Ebook Essentials of biochemistry (2/E): Part 1

(BQ) Part 1 book Essentials of biochemistry has contents: Cell and membrane transport, carbohydrate chemistry, chemistry of lipids, chemistry of proteins, plasma proteins and immunoglobulins, enzymes, chemistry of hemoglobin,... and other contents.

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ESSENTIALS OF

BIOCHEMISTRY

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Pankaja Naik PhD

ProfessorDepartment of BiochemistrySMBT Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center

Nashik, Maharashtra, India

New Delhi | London | Philadelphia | Panama

The Health Sciences Publisher

Second Edition

ESSENTIALS OF

BIOCHEMISTRY

Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd

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© 2017, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers The views and opinions expressed in this book are solely those of the original contributor(s)/author(s) and do not necessarily represent those

of editor(s) of the book.

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers

All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Medical knowledge and practice change constantly This book is designed to provide accurate, authoritative information about the subject matter in question However, readers are advised to check the most current information available on procedures included and check information from the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose, formula, method and duration of administration, adverse effects and contraindications It is the responsibility of the practitioner to take all appropriate safety precautions

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Essentials of Biochemistry

First Edition: 2012

Second Edition: 2017

ISBN 978-93-86150-30-1 Printed at

Dedicated to

My Parents

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This second edition of Essentials of Biochemistry is a clear, concise, comprehensive and in full color, exam oriented

ideal textbook for medical, dental, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, nursing and other health sciences students

This book is revised and updated keeping in view all categories of students and it addresses their needs in a simple manner Essentials of Biochemistry has been streamlined to focus on only the most essential biochemical concepts and avoids details not required by undergraduate students Additional information has been given in the form of diagrams, tables, and flowcharts to understand the topics and its proper perspective

The text has been so presented that the students would find it easy to attempt any question in the form of objective type or essay type after going through the text To facilitate the student learning, I have added new features:

• Exam questions in the form of long answer questions (LAQs), short answer questions (SAQs), multiple choice questions (MCQs), and clinical case studies

• A glossary with precise definitions of the most common words of biochemical sciences

• A list of reference/normal values for selected biochemical laboratory tests

After reading this book, reader suggestion and healthy criticism will be of great help in the future improvement of the book I would like you to send me your feedback at pankajanaik@hotmail.com/

pankajanaik@gmail.com

Pankaja Naik

Preface

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I express my profound gratitude to Honorable Shri Balasaheb Thorat (MLA and Trustee), and Honorable

Dr Sudhirji Tambe (MLA and Trustee), SMBT Sevabhavi Trust, Nashik, Maharashtra, India for their keen interest

in all the academic activities of the faculty members I sincerely express my gratitude to Dr Harshal Tambe, the dynamic Managing Trustee, SMBT Sevabhavi Trust, Nashik, Maharashtra, India, for his continuous support and encouragement

I am grateful to all my colleagues and students from various institutes and universities across the world as reviewers Their suggestions and thoughtful comments have been of immense help to me in maintaining the excellence of the second edition I would like to acknowledge and thank the help rendered by Dr Pankaj Kamble,

Dr Sandip Lambe and Ms Asmita Patil, my colleagues in the department

Special thanks to Mr SD Kurhe (Chief Officer) and Dr BM Deshpande (Administrative Officer), SMBT Sevabhavi Trust for all the cooperation extended by them to me

I profusely thank Mr Mukesh Kale, artist/DTP operator, Nashik, Maharashtra, India for his help in completing the script within the due period

I am grateful to Shri Jitendar P Vij (Group Chairman) and Mr Ankit Vij (Group President), M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd, New Delhi, India for their motivating passion and all the timely help extended in bringing out the second edition I wish to thank Mr Chandrashekhar S Gawade, Branch Manager, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India for his unfailing personal support in the preparation of the second edition I also wish to thank

Ms Payal Bharti (Project Manager), Mr Umar Rashid (Development Editor) and staff of Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers for their cooperation and patience during the preparation and publication of the second edition

Last but not least, I thank my husband Mr Shekhar and my son Mr Sushrut for understanding and supporting

me to complete the task successfully

Acknowledgments

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1 CELL AND MEMBRANE TRANSPORT 1

