years, which are not officially and conclusively proved to be effective in cultivating students‟ ability to use English in communication, especially in oral communication enhancement

1.3 Objectives of the study

In response to the above-mentioned problem in Vietnam language classrooms, the study is aimed at ascertaining that TBLT does show effectiveness for VUS teenagers when being implemented at this center

The two following questions are taken into circumspect consideration during the process of conducting the research so as to achieve the aims of the study,

1 To what extent does TBLT enhance learners‟ oral communication performance at VUS?

2 What are learners‟ attitudes towards TBLT?

1.4 Significance of the study

The experimental study will to a certain extent contribute to the development of quality

of English learning and teaching under the principles and guidelines of TBLT provided that it is successfully implemented to enhance learners‟ oral communication performance at VUS and simultaneously and positively investigate their attitudes towards learning with TBLT

1.5 Structure of the thesis

There are six chapters presented in this thesis

Chapter 1 problematizes the issue discussed in this study by outlining a general and factual background to the study, identifying the statement of the problem and suggesting a recommended language teaching approach Furthermore, it specifies the objectives and pinpoints the significance of this paper

Chapter 2 displays the literature review and shapes the conceptual framework of TBLT implementation into enhancing learners‟ oral communication performance It contains the definitions of tasks, its principles and roles in ELT especially in teaching oral

communication skill, the taxonomy of tasks, and fundamental components of tasks

Chapter 3 demonstrates a step-by-step research methodology comprising of a description of the research question, research design as well as participants; and concluding with materials together lesson plans and method of data collection which are utilized to analyze the data of this research

Chapter 4 is sub-categorized into two fundamental sections The former deals with the process of data analysis and interpretation collected in the previous chapter It is sub-divided into two primary sections in response to the two research questions so that they serve as evidence for the following section in which the premium is placed on the discussion of findings in an effort to provide the answers for the two fundamental research questions based on the analyzed data analysis incipiently presented in the latter

Chapter 5 supplies general conclusions together with this study‟s limitation and delimitation In addition, recommendations for teachers of English and researchers will

be drawn at the end of this section

components of effective oral communication

2.2 Task-based Language Teaching

The incorporation of tasks into English language teaching practice is of great value in response to the urgent exigency of ameliorating students‟ oral communication performance Consequently, TBLT has enormously grown in its popularity in the field

of language teaching since the last decade of the twentieth century and made a significant contribution to the promotion of communication and authentic language use

in second language classrooms It is not a new concept to applied linguists, SLA researchers, curriculum developers, teacher trainers and language teachers It was first proposed by Prabhu in Communicational Teaching Project in his secondary classes in Bengalore, India in 1979 (Edwards and Willis, 2005) Then, it was switched to TBI by American Government institutions in 1980s Several scholars heartily agree that TBI is

a strong version of Communicative Language Teaching (Richards and Rodgers, 2001; Leavers and Willis, 2004) or in other words, it is deprived of CLT since “it draws several principles that formed part of the communicative language teaching movement

from the 1980s” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001) They consider TBLT in their book named “Approach and Method in Language Teaching” as “… an approach based on the use of the tasks as the core unit of language teaching”

2.2.1 Basic Assumption of TBLT

In association with the idea “Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input” but in “tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001), Feez (1998,17) propose seven fundamental assumptions

of TBLT (cited in Richards & Rodgers, 2001 and Edwards & Willis, 2005) as follows:

 The focus is on process rather than product

 Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning

 Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks

 Activities and tasks can be either:

- those that learners might need to achieve in real life;

- those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom

 Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty

 The difficulty of tasks depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available

As mentioned above, TBLT places a premium on the crucial importance of task which

is the nub of syllabus planning and teaching since it provides better contexts activating

learner acquisition processes and promoting L2 learning (Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996; Richards & Rodgers, 2005)

2.2.2 Pedagogical Principles of TBLT

Although Richards & Rodgers (2001, 226) together with Edwards and Willis (2005,13) propose that TBLT is an approach “…based on a theory of language learning rather than a theory of language structure”, it is entirely observable that this current approach

is strongly advocated by both a theory of language and a theory of learning

According to the theory of language acclaimed by Pica, 1994, Foster & Skehan, 1996, Skehan, 1998, Richards, J & Rodgers, T., 2001, TBLT firstly puts the emphasis on the integral role of meaning in language use Secondly, it is not merely associated with a single model of language but it draws on all three ones: structural, functional and interactional What is more, it underlines the critical perspective of assimilating lexical units in language use and language learning in a form of lexicalized models of communication in order to promote the learners‟ fluency in oral production Lastly, TBLT encompasses the key role of “conversation” as the central focus of language instructions in which learners can negotiate meaning and be involved in a real time interaction where language use is maximized

