Exploring the rise of fandom in contemporary consumer culture

Fandom in Contemporary Consumer CultureCheng Lu Wang University of New Haven, USA A volume in the Advances in Marketing, Customer Relationship Management, and E-Services AMCRMES Book Ser

Fandom in Contemporary Consumer Culture

Cheng Lu Wang

University of New Haven, USA

A volume in the Advances in Marketing, Customer

Relationship Management, and E-Services

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Names: Wang, Chenglu, editor.

Title: Exploring the rise of fandom in contemporary consumer culture / Cheng

Lu Wang, editor

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Identifiers: LCCN 2017015919| ISBN 9781522532200 (hardcover) | ISBN

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Foreword xiv Preface xvi Acknowledgment xxi Chapter 1

SegmentingFanCommunities:TowardaTaxonomyforResearchersandIndustry 1

Nathalie Collins, Edith Cowan University, Australia

Jamie Murphy, University of Eastern Finland, Finland

Chapter 2

FansandBrands:DelineatingBetweenFandoms,BrandCommunities,andBrandPublics 18

Breanna M Todd, Western Washington University, USA

Catherine A Armstrong Soule, Western Washington University, USA

Chapter 3

AHeroWhoNeverDies:SteveJobsinHisFans’Minds 35

Ruijuan Wu, Tianjin University of Technology, China

Cheng Lu Wang, University of New Haven, USA

Wei Hao, University of Hartford, USA

Chapter 4

ThePassionThatUnitesUsAll:TheCultureandConsumptionofSportsFans 52

Brandon Mastromartino, The University of Georgia, USA

Wen-Hao Winston Chou, The University of Georgia, USA

James J Zhang, The University of Georgia, USA

Chapter 5

ThoseWhoRarelyAttendAlone:TribalSportFans 71

David P Hedlund, St John’s University, USA

Rui Biscaia, Coventry University, UK

Maria do Carmo Leal, Universidade Europeia, Portugal

Chapter 6

ILovetoSeeThemLose:InvestigatingFanPerceptionsandBehaviorsTowardRivalTeams 102

Cody T Havard, The University of Memphis, USA

Daniel L Wann, Murray State University, USA

Timothy D Ryan, The University of Memphis, USA

Chapter 7

BuildingtheForce:EnactingFanBrandCommunityThroughtheStarWarsBB-8DroidBuildersClub 126

William F Humphrey Jr., Florida International University, USA

Debra A Laverie, Texas Tech University, USA

Alison B Shields, Ithaca College, USA

Xinming Jia, Zhejiang International Studies University, China

Kineta Hung, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong

Ke Zhang, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong

Chapter 10

BrandPathologies:“Monstrous”FanRelationshipsandtheMediaBrand“Twilight” 185

Margo Buchanan-Oliver, The University of Auckland, New Zealand

Hope Jensen Schau, University of Arizona, USA

Chapter 11

“ThyKingdomCome,ThyWillBeDone”:AttainingDivineTranscendenceThroughBrand

Fandom,EvidenceFromIndia 201

Abhigyan Sarkar, Institute of Management Technology Ghaziabad, India

Juhi Gahlot Sarkar, IBS Hyderabad, India

Chapter 12

WorkingBehindPlaying:TamedFanLabourandItsStabilizingFunctionintheChineseMobileGamingFanCommunity 224

Boris Pun Lok Fai, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Chapter 13

LivinginaVirtualReality:AnimeandMangaFandom 244

Chengyan Zeng, University of New Haven, USA

Compilation of References 254 About the Contributors 291 Index 298

Foreword xiv Preface xvi Acknowledgment xxi Chapter 1

SegmentingFanCommunities:TowardaTaxonomyforResearchersandIndustry 1

Nathalie Collins, Edith Cowan University, Australia

Jamie Murphy, University of Eastern Finland, Finland

Extendingdecadesofmarketingandpsychologicalresearch,industryandacademiccirclesattempttolabelbrandcommunitybehaviours,borrowinganalogiesfromsubculturessuchasreligion(evangelists),slang(mavens,haters),technologyandsciencefiction(fanboys),andothersciences(alpha,opinionleaders).Althoughsometimesusedasgenericterms,uponexaminationviaanintegrativeliteraturereview,theseandothersuchcommonlyusedfandomandbrandcommunitymemberlabels,candefinethespectrumofbrandfandominaspecificway—throughnarrative,metaphorandcross-culturallabelling.Suchlabellingishappeningalready;thischapterparsesoutthemeaningofonelabelfromanotherintoaproposedfolktaxonomy,orclassificationsystemdevelopedbythosesteepedintheculture.Thissegmentationenablestheoreticalresearchintospecificfantypesandpossibleopinionleaders,alongwithindustryrecommendationsforapproachingeachsegmentbasedonthebehaviouralcharacteristicinherentinboththehistoricandcommonusageoftheword

Chapter 2

FansandBrands:DelineatingBetweenFandoms,BrandCommunities,andBrandPublics 18

Breanna M Todd, Western Washington University, USA

Catherine A Armstrong Soule, Western Washington University, USA

Althoughfandomhasarichhistorywithinpopculture,itisdifficulttoknowwhenfandomwasformedandwhatconstitutesafandom.Inthischaptertheauthorsdefinefandomanditsrelatedactivities,aswellasdelineateitfromthesimilarfan-brandcommunitiesofbrandcommunitiesandbrandpublics.Atypologyforfan-brandcommunitiesispresentedwithtwodimensions:1)motivationforengagementand2)socialstatusandrelationshiptype.Thistypologycanhelpguideresearchers,brands,andmarketersineffectivelymanagingdifferentsubculturesoffans.Thischaptermaybeusedasastartingpointforfurtherunderstandingoffan-brandcommunity-basedrelationships

Chapter 3

AHeroWhoNeverDies:SteveJobsinHisFans’Minds 35

Ruijuan Wu, Tianjin University of Technology, China

Cheng Lu Wang, University of New Haven, USA

Wei Hao, University of Hartford, USA

ThischapterexamineshowconsumersbecomeSteveJobs’fansandhowtheyestablishpsychologicalbondwithSteveJobsasameanstounderstandthegeneralfandomphenomenon.TheauthorsadoptedthePsychologicalContinuumModel(PCM)toformulatefiveresearchquestionsandconductedacontentanalysisofwebreviewsbasedontwoSteveJobs’fansonlinecommunities.Resultsdemonstratedthat(1)mostfansbegantoknowJobseitherthroughtheuseofAppleproductsortheexposureofmassmediaaboutJobsandhisbiography;(2)whatfascinatedfansmostaboutJobswashisthoughtsandideasthat

“changetheworld”;(3)inthemindsofhisfans,Jobswasregardedasthegreatestmanorsuperhumanandreveredasalegendaryherowhoinspiredlotsofpeopleintheworld;(4)manyfansperceivedJobsastheiconofAppleproductsand,tothem,JobswasAppleandApplewasJobs.Assuch,whilemanyfansconsideredthembothApplefansandJobsfans,significantnumbersoffanswereonlydevoteesofJobsbutnotApplebrand;and(5)formanyfans,theyactuallydevotedthemselvestoJobsnottoApple,andtheywouldnotconsiderAppleproductsthesameasJobs’Apple.WhilesomefanscontinuedtosupportAppleastheheritagethatJobsleftforhissuccessor,othershadlosttheirfaith,loyaltyandcommitmenttoAppleinthepost-Jobsera

Chapter 4

ThePassionThatUnitesUsAll:TheCultureandConsumptionofSportsFans 52

Brandon Mastromartino, The University of Georgia, USA

Wen-Hao Winston Chou, The University of Georgia, USA

James J Zhang, The University of Georgia, USA

Sportsfansareindividualswhoareinterestedinandfollowasport,team,and/orathlete.Thesefansreinforcetheiridentityasafanbyengaginginsupportiveandrepetitiveconsumptionbehaviorsthatrelatetothesportorteamtheyaresopassionateabout.Thischapterwillprovideanoverviewofthehistoryandculturalheritageofsportsfandom,discussthesignificanceandfunctionsoffandom,underlinewhatmotivatesindividualstoconsumesports,examinetheconsequencesandresultsoffandom,andhighlightcontemporaryresearchanddevelopmentaltrends.Thischapterwillallowforagoodunderstandingofwhereresearchonsportsfandomisheadedandtheimportantissuesaffectingsportsfans