With regard to theory of language learning, constructivism appears to be the most conspicuous and paramount foundation advocating the emergence and life-lasting existence of TBLT This theory claimed that “students learn by actively constructing their own knowledge (von Glasersfeld 1996; Fosnot 1996, Duffy and Cunningham 1996) or in Duffy and Cunningham‟s words “Learning is a process that involves active construction and not passive acquisition.” There are two core approaches to

constructivism so-called cognitive constructivism and social constructivism The former concentrates on the importance of the mind in learning suggested by Piaget whereas the latter places the premium on the key role played by the environment and the interaction between learners Richards and Rodgers (2001) proposed three underlying principles which are the communication principle, the task principle and the meaningfulness principle The first associates with the activities that involve real communication promote learning whereas the second involves in activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promoting L2 acquisition (Johnson, 1982) Most importantly, language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process They strongly advocated that “Learning activities are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and authentic language use (rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns)

2.2.3 Goals of TBLT

According to Skehan (1996a), the primary goal of TBLT is to enable students to be more native-like when performed in real-time communication using their target language In order to acquire the expected proficiency, both accuracy and fluency should be fully taken into circumspect consideration Being accurate in using a foreign language places a high value in the development of fluency In recent years, Leave and Willis (2004) believe that there are some linguists claiming that teaching grammar is not essential

On the contrary, Nunan (1989, 13) says that “… there is value in classroom tasks which require learners to focus on form It is also accepted that grammar is an essential resource in using language communicatively” This indicates that teaching grammar, explicitly or implicitly, accounts for learner‟s well performance in native like

environment using the target language Nunan (2004, p 4) once again restates the importance of grammar status by insisting that “pedagogical tasks involve communicative language use in which the user‟s attention is focused on meaning rather than grammatical form This does not mean form is not important… meaning and form are interrelated, and grammar exists to enable the language user to express different communicative meanings” Thus, Skehan (1996a, 1996b) advocates that TBLT has three main goals: accuracy, complexity/ range, and fluency as follows:

Fluency The capacity to use language in real time, to emphasize

meanings, possibly drawing on more lexicalized systems Complexity/

Range

The capacity to use more advanced language, with the possibility that such language may not be controlled so effectively This may also involve a greater willingness to take risks, and use fewer controlled language subsystems This area is also taken to correlate with a greater likelihood

of restructuring, that is, change and development in the language system

inter-Accuracy The ability to avoid error in performance, possibly reflecting

higher level of control in the language as well as a conservative orientation, that is, avoidance of challenging structures that might provoke error

Table 1: Goals of TBLT

Based on the above definitions of Skehan‟s elaborated three fundamental goals of TBLT, it is apparently observable that TBLT puts the emphasis on fluency in communication, and accuracy as well as complexity is a stepping-stone to reach the expected fluency in native-like environment A traditional long-lasting cause leading to the failure of L2 learners is that they are afraid of being ashamed when making mistakes in front of their peers Should they acquire good knowledge of both form and use, they are able to bolster their confidence of effectively using target language without hesitation Therefore, the idea that looking for a balance between these language aspects is of great importance for task designers is laid enormous stress by Skehan (1996b, p.22): “It is fundamental for the designer of task-based instruction to engineer situations which maximize the chances that there will be a balance between these different goals when intentional resources are limited” As accuracy, complexity and fluency are highly interwoven; Skehan, cited in Birch (2005), maintains the balance by selecting tasks which emphasize particular goals and implementing tasks sequentially Leaver and Willis (2004) support that striking the balance can assist L2 learners to deliver satisfactory performance in the target language

2.3 Tasks and Language Learning

2.3.1 What is a task?

Within the literature, there are numerous definitions which can be easily found (Long, 1985; Richards, 1985; Candlin, 1987; Prabhu, 1987; Wright 1987; Breen, 1987; Crookes, 1986; Nunan, 1989; Willis, 1996; Skehan 1998; Bygate, 1999; Ellis, 2000;

Bygate et al., 2001; Nuan, 2004; and many others)

Originated from CLT theory, TBLT is an approach in which “the point of departure is not an ordered list of linguistic items, but a collection of tasks” according to David Nunan (1989, p 24) TBLT is expected to target meanings rather than grammatical forms, but it does not deny the importance of linguistic forms The boring and mechanical exercise types are placed by exciting and engaging practice activities This leads to the definitions of tasks as follows Nunan (1989, p.10) defines a task as “a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language, while their attention in principally focused on meaning rather than form” His definition aims at highlighting the nature of

tasks as meaningful interaction Cited in Willis and Willis (2001): a classroom undertaking „…where the target language is used by the learner for a communication

purpose to achieve an outcome‟ In other words, “a pedagogical task should involve

learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning A task should also have a sense of completeness, being able

to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, middle and an end.” (Nunan, 2004) These opinions show the complete agreement with Halliday‟s (1986) three macro functions of language Language is, firstly, used to exchange goods and services (so-called the transactional macro functions) Socialization with others is the second macro function of language (so-called the interpersonal or social macro function), and last but not least is for enjoyment (also known as the aesthetic macro function)

In short, language is apparently regarded as a powerful tool for expressing and negotiating communicative meaning, not a merely grasping of forms

2.3.2 The Role of Task in Language Learning

It is generally supported by several researchers; first and foremost, that active participation in the teaching and learning process makes a valuable or even outstanding contribution to the language acquisition As cited by Wajnryb (1992, p.15) that “people learn best when they are actively engaged in the learning process Active engagement can take many forms: doing, thinking, reacting, absorbing, observing, reflecting, preparing, considering, applying, analyzing, listing, selecting, prioritizing, ranking, interpreting, completing, comparing, rearranging, evaluation – among others.” Most of the above-listed forms are essential elements in TLBT Williams and Burden (1991, p.168); in addition, claimed that “a learner‟s language system develops through communicating meaningfully in the target language In other words, individuals acquire a foreign language through the process of interacting, negotiating, and conveying meaning in the language in the purposeful situations Thus, a task, in this sense, is seen as a forum within which such meaningful interaction between two or more participants can take place It is through the ensuing exchange and negotiation of meanings that learner‟s knowledge of the language system develops.” Furthermore, tasks, it is said, to provide learners sufficient exposure to comprehensible input proposed by Krashen and productive output suggested by Swain (1985) They serve as the prerequisites for language learners to be successful in language learning

In summary, it should come as no deny that tasks play extraordinarily essential role in not only language learning but also language acquisition

2.4 Components and Typology of Tasks

2.4.1 Components of Tasks

Tasks are comprised of various elements According to Wright (1987), cited in Nunan,

D (1989), a task should contain at least two fundamental elements: input data (essential information that students may receive from materials, teachers or other students), and

an initiating question (activities to assist students to work with input) Candlin (1987) increases the number of task components from two to seven: input, roles, settings, actions, monitoring, outcomes and feedback The most widely utilized and sufficiently reliable are those formulated by Nunan, D (1989) Since his formulation is fruitful for this study, his five suggested components including goals, input, activities, roles and settings are being selected to be discussed in detail

2.4.1.1 Goals

Goals are defined as “general intentions behind any given learning tasks” by Nunan (1989, p 48) They establish the bridge between tasks and curriculum Goals relate to general outcomes or may directly describe the teacher or learners‟ behavior However, goals are not always explicitly stated in some cases Sometimes a complex task may result several simultaneous goals Clark (1987), cited in Nunan (1989), classifies goals into four major types: communicative, socio-cultural, learning-how-to-learn, and language and cultural awareness where communicative goals in a curriculum refer to the language used for not only establishing and maintaining interpersonal relations, and through this to exchange information, ideas, opinions, attitudes, and feelings to get things done but also acquiring and utilizing information from more or less „public‟ sources in the target language (e.g books, magazines, newspapers, brochures, documents, signs, notices, films, television, slides, tape, radio, public announcement, lectures or written reports, etc.) Besides, this also includes listening to, reading,

enjoying and responding to creative and imaginative uses of the target language (e.g stories, poems, songs, rhymes, drama) and, for certain learners, creating them by themselves

2.4.1.2 Input

Input – the data that learners work with and utilize to complete the task – can be derived from a wide range of sources including any kind of spoken, written or visual data that “form the point of the departure for the task” (Nunan, 1989, p 53) Input can

be provided by teachers, textbooks or some other resources as mentioned above, or sometimes generated by students themselves