Chapter 5

ThoseWhoRarelyAttendAlone:TribalSportFans 71

David P Hedlund, St John’s University, USA

Rui Biscaia, Coventry University, UK

Maria do Carmo Leal, Universidade Europeia, Portugal

Sportfansrarelyattendsportingeventsalone.Whiletraditionalconsumerandsportfanbehaviorresearchfrequentlysegmentedfansbasedondemographiccharacteristics,recentadvancesinunderstandinghowsportfansco-createandco-consumesportingeventsprovidessubstantialevidencethatsportsfansshould

Chapter 6

ILovetoSeeThemLose:InvestigatingFanPerceptionsandBehaviorsTowardRivalTeams 102

Cody T Havard, The University of Memphis, USA

Daniel L Wann, Murray State University, USA

Timothy D Ryan, The University of Memphis, USA

Thefollowingchapterprovidesanintimatelookatsportfans,theidentificationtheyhavewithafavoriteteam,andtheirrelationshipwithteamsidentifiedasrivals.Inparticular,teamidentificationandrivalperceptionswereusedtoinvestigatetheGloryOutofReflectedFailure(GORFing,excitementwhentherivallosestosomeoneotherthanthefavoriteteam)phenomenonandfanlikelihoodofconsideringanonymous acts of aggression. Results showed that team identification influenced the perceptionsfanhaveoftheirrivalteams,thelikelihoodofconsideringanonymousaggression,andtheGORFingphenomenon.Further,fanrivalperceptionsalsoinfluencedfananonymousaggressionandthelikelihoodofGORFing.ThechapteralsoshowsthatGORFingisthecompetitivenatureofschadenfreudeandthephenomenaaredistinct.Discussionfocusesonimplicationsofthefindingsandareasforfutureresearch

Chapter 7

BuildingtheForce:EnactingFanBrandCommunityThroughtheStarWarsBB-8DroidBuildersClub 126

William F Humphrey Jr., Florida International University, USA

Debra A Laverie, Texas Tech University, USA

Alison B Shields, Ithaca College, USA

ThischapterexaminestheStarWarsfancommunitywhocreatesscreenaccurateBB-8replicasisexploredindepth.Buildersundertakethecreationofcharactersthroughemergenttechnologysuchas3-Dprinting.Themembersworktogethertocreatethesereplicacharactersandimmersecompletelyintheprocessofthecharacter’sformation.Westudiedonlinefancommunityforumsandsocialmediagroupswhereparticipantsengagewithandsupportoneanotherastheybuildfull-sizedStarWarscharacters.Second,thischapterappliestheBB-8buildercommunitytoanestablishedframeworkforbrandcommunity,whichisextendedtoincludethepassionateandcommittedcommunitiesformedbyfansaroundentertainmentfranchises.Brand(orfranchise)characteristicsarerelatedtocommunitycharacteristics,whicharetheninturnrelatedtofanbrandcommunity.Finally,conclusionsfortheacademyandpractitionersarediscussedbasedontheexaminationofthiscommunityinrelationtothetheoreticalframework

Chapter 8

ChargingFandomintheDigitalAge:TheRiseofSocialMedia 147

Shuojia Guo, College of Staten Island, USA

Inthedigitalage,theproliferationoffan-generatedcontentonsocialmediaplatformsismakingthefanculturetransitioningfromthe“static”onlineconsumptionto“dynamic”interaction.ThisisnotonlyaresultoftheadvancementofInformationandCommunicationTechnologies(ICTs),butalsoaculturalphenomenondrivingbyparticipatoryfandomincyberspace.Theriseofsocialmediahasdramaticallyalteredthedynamicsoffanpracticesandspectatorshiphenceincreasedvocalityandvisibilitywithinthefancommunityaswellastheformationandfacilitationoffanroles.Inthischapter,wewillexplorewhysocialmediahavesuchaprofoundimpactuponfandom.Inparticular,whatisnewwiththesefancommunitiesthatsocialmediahasdonesomuchtoenable.Whythereisablurringinthelinesbetweenfandomproducersandconsumersintheparticipatoryfandom.Giventhenewformsofculturalproduction,howfancultureenabledbysocialmediaismorepowerfulthanitwaseverbefore

Chapter 9

DiversityofFansonSocialMedia:TheCaseofEntertainmentCelebrityinChina 163

Xinming Jia, Zhejiang International Studies University, China

Kineta Hung, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong

Ke Zhang, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong

ThischapterexploresthediversityofcelebrityfansinChina,includingtheirmotives,activitiesandprocessesofcelebrityidolization.Basedonagroundedtheoreticalapproach,theauthorstracedandanalyzedtheuser-generatedcontentpostedonWeibothatwaspreparedbyfansofthesinger/actorWallaceChung.Theanalysisrevealsfivefansegmentswithdifferentmotives:casualfans(playful),fascinatedfans(aspirational),devotedfans(senseofbelonging),dysfunctionalfans(identificationwithcelebrity),andreflectivefans(solidself-identity),thusdemonstratingfans’differentcharacteristics.Thischapteralsooutlinesthetypicaldevelopmentalprocessasfansincreasetheirinvestmentsintothecelebrity.Variantsofthisprocess,giventhefans’differentpsychologicalanddemographiccharacteristics,werealsodiscussed

Chapter 10

BrandPathologies:“Monstrous”FanRelationshipsandtheMediaBrand“Twilight” 185

Margo Buchanan-Oliver, The University of Auckland, New Zealand

Hope Jensen Schau, University of Arizona, USA

TheTwilightmediabrandisaglobalconsumptionphenomenonwhichspeakstofemaleconsumerswho enter into fantastic and corporeal relationships with its market manifestations (books, films,merchandising,andconsumptioncommunities).Twilight’sbrandnarrativereifiesthepsychologicalpowerandsocio-culturalallureofthe‘monstrous’vampiremyth,andenablesaspectrumofrelationalexposurefrom‘Twi-hard’(devotedTwilightfan)fandomtoaddictiveandobsessive,compulsive,andtransgressivebehaviors.Theconsumer’srelationalexposuretothisbrandisthesubjectofthisstudy.

Chapter 11

“ThyKingdomCome,ThyWillBeDone”:AttainingDivineTranscendenceThroughBrand

Fandom,EvidenceFromIndia 201

Abhigyan Sarkar, Institute of Management Technology Ghaziabad, India

Juhi Gahlot Sarkar, IBS Hyderabad, India

Majorityofpriorresearchshowthatindividual’srelationshipwithabrandisdyadic.However,theprimaryneedforhumanbeingsistoforgemeaningfulinterpersonalrelationships,andbrandscanactasfacilitatorstoachievethisneed.Thus,consumer-brand-consumerrelationshipsarerathertriadic,withbrandsactingasanepicenteraroundwhichclose-knithumanrelationshipsareformed.Thischapterdiscussestheindispensablerolesofconsumers’closesocialrelationshipswiththeirbrandsrepresentingaknitbrandfandomoflike-mindedconsumerswhosharecommonconsumptionvaluesandattaintranscendencethroughbrandedconsumption.Usinggroundedtheoryanalysis,wediscoverthatIndianconsumers’culturalvaluesoffilialpiety,facesaving,needforescapismandbrandethnocentrismactasantecedentstoconsumers’romanticbrandlove.Thisromanticbrandloveprogressesintosinglebranddevotionthroughthemoderationofselectiveperception,andultimatelytranslatesintoaclose-knitbrandfandom,mainlyiftheconsumersfindthebrandtoenableself-expression.Theroleofbrand-heroisalsoimportantintheformationofbrandfandom,asbrandherocaninspireconsumersandbindthemtogethertoworkforcommoninterestofthebrand.Brandfandomresultsinconsumersexperiencingflowandtranscendence,wheretheyexperienceatemporarysenseofseparationfromthemundaneandunitywithahigherplaneofexistence

Chapter 12

WorkingBehindPlaying:TamedFanLabourandItsStabilizingFunctionintheChineseMobileGamingFanCommunity 224

Boris Pun Lok Fai, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Withtheriseofgamebroadcastingappearinginvideosharingorstreamingplatforms,thereisanewsocialphenomenoninwhichactivefansexpertizingingamingcouldtranscendtobecometamedlabourfans.Thisisanewroleinthefancommunityanditenjoysparamountprofitablebenefitviathesponsorshipofgamecompanies.Thisarticlewillinvestigatethenatureofthisnewroleoftamedfanlabourandexplorehowitfunctionsinthefancommunity,especiallyintermsofrelievingfans’resistanceagainstthegamecompaniesandconsolidatingthefancommunitybyrevealingtheiraffinityfortheirfan.UsingtheexampleofasuccessfulChinesemobilegameapp,“TowerofSaviour”,thisarticlewillshedlightonthisrethinkingofthefanstructure,aswellasonChinesefanstudiesthatshowhowtamedfanlabourcanbenefitgamecompaniesintheChineseculturalcontext