Two fundamental types of input are taken into consideration when designing a task in TBLT are real-world (authentic) and pedagogic (non-authentic) Although they are believed to be similarly significant in promoting L2 acquisition, some researchers including Brosnan, Hood and David Nunan widely and strongly advocate the implementation of real-world materials owing to the following justifications suggested

by Brosnan (1984) Firstly, the language embedded is natural If teachers simplify or replace the alternative terms or words for the teaching purposes, they may lose some clues to meaning and thus, make the reading task more difficult Secondly, they offer students opportunities to deal with complete and meaningful messages which are popularly seen elsewhere Moreover, they assist learners to make use of available non-linguistic clues accompanying the printed words such as layout, pictures, colors, symbols, etc to precisely grasp the meaning Last but not least, learners, especially adults, are able to easily and interestingly find the connection between what they learn

in their classroom and what they encounter outside Therefore, authenticity should be embedded in tasks as much as possible although they are apparently pedagogical

2.4.1.3 Activities

Activities specify what learners actually do with given input during task accomplishment (Williams and Burden, 1997) They should pinpoint the procedures comprising of what learners have to do from the beginning to the end of the task sequence in detail with clear instruction, whom learners work with (individually, in pair, in group or whole class), what is expected of him/ her to be accomplished before, during and after the task, and when they are forced to finish the task

2.4.1.4 Roles

Role is adequately and clearly defined as “the part that teachers and learners are expected to play in carrying out learning tasks as well as the social and interpersonal relationships between participants” by Nunan (1989, p 79) Consequently, learners‟ and teachers‟ roles are homogenously significant to be devoted considerable attention

Learners play a wide range of roles through different teaching methods from the past

to present such as passive recipients, listeners, performers, etc There is a higher requirement of learners‟ participation in the teaching and learning processes when implementing TBLT since it demands learners to be “adaptable, creative, inventive and most of all independent” (Nunan, 1989, p 81) Therefore, learners are forced to take the responsibility for their own learning to develop autonomy and skills in learning-how-to-learn To make this clear, Richards and Rodgers (2005, p.235) propose three vital role of a learner as a group participant, a monitor, a risk-taker and innovator Task accomplishment usually imposes the requirement of working in pairs,

in groups or whole class much more frequent than individually As a result, being an

active group participant makes substantial contribution to complete the task set and thus, help learners improve their conversational skills Learners are also monitors in the sense that they themselves need to attend not only to the message in task work, but also to the form in which such messages typically come packed In simple words, learners are able to notice the target language use as well as the language structures used in communication Playing the role of a risk-taker or innovator requires learners

to create and interpret messages for which they lack full linguistic resources and prior experience Knowledge of restating, paraphrasing, using paralinguistic signals and skills of guessing from linguistic and contextual clues are tremendously significant and necessary to be fully developed On the whole, learners can recognize their active contribution to the construction of their language knowledge Most importantly, TBLT aims them at using the language for negotiation of meaning to achieve a specific goal

 the degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place

 the degree to which the teacher is responsible for content

 the interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learners

Richards and Rodgers (2001, p 236) add details to teachers‟ roles when proposing the central role of the teacher is selecting, adapting, and/ or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in full recognition of learner needs, interests, and language skill level He is not a passive practitioner to transfer the language knowledge to learners mechanically, but rather enables learners to explore

and construct their own knowledge when they find the tasks they are involved in meaningful and purposeful way Furthermore, he/she takes the responsibility of preparing learners for tasks including some sort of pre-task preparation or cuing, during and after the tasks‟ activities The last role of a language teacher is raising students‟ consciousness to attend to or notice critical features of the language they use and hear when participating in and performing the tasks In other words, employing a variety of form-focusing techniques such as attention-focusing pre-task activities, text exploration, guided exposure to parallel tasks, and use of highlighted materials to assist students recognize the forms used In short, teachers have to satisfy much more skillful and complicated requirement in TBLT than in traditional approaches (Skehan, 1996).

2.4.1.5 Settings

The definition of setting is set as “the classroom arrangements specified or implied in the task, and it also requires consideration of whether the task is to be carried out wholly or partly outside the classroom” (Nunan, 1989, p 91) In simple words, setting

is the place, either inside or outside classroom, where a task is set, taken place and finished There are possibilities that a task is started in the classroom and completed outside it Setting tasks requires the complete understanding of the two following factors covering „mode‟ and „environment‟ embedded in the term “learning situation” suggested by Nunan (1985) Learning mode refers to whether the learner is operating

on an individual or group basis Environment, which is closely connected to mode, touches on where the learning actually takes place

:

Diagram 1: Social Organization and Teaching Activity (Wright, 1987)

The above diagram of arranging participant in classroom is illustrated by Wright (1987) This can be utilized as the reference for mode