Chapter 13

LivinginaVirtualReality:AnimeandMangaFandom 244

Chengyan Zeng, University of New Haven, USA

Anime(animatedfilms)andmanga(comicbooks),fansareeasilymisunderstoodandcanevenfaceprejudice.Infact,theyareusuallynotaspeopleseethem.Asoneofthemanyanimeandmangafans,Iwouldliketoshowpeoplewhattherealworldoftheanimeandmangafanislike.Asthefanpopulationgrows,themarketincreases,sothischapterwillalsoactasaguideforthosewhoareinterestedinthismarket.Thischapteraimstointroducereaderstotheworldofanimeandmangafandomandtoitsfans,inparticular.Itwillpresentandexplainspecifictermssuchasweeaboo,otaku,waifu,husbando,fujoshi,andcritic.Thischapterwillalsodescribethedifferentcharactersofanimeandmangafansandexplainhowthesecharacterscanaffectmarketing.Finally,thischapterwilllookatthecurrentmarketsizeofanimeandmangafandomandexplorehowthecultureisusedinmarketing

Compilation of References 254 About the Contributors 291 Index 298

Foreword

WhenIfirstwroteabouttheStarTrekfanphenomenonbackin1994,fandomstudieswasstillinitsinfancy.Ithascertainlymaturedsincethen,andthisvolumehelpsusseewhatdirectionsithastaken.There’sanumberofwaystounderstandfandomandwhatmotivatesit.Thereligious-likeelementsoffandomjumpedoutatme,butinthesecontributionsonecanseemanydifferentmotivations.Somefanslovethewaythatpopularcultureallowsthemacertaincreativitytoplaywithandadapttheproduc-tions,amodewhichearlyfandomstudiesoffanfictionstressed.OtherfanssimplyallowthemselvestobetakenawayintowhatIcallthe“alternativeuniverses”offeredbymediaproductions,includingStarTrek,StarWars,orTwilight,amongmanyothers,liketheMarveluniverse.Somefansattachthemselvestocertaincommercialproducts,whichscholarshavelongnotedwithApple.Ofcourse,someconnecttheseproductswithpeople,asweseeinchapterthree’sdiscussionofSteveJobs.Thistakesusintotherealmofcelebrityandidolization,someofwhichcanbesointenseastobeproblematic,asdiscussedinchapterthirteen.Wearen’tattachingourselvestoauniversehere,buttoaperson,andtheinferredpowersorauraofthatperson(whichremindsusofsuperheroes)

sibilities.Thisisn’trationalintheeconomist’ssense.It’snotaboutwealthorevenpower,whichsomemaythinkarethestrongesthumanmotives.It’saboutidentityandbelonging,attachmenttosomethingbiggerthanus,orabouttappingintoourcreativeimpulses

Thisvolumehelpsusunderstandwhyfandomissopowerful,amidstalltheotherconsumerpos-Fandomisn’tfrivolous.Peopleareclearlyseekingsomethingorsomeexperience,yesevensomethingtranscendent.WhethertheyarefindingitismoreatheologicalquestionthatIwon’tgointohere.OnYouTube,onewillfindapopularseriesofvideosallsubtitled“EveryoneGoesNuts.”Thevideosshowfanreactionattheclimaxofheart-stoppingsportsevents,likeWorldCupmatches,theChicagoCubsWorldSerieswin,or(myownfavorite)GreenBayPackergames.Youwon’tfindmanyotherplacesthatexhibitsuchrawemotion,fromthetenseangstbeforethebigplay,tothecontrastingjubilation/broken-nessafter,oftenfrompeoplethatdon’tusuallyshowmuchemotion.There’ssomethingprimordialherethatishardtoputourfingeron.Wefeelit,andknowitisnotrationaltoputourhopesinsomethingthatseemsfrivolous,andyetwestilldoit.Sportsfandommaybethebiggestfandomofall,butitdoesn’tgettheattentionitdeservesfromfandomscholars,soit’sgoodtoseeseveralcontributionshereaboutsportsfans.Gamersgetsomeattentiontoo,especiallysinceitisnowrivallingsportsasaconsumerphenomenon,andisevencombinedwithitin“eSports.”The“tamedlaborfan”whoworksformediacompaniesbringsanoteof“conflict”intothetopic,andissomethingwewilllikelyhearmoreaboutinthefuture.Indeed,whilemarketerscanlearnfromthisvolume,consumersshouldalsolearn.Inowstudyhownonprofitshelpthepoor,andIseehowpeoplecangetintroublefinanciallyandrelationallybyattachingthemselvestoostronglytopopularcultureinitsvariousmanifestations

Michael Jindra

University of Notre Dame, USA

Michael Jindra is a cultural anthropologist and research scholar in the Center for Social Concerns at the University of Notre

Dame, USA.

Preface

WhatisincommonamongiPhone,HarleyDavison,StarTrek,SherlockHolmes,HarryPotter,ElvisPresley,andPaulNewman?Theyallhaveagroupofloyalandardentfans!Fandom,asacommunityorsubculturecomposedoffansofparticularobjectsorpersonsinanyhumaninterestsoractivities,suchassciencefictionfilms,books,videogames,musicandbands,sportteams,celebrities(athleticormoviestars),andbrands,etc.However,whatdifferentiatesfandom-affiliatedfansfrommembersofanordinarysocialnetworkorcommunityistheirmentalandbehavioralinvolvedinanobjectorpersonwithstrongemotionalattachmentanddevotion.Fansoftenvoluntarilyinvestasignificantportionoftheirresources(time,moneyandenergy)withparticularritualisticandevangelisticbehaviors(i.e.,membergathering,collectionofgoods,storytelling,andspreadingfaithtoconvertnon-believers).Inconsumptionworld,fansofparticularbrandsarenotonlyorganizedintobrandcommunitiesbutalsodisplayreligion-likefaith,passionandritualisticbehavior(Jindra,1994;Kozinets,2001)andsharekeysustainingmythslikebrandcult(Belk&Tumbat,2005).WhilefansoftheliterarydetectiveSherlockHolmesareconsideredthefirstmodernfandom(Brown,2009),fandomsexistinallaspectsofcontemporaryconsumerlifethankstothefastdevelopmentofInternetandsocialmediawhenfanclubsbecomevirtualcommunitiesconnectingfansaroundworldthoughonlineplatforms

Frommarketingperspective,astrongfandomprovidesacompetitiveadvantageforafirmorabrandwithagroupofloyalandenthusiasticconsumersinbrandco-buildingprocess.Withfastgrowingfaneconomy,savvyentrepreneurshaveseentremendousprofitopportunitiesthatenthusiasticfanscanbringtofirms.Meanwhile,fansarenotmerelypassiveconsumersoftheirfavoritebrands,productsoridols,theyalsoactivelyparticipateandengageinthecreation,production,promotionanddistributionprocess.Suchaconsumer-brand-consumertriadinteractiverelationenhancesthebrandvalueandbrandequity.Fansevenhavemadetheworktheydoinfandomintocareers.Awidelyobservedphenomenoninvideogameindustry,forexample,isthatfansarebothplayersand“labors”whoarerecruitedbycompaniestotestthenewgamesthataretobereleased.Fanlaborsengageinproductionandcirculationofgamesamongfandomforpleasure,self-expressionand/orearlyaccessproductmorethanformonetaryincen-tives.Inamoreextremecase,ApplefandomnotonlydevotestousetheiPhonebutalsoconvertsittothe

“JesusPhone”(Campbell&Pastina,2010).Assuch,theeconomicvalueandpsychologicalimplicationoffandomphenomenontothesocietyandconsumerculturearesignificant

Iamverypleasedtointroducethisbooktoreaders,academiciansandpractitioners,whoareinterestedinthefascinatingfandomphenomenon.Thecontributorsofthebookcomefromvarietiesofresearchbackgroundanddisciplines,including,marketing,psychology,sportsmanagementreligiosity,journalismandcommunicationstudies.Accordingly,thisbookincludesfoursectionscoveringawiderangeoftopics

Fancommunitieshaveexistedfordecadesandrecentlytheworldoffancreationshasbeenincreas-CollinsandMurphy(Chapter1)provideareviewtermsthatareborrowedfromreligion,slang,technologyandsciencetolabelfandombehaviors.Theauthorsfurtheranalyzethemeaningofsuchlabelsintoaproposedclassificationsystem.Suchworkestablishesatheoreticalfoundationtodevelopconceptualizationoffandomresearchandpractice

ToddandSoule(Chapter2)furtherdefinefandomandrelatedactivitiesanddelineatefandomfromotherofteninterchangeablyusedconceptssuchasbrandcommunitiesandbrandpublics.Theauthorsdevelopafandomtypologyintermsoftwodimensionswhichcanhelpbrandmanagersandmarketersunderstandingthefan-brandcommunityrelationshipandeffectivelymanagingsubculturesoffancom-munities

sumer—brandco-buildingprocesshasbeenwellrecognizedbymarketer,itisimperativetoidentifythefandomformationprocessanditsunderlyingtheoreticalmechanism.Consideringbrandfandompossessingcertainquasi-religioncharacteristicslikeabrandcult,itofteninvolvesheromythandheroworship(Belk&Tumbat,2005).Wu,Wang,andHao(Chapter3)examinehowSteveJobsbecomesthelegendaryheroandbrandsymbolofApplecomputeramongApplefans.AdoptingthePsychologi-calContinuumModel,theauthorsinvestigatehowAppleconsumersbecomeSteveJobs’fansandhowtheyestablishpsychologicalbondwithJobsasawayofunderstandingtheformulationoffandom.ItisinterestingtorevealthatinthemindsofmanyApplefans,SteveJobsrepresentstheApplebrandandApplefans’loyaltyandemotionalcommitmenttoApplebrandarelargelyassociatedwiththeirdevotiontoJobs.Suchafindingsuggeststheroleofheromythplayedinthefandomformationandmaintenanceprocess,andthushasanimportantmanagerialimplicationforfandommanagement

Giventhemanagerialimportanceofconsumer-brandrelationshipandtherolesoffansinthecon-ticularobjectsorpersonsinanyhumaninterestsoractivities.Theoriginofthetermusage,however,canbetracedbacktoasearlyas1903whenMerriam-Webster’sdictionaryillustratessportfansbasedontheword“fan”plusthesuffix“–dom”.Indeed,sportfansdemonstratedthosemosttypicalcharacteristicsoffandom.Thesecondsectionthusfocusesonexaminingcharacteristicsoffancommunities,particularlythosehavebeenfoundinsportfans

Fandom,asdefinedhere,referstoacommunityorsubculturecomposedoffansfascinatedbypar-estedinandfollowasport,teamand/orathleteareunifiedasacommunitythroughpassion.Basedonanoverviewofhistoryandculturalheritageofsportsfandom,theauthorsdiscussthefunctionsoffandomandidentifythemotivesthatdriveindividualstobecomesportfans

Mastromartino,ChouandZhang(Chapter4)examinehowsportfansasindividualswhoareinter-gatetheco-creationandco-consumephenomenonbyidentifyingsevendimensionsofsportfantribal-ismbasedonanempiricalstudy.Theauthorscreated,developed,testedandvalidatedareliablescaletomeasureaspectsthatconstitutesportfantribes.Suchresultshighlightthedifferencesbetweentribalfansandtheirteams(relativetootherteams)intermsoffivebehavioralintentionsandtwocommitment-relatedoutcomevariables.Theauthorsconcludethatunderstandingtheprocessofhowfansmaymovefromtheearlystagesofbeinga(new)fanofateamtoeventually(andpossibly)becomingastronglycommittedtribalsportfancanhelpsportteamsdevelopandimplementmarketingprogramswhichcre-

Fancommunitiesarenotlimitedtosportfans,butexistinallaspectsofhumanlifeincludingfanclubssuchasmovies,books,TVseriesandsciencefictions,gameandcosplay,etc.Humphrey,Lav-

erieandShields(Chapter7)provideanin-depthanalysisoftheStar Warsfancommunitywhocreates

screenaccurateBB-8replicathroughemergenttechnologysuchas3-Dprinting.Basedonstudiesofonlinefancommunityforumandsocialmediagroupswhereparticipantsengagewithandsupportone

anotherastheybuildfull-sizedStar Warscharacter,theauthorsapplytheBB-8buildercommunityto

mittedcommunitiesformedbyfansaroundentertainmentfranchises.Theirfindingsdrawtheoreticalandmanagerialimplicationsrelatinghowtoenactfanbrandcommunitybyassociatingbrandcharacteristictobrandcommunities

anestablishedframeworkforbrandcommunity,whichisextendedtoincludethepassionateandcom-Media,particularlysocialmediainthecurrentworld,playanimportantrolethatinfluencesfandomformationandinteraction.Brandfansorbrandcommunityworldwideareorganizedthroughvariousmediaintoanon-geographicallyboundvirtualcommunityonthebasisofattachmenttoaproductorbrand.SocialmediaplatformslikeTwitterandFacebookgivefansgreateraccesstopublicfiguresandmorewaystoconnectandparticipateinfandoms.Thethirdsectionthusprovidesanoverviewanddis-cussionhowmedia,brandandfansareinteracted

sitioningfromthe“static”onlineconsumptionto“dynamic”interaction.AccordingtoGuo(Chapter8),theriseofsocialmediahasdramaticallyalteredthedynamicsoffanpracticesandspectatorshiphenceincreasedvocalityandvisibilitywithinthefancommunityaswellastheformationandfacilitationoffanroles.Consequently,thereisablurringinthelinesbetweenfandomproducersandconsumersintheparticipatoryfandom.Inherexaminingtheunderlyingreasonsthatexplaintheimpactofsocialmediaonfandom,Guoinvestigateshowfancultureenabledbysocialmediaismorepowerfulthanitwaseverbefore.TheauthorconcludesthatsuchaphenomenonisnotonlyaresultoftheadvancementofInformationandCommunicationTechnologies(ICTs),butalsoaculturalphenomenondrivingbyparticipatoryfandomincyberspace

Theproliferationoffan-generatedcontentonsocialmediaplatformsismakingthefanculturetran-entialinmediaandentertainmentbusinesses.Jia,Hung,andZhang(Chapter9)usethegroundtheorytoexplorethediversityofcelebrityfansinChina,includingtheirmotives,activitiesandprocessesofcelebrityidolization.Intheiranalyzingtheuser-generatedcontentpostedonWeibo(asocialmediatoolwidelyusedbyChineseconsumers)thatwaspreparedbyfansofthesinger/actor/directorWallaceChung,theauthorsfindfivefansegmentswithdifferentdemographic/psychographiccharacteristicsandmotives:casualfans(playful),fascinatedfans(aspirational),devotedfans(senseofbelonging),dysfunc-tionalfans(identificationwithcelebrity),andreflectivefans(solidself-identity),thusdemonstrating

Twilightfandom,orTwilighters,isthecommunityoffansoftheTwilightseriesofnovels,moviesandotherrelatedmedia.TheTwilightmediabrand,accordingtoBuchanan-OliverandSchau(Chapter10),becomesaworld-wideconsumptionphenomenonwhichpredominantlyspeakstofemaleconsumerswhoenterintobothfantasticandcorporealrelationshipswithitsmarketmanifestations(books,films,merchandising,andconsumptioncommunities).Theauthorssuggestthatthisbrandedaccessibilityprof-fersitsconsumersaspectrumofrelationalexposurewhichbeginswith‘Twi-hard’[devotedTwilightfan]fandomwhichcanintensifytoproduceaddictiveandobsessive,compulsive,andtransgressivebehaviors.Inaddition,theauthorsprovideanextensivediscussionoftheconflicted,contradictory,ambivalentandpathologicalrelationshipswhichareinherentinthesubjectmatterofthispopularmediabrandtext.Fandomasasocialphenomenonhasbeengainingparticularinterestbymarketersbecauseofitseconomicvalueinthebrandbuildingprocess.Alargegroupoffansaddssignificantvaluestobrandequityasthosefansbuildthehard-coreconsumerbaseandthusmanycontemporarybusinessesowetheirsuccessandrapidgrowthtotheirfocusonbuildingafaneconomy.Understandingconsumerexperienceamongfansiscritical.TheForthsectioniscomposedofthreechaptersthatexploretherelationshipbetweenfandomandconsumptionexperience

ship.Theauthorsconceivebrandasavehicleusedbyfansinabrandcommunitytowardsforgingandmaintainingmeaningfulsocialrelationshipwithlike-mindedconsumerswhosharecommonvaluesandattaintranscendenceexperiencethroughbrandconsumption.BasedonanempiricalstudyconductedinIndia,theauthorsfindIndianconsumers’culturalvaluesoffilialpiety,facesaving,needforescapismandbrandethnocentrismactasantecedentstoconsumers’romanticbrandlove,whichfurtherprogressesintosinglebranddevotionandultimatelytranslatesintoaclose-knitbrandfandom.Assuch,theauthorsconcludethatbrandmanagersshouldreinforcethezealamongbrandcommunitymembersthroughvariousmarketingprogramsstimulatingflowandtranscendentbrandexperiencesinordertosustainbrandfandom