In conclusion, all of the five basic abovementioned components of a task should be received equal attention since they are of mutual tension and one affect one another directly or indirectly as Williams and Burden (1997, p 167) stress: “… it is important

to stress at the same time that it is impossible to consider these factors without reference to the others …these elements necessarily affect one another in a dynamic and an interactive way” As a result, task designers should pay careful and equal attention before designing them

2.4.2 Typology of Tasks

Due to the complexity of task characteristics, there are diversified ways of categorizing tasks Nunan (1989) classifies tasks into two extremely broad categories: real-world

and pedagogic tasks whose definitions were cited in Richards and Rodgers (2001, 231)

as follows:

1 Real-world tasks, which are designed to practice or rehearse those tasks that are found to be important in a needs analysis and turn out to be important and useful in the real-world

2 Pedagogic tasks, which have a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research, but do not necessarily, reflect real-world tasks

Then, other researchers explain the task types in much more detail on the basis of interaction, traditional knowledge hierarchies and general focus

Based on interaction, Pica, Kanagy & Falodun, 1993, cited in Richards & Rodgers (2001), classify tasks into jigsaw tasks, information-gap tasks, problem-solving tasks, decision-making tasks and opinion exchange tasks Jigsaw tasks are those involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole (e.g three individuals or groups may have three different parts of a story and have to piece the story together) Information tasks: one student or group of students has one set of information and another student or group has a complementary set of information They must negotiate and find out what the other party‟s information is in order to complete an activity Problem-solving tasks: students are given a problem and a set of information They must arrive at a solution to the problem There is generally a single resolution of the outcome Decision-making tasks: students are given a problem for which there are a number of outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion Opinion exchange tasks: learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas They do not need to reach agreement

Alternatively, Willis (1996) neatly and clearly presents six task types in terms of traditional knowledge hierarchies from simple to complex one: listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving, sharing personal experiences and creative tasks Listing comprises of brainstorming and fact-finding in support to achieve completed list or draft mind map as outcomes This type of tasks shows its effectiveness on students‟ comprehension and induction capacity Ordering and sorting can be the follow-up task so as to obtain a set of information ordered and sorted according specific criteria by sequencing, ranking, categorizing, or classifying the listed information This helps learners intensify their comprehension, logic and reasoning ability Other follow-up tasks can be implemented after listing is comparing ones which place a premium on the comparison skill through the act of matching, find the similarity and/ or differences The out of it varies according to the individual task goals, but could be the items appropriately matched or assembled, or the identification

of similarity and/ or differences Much more advanced tasks to be implemented are those aiming at coming up with a solution for a problem which can be evaluated The processes consist of analyzing real or hypothetical situations, reasoning and decision-making A largely social and far less tangible than the other task types is sharing personal experience since it is closely related to real-life activities that we usually do every day outside the classroom Narrating, describing, exploring and explaining attitudes, opinions, and reactions are skills necessary for this type to exchange and share ideas with others in authentic social talk The most complicated tasks is named creative tasks which emphasize the enhancement of students‟ problem-solving as well

as reasoning and analyzing abilities so that a so-called project is to be invented as the outcome These types of tasks are primarily based on the recognition process of students; therefore, they should be taken into account when designing a task

Tasks are also classified into one-way or two-way, convergent or divergent, collaborative or competitive, single or multiple outcomes, concrete or abstract language, simple or complex processing, simple or complex language, reality-based or not reality-based according to Richards, J & Rodgers, T., 2001

Richard (2001) and Nunan (2004, p 56), recently, presents the taxonomy of tasks cited from one of the earlier applications of TBLT including information gap, reasoning gap and opinion gap

 Information gap activity, which involves a transfer of given information from one person to another or from one form to another, or from one place to another – generally calling for the decoding or encoding of information from thought into language One example is pair work in which each member of the pair has a part of the total information (for example an incomplete picture) and attempts to convey it verbally to the other Another example is completing a tabular representation with information available in a given piece of text The activity often involves selection of relevant information as well, and learners may have to meet criteria of completeness and correctness in making the transfer

 Reasoning-gap activity, which involves deriving some new information from given information through processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns The activity necessarily involves comprehending and conveying information, as an information-gap activity, but the information to be conveyed is not identical with that initially comprehended There is a piece of reasoning which connects the two