SarkarandSarkar(Chapter11)discussfandominthetriadic(consumer-brand-consumer)relation-Inadigitalage,thereisaboominginelectronicgamingindustry,soasthegrowingnumberoffansofgaming.Fai(Chapter12)describeafascinatingsocialandconsumptionphenomenonoftamedfanlabor,whichreferstohybridlabor-fanswhoarerecruitedbytheproducerstoworkonbehalfofthem.Thefansofgaminginsuchacasearenotonlyconsumersbutalsoinvolvedinproducingprocessas

prosumerinthedot-comera.Thesloganthat“gamingcouldbeacareerpursuit”becomesaneffective

marketingtooltoinvolvefancommunityengagingandenjoyingparamountprofitablebenefitviathesponsorshipofgamecompanies

Likewise,cosplayorcostumeplay-thepracticeofdressingupbyparticipantsasaspecificcharacterfromamovie,book,orvideogame-hasbeengainingworldpopularityandparticularlyattractedlargefansfromAsianyoungconsumers.Themostcommonsourcesincludemangaandanime,comicbooksandcartoons,videogames,andlive-actionfilmsandtelevisionseries.ManagaandanimearemorethanJapanesestylecomicsandanimation,butbecomepartoffanslifeassociatedwithshoppingandconsumptioninMangaCafes,MaidCafes,mangaandanimegrandevents,themeparksandmuseums.Asafanofanimeandmangahimself,Zeng(Chapter13)clarifiessomecommonmisconceptionandmisunderstandingofAnimeandmangafansandprovidesanoverviewoftherealanimeandmangafans’world.Thischapterpresentsandexplainsmanycharactersofanimeandmangafansanddrawsmarketingimplicationforfandommanagement

Campbell, H. A., & La Pastina, A. C. (2010). How the iPhone Became Divine: New Media,

Re-ligion and the Intertextual Circulation of meaning. New Media & Society, 12(7), 1191–1207.

Iwouldliketoextendmysinceregratitudetoallauthorswhocontributedtothisbookandtooktheroleofblindreviewersforotherchapters.SpecialthanksalsogotoDr.AlexS.L.Tsang(HongKongBaptistUniversity),Dr.EricaHaugtvedt(OhioStateUniversity),Dr.RonKuntze(UniversityofNewHaven),andDr.CeydaMumcu(UniversityofNewHaven)whoprovidedblindreviewsandconstructivecom-mentsforsomechapters.Theircollectiveeffortsandcommitmentsmadethisbookpossible

Cheng Lu Wang

University of New Haven, USA

Segmenting Fan Communities:

Toward a Taxonomy for Researchers and Industry

Increasingly, businesses and organizations expect marketing professionals to leverage fan communities

to promote the brand, identify opinion leaders and generate word of mouth (WOM) and sales (Gnambs

& Batinic, 2012; Li & Bernoff, 2008; O’Sullivan, 2015; Thakur, Angriawan & Summey, 2016) WOM

is peer to peer recommendation of a product, usually for no compensation to the WOM generator (Herr, Kardes, & Kim, 1991; Sweeney, Soutar, & Mazzarol, 2008) Although how to generate WOM is a source

of constant conjecture, it is generally accepted that producer generated WOM is not true WOM True WOM is peer-to-peer (P2P)

Producer-generated WOM can also seem hard selling and inauthentic compared to a fan base’s genuine and ardent enthusiasm (Herr et al., 1991; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Sweeney et al., 2008) Producers attempt

to subvert this inauthenticity by posing as fans, covertly compensating fans for generating WOM or tempting to influence peer-to-peer messages Thus marketers attempt to grow their fan base, and both influence and equip their fans to share brand content and messages Although some fans clamor to be the vehicle of such messages, other fans find this shilling destroys their pure relationship with the brand Getting fan communication wrong can have dire consequences for the products, fans and the brand in the marketplace (Li & Bernoff, 2008)

at-Furthermore, the internet, and social media have created a public marketplace of discourse about virtually every product and brand (Li & Bernoff, 2008) The expectations on marketers to craft messages for these groups, control as well as direct their behavior, and use them to generate more sales, usually assumes that somehow fans are in service to brands Yet fans, like any groups of people, are a disparate group of individuals with their own motivations and reasons for everything they do (Doss & Carstens, 2014; Walsh & Mitchell, 2009)

In short, marketers are expected to be experts in the consumer communities, and of the fans who spread word of mouth about their product Moreover, the marketers should influence and control these fans and communities

Yet in the same way that the Vatican cannot control the lives of everyone who identifies as Catholic, some fans may not follow a product’s doctrine At least three decades of academic and industry research confirms this argument across fan communities, also known as brand communities (Casalo, Flavian,

& Guinaliu, 2007; Cova, Pace, & Park, 2007; Schau, Muniz, & Arnould, 2009; Zhou, Zhang, Su, & Zhou, 2012), brand cults (Nathalie Collins, Gläbe, Mizerski, & Murphy; Schlanger & Bhasin, 2013) and subcultures of consumption (Arnould & Thompson, 2005; Chalmers & Arthur, 2008; Lewin, 2013; Schouten & McAlexander, 1995)

Most such fan community and subcultures of consumption research is qualitative, usually using methodologies common in anthropology, sociology, psychology and religious studies (Arnould & Thompson, 2005; Belk, Fischer, & Kozinets, 2013) Few quantitative studies relate to fan communities, mostly on the psychological bonds to the brand or attempting to identify or quantify the income gen-eration power of devoted fans (Doss & Carstens, 2014; O’Sullivan, 2015; Shoham, & Pesämaa, 2013; Walsh & Mitchell, 2009)

Marketers today may know their fans via face to face experience, big data gathering, social media and other means They may even know how much their fans purchase, refer, attend events or visit web sites Yet how can most marketers in such product and brand-specific contexts, better understand and therefore leverage their fan bases? Just as importantly, how can marketers communicate to their own organizations what a reasonable investment in fan communities constitutes, as well as a reasonable return

on that investment? How can marketers manage their organizations’ expectations on what successful fan management looks like? Finally, is fan management even possible?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Given the lack of research on the growing and evolving concept of brand fandom, this chapter draws

on an Integrated Literature Review as the methodology (Leclercq, Hammedi, & Poncin, 2016; temore & Knafl, 2005) This methodology first identifies the problem, as in the above paragraph, and then searches literature relevant to the problem before evaluating and analyzing the resultant literature Given the popular cultural bias, relevant literature includes scholarly and popular press articles related

Whit-to brand fandom and brand communities The use of a folk taxonomy, as explained next, helps bridge the academic and popular literature

Folk Taxonomies

This chapter proposes a segmented approach to fan behavior, with persona categorized using existing

cultural language Drawing on the concept of a taxonomy, this segmentation uses a folk taxonomy (Brent,

Breedlove, & Raven, 1968) Unlike the folksonomy, an organization of user-generated tags usually in a cloud, which helps categorise information (Wu, Zubair, & Maly, 2006), a folk taxonomy refers to words used by the people involved in the culture, rather than an outsider such as scientists analysing and nam-ing a phenomena (Berlin, Breedlove & Raven, 1966)

In much the same way that a plant or insect might have a scientific name and place in the animal or plant classification system, but also have a colloquial name, a folk taxonomy merges the two concepts (Berlin, Breedlove & Raven, 1966) This folk taxonomy is typical in that it uses names derived from cultural milieus, which are descriptive and often metaphorical, to describe phenomena However at the same time, the features and attributes of the phenomenon is classified into a system and hierarchy, as per a scientific classification

This folk taxonomy approach draws on the benefits of the cultural richness of the words used to describe the phenomena and allows a classification and segmentation approach that can guide those interacting with the phenomena This chapter’s proposed folk taxonomy looks at six key fandom com-munity types—Geeks, Mavens, Alpha Users, Evangelists, Fanboys and Haters—found in the academic and popular literature, calling them by their industry and popular culture monikers Putting these types

on a continuum of key observed characteristics helps guide a term’s identification and interaction for marketing professionals and scholars to use

Academic Literature

Before diving into the folk taxonomy, it is worth understanding fandom from some the perspectives

in the marketing literature, specifically under the umbrella of theories using methodologies steeped in cultural studies, such as anthropology rather than psychology, which is common in marketing applica-tions (Arnould & Thompson, 2005)

To help understand what draws a fan to a product, one has to select the appropriate theoretical digm to view the customer experience The traditional marketing approach, based on economic and psychological models, usually fails to explain why one person can use a product and be untouched by the experience (Lusch, Vargo, & Wessels, 2008) Yet another, seemingly identical consumer uses and becomes entranced by that same product This variability has long been the domain of services market-

para-ing, where the intangibility of the service has lent itself to variance in both the quality of the service provided and its perception (N Collins, Murphy, & Glaebe, 2011; Sweeney, 2007).

The marketing paradigm of choice to observe fan behavior, Service-Dominant (S-D) Logic, posits that every product, even if it has mostly physical components, is experiential (Leclercq, Hammedi & Poncin, 2016(Vargo & Lusch, 2004) This means that each time the product is used, even if by the same person, the experience will differ Therefore, the use will vary in emotion, attitude and so on, even if that variance is slight For example, getting into a car differs every time one gets in, even for the same route The weather or driver’s mood, for example, might vary Likewise, the exact same service, for example,

a movie shown in the same location at the same time in the same theatre, may resonate with different people in the audience differently This variance between experiences and consumers is a key to under-standing consumer collectivism (N Collins & Murphy, 2103; R Kozinets, Hemetsberger, & Schau, 2008).S-D Logic makes sense as a lens in which to view fan behavior because it accounts for the phenom-enological variance of the fan experience (Leclercq, Hammedi & Poncin, 2016) That is, why are some people fans of products and some not? As explored later in this chapter, fans come in different types as well Without such a variance, this difference would not be possible

The premise that every product, no matter its material properties, has the experiential nature of a service and carries all the variable properties that services do, raises another premise: the variability exists heavily on the consumption side That is to say in traditional services marketing theory, the focus

of the variability is on the quality and consistency of the service the producer provides (Sweeney, 2007) S-D Logic accounts for this variability and extends it: the same person can have varying experiences

of an identical product Different people can have completely different experiences of a product and therefore walk away affected emotionally and spiritually in the extreme or not at all (N Collins, Glaebe,

& Murphy, 2012; Sweeney, 2007)

Understanding the theoretical construct that underpins a taxonomy, or in this case, a folk taxonomy,

is important It creates the landscape for further investigation Moreover, by definition a folk taxonomy explains why marketers do not control fan communities They cannot create or extinguish them (Ar-nould, Price, & Malshe, 2006; Folkman, Price, & Arnould, 2004) Certain fan types, such as Mavens, can have tremendous influence on purchasing (Feick & Price, 1987; Leclercq, Hammedi & Poncin, 2016; O’Sullivan, 2015) The most marketers can hope for is to harness the fans and fan types The fans

do not belong to the producer any more than the Vatican owns all Catholic thought Marketers working for the producers have a varying level of influence over the actors engaging, or choosing not to engage, with the product

This chapter next explores, in industry and fan community language, six key fan segments for the integrated literature data evaluation The subsequent analyses, summarized in Tables 1 and 2 later in this chapter, are a theoretical and practical guide to characteristics and interactions for academia and industry As potentially key influencers of their brand communities, marketers can ill afford to treat every fan in the same way, or, likewise treat one segment in a manner antithetical to getting the most value out of the interaction

DATA EVALUATION

Rather than a taxonomy, which lends itself to the strict classification and hierarchies of the natural sciences,

a folk taxonomy has a cultural component, can be less linear and have more colour (Berlin, Breedlove

& Raven, 1966) Boundaries can blur, which is important when discussing human behaviour One can belong to two segments of a population, depending on how the population is defined A folk taxonomy leaves room for this blurring, understanding that people can occupy two spaces at once, or more likely, change spaces depending on their mood or the interaction (Brent, Breedlove & Raven, 1968).

The data evaluation in constructing this folk taxonomy draws from academic (Doss & Karstens, 2014; Feick & Price, 1987; Flynn, Goldman & Eastman, 1996; Gnambs & Batinic, 2012; O’Sullivan, 2015; Stanley, 2015; Walsh & Mitchell, 2009) and industry sources (e.g., Bernoff & Li, 2008) about opinion leaders and brand communities This scholarly and popular press articles help identify six

fandom segments—Geeks, Mavens, Alpha Users, Evangelists, Fanboys and Haters—and three key fan characteristics—knowledge, social, passion—across these six segments Each fandom segment has a

key characteristic, and each characteristic is defining/unlikely/optional based on the segment ing these segments across a continuum of the three key characteristic helps illustrate and define the six fandom segments, as in Table 1 later in this chapter

Arrang-A challenge with this folk taxonomy is that people steeped in the culture or industry may use these terms interchangeably; there is no scholarly or industry credible source to draw boundaries around a definition This chapter is a way forward in that regard However, users of the appropriate terminology

as per the folk taxonomy should understand that in the literature the lines between each segment blur

in part because individuals can occupy multiple segments, and importantly because the users of these terms do not define the segment in a particularly technical way

The Knowledge-Social-Passion Continuum

A taxonomy organizes phenomena in a hierarchy based on their features and construction This approach allows scientists to understand how each organism relates to the other, grouping them into categories that are similar or dissimilar based on their features (Godin, 2016) Folk taxonomies work differently, mainly because phenomena are named and observed without the greater context Unlike a wider, scientific clas-sification system, folk taxonomies may group things together by their use or other kinds of classifications

This analysis classifies three key characteristics of each segment on a continuum of knowledge of the product and brand mythology (“lore”); the social drive of that segment–that is, how driven they are to talk about the product or share with others; and passion, how outwardly unashamedly passionate they

are about the brand, versus how “rational” they wish to come across for their decision to be involved with the brand This classification allows these segments to be analyzed by their driving characteristics Marketers may, as is common in a folk taxonomy, classify the types by other ways, for example, the

ambassadorial role they play in sales as in Table 2 later in this chapter.

ANALYSIS

Geek

The word Geek first denoted someone different from the mainstream, and usually in a derogatory way

(Stanley, 2015) During the advent of the digital era, Geek came to describe computer enthusiasts who would spend their free time working on computers either alone or in hobbyist groups (Burchfield, 1987;

Milner, 2004) Some of these hobbyist groups branched out to become product specific, such as Apple and then Macintosh User Groups (Shelly, 2008).

Even before the digital era, when Geeks communicated mostly in person through meetups or by letter with each other, the defining characteristic of the Geek was clear: they were knowledgeable and had a

“passionate interest in a particular subject” (Stanley, 2015, p 11) Geeks focused on products obsessively, usually to the exclusion of other, more typical pursuits This obsession marginalized them socially unless

it was amongst others like themselves From time to time Geeks would meet up to exchange knowledge, specifically innovation and for learning more about the product; this happens still today (N Collins & Murphy, 2103; Smith & Bresnick, 2001)

Over the last couple of decades, Geek “culture” has become mainstream, with producers seeing sibilities for their own products, and peer-to-peer user support within that Geek community In terms

pos-of their role, Geeks are the knowledge seekers and innovators (Stanley, 2015) They are the ones, for example, who find new uses for the product or might push that product to the edge of its paces Such Geeks are also the ones who follow product lore so specifically that they act as defacto product histo-rians, even when the product may have its own keepers of product mythology and lore (Milner, 2004).The spiritual quality of the Geek is based on scientific principles of sharing knowledge, intellectual rigor and communities of practice This spirit is exemplified in the open source community, where Geeks co-develop products with each other under guidelines maintained by the producers (Hemetsberger & Reinhardt, 2009) If Geeks have a patron saint, it would be Linus Torvalds, the initial developer of the Linux operating system, who is still respected globally for his intellectual rigor as well as his libertarian spirit, rather than his social prowess, desire to sell a product or desire to become popular for its own sake (Barbrook, 1998)

Blizzard, the company responsible for such popular online multiplayer games as World of Warcraft and Starcraft, generates income on a subscription basis So keeping all segments of their fan community engaged literally results in higher levels of income To some extent, this engagement is through the chal-lenges of the game itself, and the accessories used to promote gameplay and the brand Furthermore, Blizzard’s very public treatment of a community Geek—the “red shirt guy”—at Blizzcon, an annual convention of players and fans, exemplifies the approach that works well with Geeks and generates positivity through the whole community