 Opinion-gap activity, which involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling or attitude in response to a given situation The activity may involve using factual information and formulating arguments to justify one‟s opinion, but there

is no objective procedure for demonstrating outcomes as right or wrong, and no reason

to expect the same outcome from different individuals or on different occasions

Taking Ellis (2003)‟s comments as a summary, the classification of tasks is of pivotal significance as it plays an integral role in assisting syllabus designers to incorporate the appropriate tasks into the curriculum in an effort to fulfill students‟ needs and help them reach their ultimate aims More significantly, language teachers take overwhelming advantage of those task typologies to diversify their teaching practice and trial a variety of task types to analyze which one is the most appropriate to their particular groups of students

There are some criteria suggested by David Nunan (1989, p.65) to judge a good communicative task The requirements are:

 The goals of the task are obvious to both teachers and students

 The task difficulty is appropriate

 The task encourages learners to apply what they have learned to the real world

 The task is interesting and motivating

 The input of the task is authentic

 The activities are suitable and closely related to the goal of the task

 There is an information gap which might prompt a negotiation of meaning

 The activities are designed in a way that encourages learners to communicate meaningfully

 There is a range of macro skill integrated into the sequence of task

 The goal of the task is successfully obtained

of tasks, and they bear a relation to one another chronologically and hierarchically Therefore, they propose a sequence of tasks containing three rudimentary phases: the pre-task phase, the task cycle and the language focus The first phase is connected with

a variety of activities which teachers and students participate in before launching the task; the second phase concerns the task itself and exercise diversified instructional options; and the ultimate phase deals with the procedures for following up on the task performance

2.5.1.1 Pre-task phase

The destination of the pre-task phase is to prepare students to perform the task in ways that will promote acquisition In the phase, “teachers set up relevant topic schemata, explain the task and clarify the intended outcome” (Willis, 2004, p 37) One most significant purpose of this phase added and fostered by Willis (1996) is to create

interest in doing a task Thus, the emphasis of this phase is on general cognitive demands and linguistic factors which can be tackled by one of the four following ways:

 supporting learners in performing a task similar to the task that will perform in the during task phase of the lesson;

 asking students to observe a model of how to perform a task;

 engaging learners in non-task activities, which concentrate on vocabulary rather than grammar, designed to prepare them to perform the task;

 strategic planning of the main task performance

In more plain words, the pre-task phase is subdivided into four steps The language teacher has to firstly interestingly introduce and clearly define the topic area Then, he/ she should determine how to prime students by recalling and activating fruitful words and phrases or brainstorming the ideas with students It is sometimes mandatory to have students familiarize with a few vital topic-related words or phrases that students are unlikely to know (Willis, 1996) However, it is extremely essential to one more time reemphasize that the point of the introductory concentrate on topic and language, certainly not to teach large amounts of language or one particular grammatical structure, but to boost students‟ confidence in handling the task (Willis, 1996) The third step is to supply comprehensive and detailed task instruction to ascertain that all learners master what the task involves, what its goals embrace, and what outcome is required Allowing preparation time for each individual student, which has been shown

to result in richer language use in terms of complexity, variety of syntax, breath of vocabulary, fluency and naturalness, consummates the first phase Students have to grasp the theme and objectives of the task at the end of the pre-task phase

Pre-teaching of a list of useful words and phrases may disinterest and de-motivate students from the beginning of the task A selection of pre-task activities which

rehearse language in a stimulating way submitted by Willis, 1996 is composed of classifying words and phrases, odd one out, matching phrases to pictures, memory challenge, brainstorming and mind-maps, thinking of questions to ask and teacher recounting a similar experience (see more details in Willis, 1996, pp 43-44)

This phase is usually the shortest stage in the framework The time may vary from five

to twenty minutes depending on the learners‟ degree of familiarity with the topic and the type of task If there is a pre-task recording to set the scene, it could take slightly longer The pre-task phase is absolutely momentous for it stimulates learners to produce task interactions that are not only lengthier but also linguistic richer, with a higher degree of fluency and clause complexity (Willis, 2007; Ellis, 2003) Proper accomplishment of this phase will bring considerably enormous advantages to effectively carry out the task

2.5.1.2 Task cycle

As mentioned above, learners usually lack the ability to effectively communicate in the target language in spite of the fact that they have been crammed up a great amount of grammars for seven ongoing pedagogic years It is usually generated by the insufficiency of the exposure to and use of the target language which are scrutinized to

be paramount factors to enhance intake – acquisition of new forms On that account, the task cycle phase emerges to be a favorable circumstance for learners to use whatever language they can convoke in pairs or in small groups to achieve the task goals In this phase, an emphasis is put on language in the context of meaning The task cycle is disintegrated into three sub-stages: task, planning and report