As in most such gatherings as Blizzcon, one of the draw cards is Question and Answer sessions with developers Blizzard has a company role as the keeper of the Lore, ensuring that all game versions and storylines are consistent with “one world” for all World of Warcraft games During a 2010 Q&A ses-sion, a fan in a red shirt stood up and asked a question about a Lore inconsistency The question was genuine, specifically as in “what happened to ?” The question pointed out an inconsistency for which the Blizzard staff members could not account The Q&A video instantly went viral, partly due to the guile with which the question was asked, and partly due to the good natured response of the Blizzard staff (“The Red Shirt Guy,” 2011a)

After the incident, the Blizzard team corrected the error, and furthermore, created a character in honor

of the Red Shirt Guy who was, within the game, a “Fact Checker” and advisor to key characters The Red Shirt Guy posted a video response to the fan community regarding his question, and was celebrated

by other fans through autotune music renditions of his question and shares of his moment in the sun (“The Red Shirt Guy,” 2011b)

Geeks are the defacto product knowledgebase, operating mainly within the product itself ally their emphasis is on the intellectual component of the pursuit, whether the product is make-up, a

Gener-cult film or a car They gather socially to share knowledge and possibly learn more about the product, with less of a concern for how many users or followers the product has or product comparison Geeks tend to be individuals whose ego is attached to their ability to understand and know the particulars of a product thoroughly, and may become more attached to a product when that aspect of their contribution

is celebrated

Maven

Departing a bit further down the spectrum from a Geek is a Maven The word Maven derives from

Yid-dish, a cross between Hebrew and German typically used by European Jews The word, first recorded in popular usage in the 1960s (Burchfield, 1987), denotes someone who sees themselves as an expert in a particular set of matters (Feick & Price, 1987; Leclercq, Hammedi & Poncin, 2016; O’Sullivan, 2015) Geeks and Mavens differ in both the depth of knowledge (Geeks go deeper) and the breadth (Mavens’ knowledge is of other products in the same category) A Geek knows all the specs of a product; a Maven knows why the specs are better for product A versus product B

The Maven’s position is a rational one: he supports the product because he is knowledgeable about most products and this one wins out for one reason or another Usually Mavens rely on the rational argu-ment to make their point, and are helpful to the less knowledgeable while nudging their audience in the direction of their belief (Feick & Price, 1987; Leclercq, Hammedi & Poncin, 2016; O’Sullivan, 2015) Mavens like to be above the fray, and consider themselves impartial or wish to be considered as such However, it is difficult to maintain this position when Mavens spend so much of their time building their knowledge base (Walsh, Gwinner, & Swanson, 2004) Can Mavens really know that much about a product to which they are not attached? And espouse it publicly?

A good example of Maven leveraging is explicated in a scholarly article on Netnographies (R nets, de Valck, Wojnicki, & Wilner, 2010) This article followed a mobile phone company that distrib-uted their product for free to several bloggers with the intent that they blog about it One blogger was a maven and his blog and podcast related specifically to the tech world, with his credibility coming from his knowledge and ability to communicate to a wide audience about it

Kozi-The Maven’s approach to the phone was to discuss it based on its merits, in the larger context of other phones available He openly admitted the phone had been sent to him for free, to underscore his impar-tiality By reviewing the phone and endorsing its positive qualities, he joined the brand community and broadcasted about it; the responses from his audience, and the company, were positive The company,

of course, was pleased with the outcome and his audience appreciative of his point of view Crucial to the authenticity of his analysis and communication was his so-called impartiality and use of reason to prefer one product over another This position of knowledge and reason, rather than obsession or pas-sion, is the Maven hallmark, and a place in which they are best leveraged (N Collins & Watts, 2013)

Alpha

The concept of the Alpha comes to the brand community from observations of animals and pack behavior

(Tierney, 2001) The term has since evolved to identify someone in a group who is a leader; one whose opinions will be heeded and followed In some scholarly circles, Alpha is also known as an opinion leader (Rogers, 1983)

The currency of the Alpha is popularity and influence Why the Alpha attaches to one brand or another is immaterial; it could be based on passion, or reason or both What is essential is their role as

an opinion leader and the propensity for others inside and outside the community to follow an Alpha With social media, Alphas are easier to spot as they may have large groups of followers based on their popularity However, it is important to cultivate Alphas carefully in the social media age; because the currency of the Alpha does not necessarily come from their overall popularity, but from the thing that makes them popular

Celebrity use of various products is one approach to the Alpha But with product placement so pervasive

in social media and conventional media, the amount of cynicism is high, even amongst Alpha followers There are times when celebrity endorsement comes across as authentic, that is, a celebrity is particularly and genuinely interested in the product and being part of the community However, such endorsements tend to be less effective around product and more around social movements (Harrington, 2014).Hasbro executed a classic Alpha leveraging strategy almost two decades ago, carefully selecting the schoolyard leaders for the distribution of their new video game in the hopes that those children playing

it would develop a cache around the game itself (Tierney, 2001) This is a classic and oft-used approach

to the Alpha But what makes the child version so effective is that children are more genuine and less in their affection for one thing or another Although Alphas generally have tendencies toward early adoption and product knowledge, they are not particularly known for either Rather they are influencers

guile-in their own right, based on the currency guile-in their communities

Evangelist

The brand community related term Evangelist was first coined by Apple and made popular by former

Apple staffer Guy Kawasaki in the 1980s (Kawasaki, 1991) The hallmark of an evangelist is the drive

to convert others Whereas the Geek knows a lot about a product, the Maven knows about the product

in a larger context, the Alpha might use their popularity to promote the product, the Evangelist tries to get others involved in the product as a specific goal The fundamental notion here is that the evangelist receives an emotional award for this conversion That is, converting those outside the group to being users is fulfilling and the evangelist is not compensated by the company in any way, beyond perhaps recognition for their work in spreading positive product Word of Mouth (WOM) (Goldfayn, 2012; Ka-wasaki, 2006; Svensson, 2011)

The upside to evangelism is that this part of the community focuses on spreading WOM (Goldfayn, 2012; Kawasaki, 1991) Equipped properly, evangelists are a volunteer sales force and use their influ-ence with a specific purpose The downside is that they are not necessarily opinion leaders, appealing

or good representatives of the product They can easily turn people off the product or worse, be so inept

in their approach to convince other that it turns people away from using the product This downside is the big split between Alphas and Evangelists Alphas are, by their definition, appealing Evangelists are not necessarily so And therefore part of the approach on behalf of the producer is selecting which evangelists to equip and mobilize for a specific purpose (McConnel & Huba, 2007)

Central to the Evangelist, is the story with which they are equipped to proselytize The lore of the brand, so central to the Geek’s existence, is central to the Evangelist too The Lore must go beyond brand positives and include what the brand opposes In other words, Evangelists work best in a world with rivals Evangelists pick a side, and getting converts to that side is not about making a sales, it is about saving a soul (N Collins & Murphy, 2009; Goldfayn, 2010)

Evangelists need not be heavy product users to spread the positivity But using a product heavily does lend credibility to the Evangelist The Evangelist also seeks to educate as a conversion method, but the difference between Evangelism and a Maven is that they do not pretend to be impartial Some of the techniques used with Evangelists who are heavy users include providing them with content for their social media feeds, rewarding them for their constant usage, giving them the status of “power users” or other rewards For infrequently purchased product, such as medical services or wedding services, refer-ral programs may reward the Evangelist but could cheapen the relationship Importantly, the operative

word here is relationship (Goldfayn, 2010; Rothschild, Stielstra, & Wysong, 2007).

The hidden gold mine of Evangelists can be within the company’s own staff Zappos knows this as does Southwest Airlines, two companies who have had their cultures examined extensively (Miles & Mangold, 2005) In both cases, a well-developed culture around the brand position generates the halo effect of authenticity amongst the staff Although the staff have an interest in keeping the business go-

ing and keeping their jobs, their voice in the community as a group— this company is authentic, they

mean what they say, they care about the customer, and they deliver the goods — is a powerful message

In a world full of cynicism about employers and what people will do for a living, a true believer where they work is taken seriously and a win-win for the employer along with high employee retention and satisfaction (Miles & Mangold, 2005)

Fanboy

The Fanboy is the brand community flamethrower (James & Fletcher, 2015) Loyal beyond and without reason, Fanboys (or girls) have all the obsession of the Evangelist with none of the love They use any means necessary to obliterate the opposition brand, and are known more in their opposition than in their positive contribution to the community (Newman, 2008; Pustz, 1999) Like Evangelists, Fanboys are loyal regardless of whether “the product sucks or not” (Urban Dictionary)

Probably one of the most famous Fanboy cases is the rivalry between the Celtics and the Rangers football teams in Scotland Predating internet trolling and wrapped up in the culture and history of Scot-land, football games as well as interactions away from the field are tinged with Fanboy type behaviors, which reflect poorly on the brands and inhibit the joy that others might get from the game Moves are being made by the clubs and fans to detangle the clubs from the larger cultural picture and to reduce the resulting violence related to the sport (McCormack, 2016)

Sports clubs are an excellent example of Fanboy-ism and certainly some of the longest running, excluding nationalism and religion From a producer perspective, community norms of respect for all points of view and attempting to indicate that Fanboy type behavior is inconsistent with brand values is one way to try to stifle poor behavior that can negatively affect the brand From a sporting perspective, policies around poor game behavior by fans may be part of the sporting culture, but cultural change can come within that community (Parry, 2016) Another tactic is to meet the opposition in a friendly way, making the Fanboys’ flame-throwing seem absurd and distant from the brand, such as the supposed rivalry between Marvel and DC Comics

Haters

Haters are the other side’s Fanboys (Alvarado, 2014) In other words, the opposition brand Fanboys are your brand’s Haters Haters are in the community because they are emotionally attached to the brand,

even though the attachment is negative The behavior one can expect from Haters can range from dalism to trolling and online sabotage.

van-One of the more interesting approaches of a Hater is the peaceful participation and media reveal proach Nike fell victim to this with their “Nike ID” promotion, where one could have custom made Nike shoes One Hater requested his shoes have the word “Sweatshop” written on them to indicate that this

ap-is where the shoes are made (“Jonah Peretti and Nike,” 2001) The interaction between Nike and Jonah Peretti was made public by Peretti to demonstrate that Nike was more concerned about their image on his singular pair of shoes rather than the fact that the shoes were allegedly made in a sweatshop At the time, this raised media interest and the case went viral, once again raising questions about Nike’s ethics

in an attempt to shame the brand (“Jonah Peretti and Nike,” 2001)

The more obvious Haters can be managed through policing producers’ and related web sites, and registering complaints against users posting prohibited content Internally, efforts can construct certain promotions to be Hater-proof as much as possible Situations such as Peretti’s would be given to the organization’s corporate communications department who would be used to dealing with conflict, and Haters lurk in the public realm

As illustrated above, the freedom a folk taxonomy gives marketers is the flexibility of classification This ability to group by a variety of means can develop into a comprehensive playbook of strategies and tactics on how to deal with, and leverage, communities of consumption This kind of playbook is something every organization, including not-for-profit and non-income bearing organizations should be able to do to ensure that their communities are managed consistently across all levels And equipping different segments with their version of such a playbook (but likely not calling it that to make it less prescriptive) is a superior way of dealing with communities rather than treating them as an unpaid sales force or in the traditional account management approach Tables 1 and 2, respectively, give scholars a starting point for research of these six fandom segments and give industry ways to profit from under-standing these segments

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

This is a conceptual paper, based on an integrated review of the industry and academic articles As such, future research should validate the proposed folk taxonomy, particularly the three characteristics, with both qualitative and quantitative research Furthermore, this paper may have missed a fandom segment

or key characteristic, and thanks to social media, new communication technologies and the internet, new fandom segments and characteristics may emerge

Table 1 Folk taxonomy of fandom segments by key characteristics

KNOWLEDGE Defining Defining Defining Optional Optional Unlikely SOCIAL Optional Optional Defining Defining Optional Optional PASSION Defining Unlikely Defining Defining Defining Defining

Industry Contribution

Segmenting a fan base brings into focus how the firm should interact and attempt to influence each ment These segments can also be used as personas to map customer influence, in the same way industry customer experience practitioners are using to map the customer journey

seg-The benefit in developing a folk taxonomy matrix is being able to identify and relate fan segments

to each other A practitioner can map initiatives against a specific segment, ensuring that each segment

is handled in a culturally appropriate way This approach could be the best chance of retaining fan gagement through mutual influence, and also toward growing clout, and therefore reach, sustainability and brand longevity

en-Moreover some monetization of leveraging these communities seems possible Many large nizations have brand community curators, however those positions are not necessarily seen as income generators and mechanisms to track revenue from these communities may not be employed Marketers

orga-in orga-industry should seek and ROI calculation on their communities where possible, be it orga-in sales or brand equity The importance of the Customer Lifetime Value of a Brand Community member, or Fan, can become part of the brand equity calculation At the moment those concepts seem to link weakly outside the advertising milieu

Cultural analysis tends not to be quantified or monetized, and quantitative data tends to not lend itself

to the nuances that cultural analysis provides (Arnould & Thompson, 2005) This area of research is ripe for the intersection between the two, as well as the intersection between industry and scholarly research With the myriad monikers in both the scholarly and industrial realm for these kinds of behaviors, this folk taxonomy is a good start, but in no way the last word on any of these phenomena Marketers should seek not just to identify the emotive value of conversations, but the cultural value as well, using that cultural information to increase income (Kleiman, 2013)

Theoretical Contribution and Future Research

This folk taxonomy of fandom covered six key types found in brand community literature and in common jargon Most fandom research is qualitative, with constructs from psychology such as brand attachment These constructs, though useful on a personal level, do not necessarily address the cultural context in which this phenomena occurs (Whan Park, MacInnis, Priester, Eisingerich, & Iacobucci, 2010)

Table 2 Folk taxonomy of fandom segments by sales potential

KNOWLEDGE & SUPPORT

SERVICES (e.g free technical

support)

Likely Likely Neutral Neutral Neutral Unlikely

POSITIVE WORD OF MOUTH

(e.g writing positive reviews) Likely Neutral Likely Likely Neutral UnlikelyCLOUT/MOMENTUM FOR

PUBLIC EVENTS (e.g attending

brand conventions)

Likely Unlikely Unlikely Likely Likely Unlikely

Consumer Culture Theory has had almost thirty years of qualitative investigation into the brand munity phenomenon (Arnould & Thompson, 2005), with a rick history of analyzing culture brought into the digital era and using new methodologies (R V Kozinets, 2010) Popular marketing culture has also espoused the possibility of tribalism (Godin, 2003; Goulding, Shankar, & Canniford, 2012; Shanker, Cova, & Kozinets, 2007), communities (Li, 2013; Vocus, 2013) and the role of key segments such as evangelists (Goldfayn, 2010; Kawasaki, 2006).

com-One way forward in research, both scholarly and industry, is to develop a framework for identifying the types across the spectra of industries, seeking commonalities in behavior, along with a case study guidebook on contexts of interaction and dealing with these segments The research should be both qualitative and quantitative, as big data can deliver interesting behavioral perspectives on if individuals

in these groups were “tagged” for their behavior in the community and everyday life

Finally, future research on the type of marketing clout generated, as well as proper use of the monikers, would result in one agreed vocabulary for marketers, professional and academic, in future

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Alpha Users: A person who is influential in a community by virtue of their leadership and social

networks

Consumer Religiosity: Religiousness as a model of consumer behavior.

Fanboys: An obsessed fan who feels positively about a product.

Folk Taxonomy: A vernacular naming system.

Haters: Someone who is obsessed with feeling negatively about a product.

Mavens: An expert by virtue of their knowledge, not necessarily their profession or formal learning.

in effectively managing different subcultures of fans This chapter may be used as a starting point for further understanding of fan-brand community-based relationships.

INTRODUCTION

Hannah is a young woman who is highly involved in a community formed around a mutual love of a specific entity Every day she checks online forums to stay up to date and is known by others in the com-

munity as the biggest fan Hannah routinely participates in staking, milestones, badging, and documenting

(Schau, Muñiz, & Arnould, 2009) Staking refers to activities that set oneself apart, and Hannah does

so through her reputation in the Midwest region as the most dedicated and involved fan Hannah’s first milestone moment was the first event she attended; at that event, she created authentic relationships with other individuals, marking a turning point in her die-hard loyalty Hannah excelled in badging (present-ing a signifier of a milestone), spending the next month decked out in fun and cheesy gear she received

at her milestone event Hannah also commemorated the event through documenting—she live-tweeted, discussed it with all her friends, and wrote a blog post about it Hannah is forever loyal, dedicated, and

Fans and Brands:

Delineating Between Fandoms, Brand Communities, and Brand Publics

Breanna M Todd

Western Washington University, USA

Catherine A Armstrong Soule

Western Washington University, USA