¾ Biologically Important Peptides 55

8 CHEMISTRY OF HEMOGLOBIN 125

9 CHEMISTRY OF NUCLEIC ACIDS 135

10 BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION 147

11 NUTRIENTS AND THEIR ROLE IN NUTRITION 159

¾ De Novo Synthesis of Fatty Acids (Lipogenesis) 215

15 INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM AND METABOLISM IN STARVATION 278

16 WATER METABOLISM 287

17 MINERAL METABOLISM 293

19 PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDE METABOLISM 321

¾ De Novo Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotides 321

¾ De Novo Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides 328

20 REPLICATION, TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION 334

21 REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION AND MUTATION 355

22 GENETIC ENGINEERING 362

¾ Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology 365

23 MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION 374

24 ACID-BASE BALANCE 380

25 ORGAN FUNCTION TESTS 390

27 FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS 412

28 DETOXIFICATION (METABOLISM OF XENOBIOTICS) 418

30 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH 430

31 BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 438

32 CONNECTIVE TISSUE 444

33 MUSCLE 449

34 NEUROTRANSMITTERS 456

35 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES 462

¾ Types of Living Cell

¾ Structure and Functions of a Cell and its Subcellular Components

The electron microscope allowed classification of cells into two major groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes, based

on the presence and absence of the true nucleus

TYPES OF LIVING CELL

The electron microscope allowed classification of cells into two major groups, prokaryotes and eukaryo tes based on

the presence and absence of the true nucleus

• Eukaryotes (Greek: Eue = true, karyon = nucleus), which

have a membrane enclosed nucleus encapsulating their DNA, (deoxyribonucleic acid) Animals, plants and fungi belong to the eukaryotes Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes Eukaryotes may be multicellular

as well as unicellular, are far more complex than prokaryotes and are characterized by having numerous membrane enclosed organelles (subcellular elements)

in their cytoplasm, including:

– Mitochondria – Lysosomes– Endoplasmic reticulum – Golgi complexes

• Prokaryotes have no typical nucleus (Greek: Pro

= before) instead consists of nucleoid in which the

genome, the complete set of genes, composed of DNA

is replicated and stored with its associated proteins The

nucleoid, in bacteria and archaea, is not separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane (Fig 1.1) Bacteria and

blue green algae belong to the prokaryotes Prokaryotes lack membrane enclosed organelles (subcellular elements) in their cytoplasm Prokaryotes; which comprise the various types of bacteria, have relatively small structures and are invariably unicellular

Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1 describe some of the major

structural features of the prokaryote and eukaryote cells

Viruses, it should be noted, are not living organism in the

sense that cells are They are incapable of replication themselves outside their host cells and have virtually no biochemical activities of their own However, they possess genomes and have the ability to enter living cells, where they cause the host’s molecular biology machinery to replicate them as a result of which they cause disease.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL AND ITS SUBCELLULAR COMPONENTS

A cell has three major components:

1 Plasma membrane (Cell membrane)

2. Cytoplasm with its organelles:

– Endoplasmic reticulum– Golgi apparatus– Mitochondria– Lysosomes– Peroxisomes

1

CHAPTER

Table 1.2 shows biochemical functions of subcellular

organelles of the eukaryotic cell

Plasma Membrane

• The cell is enveloped by a thin membrane called cell membrane or plasma membrane.

• Plasma membranes mainly consist of lipids, proteins

and smaller proportion of carbohydrates that are linked

to lipids and proteins The basic organization of biologic membranes is illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Table 1.1: Structural features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Organelle Eukaryotes Prokaryotes

Nucleus Present No define nucleus DNA

present but not separated from rest cell

Plasma membrane Present PresentMitochondria Present Absent Enzymes for oxidation

reactions located on plasma membrane

Endoplasmic reticulum Present AbsentRibosomes Present Present Chromosomes Linear Circular Cytoplasm Contains

various membrane bound organelles, such as mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes and Golgi apparatus

Undifferentiated

Reproduction Mitosis By binary division

Fig 1.1: Cell structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell.

Table 1.2: Biochemical functions of subcellular organelles of the

eukaryotic cell.

Subcellular organelles Function

Plasma membrane Transport of molecules in and out

of cell, receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters

Lysosome Intracellular digestion of macromolecules

and hydrolysis of nucleic acid, protein, glycosaminoglycans, glycolipids, sphingolipids

Golgi apparatus Post-transcriptional modification and sorting

of proteins and export of proteins Rough

endoplasmic reticulum

Biosynthesis of protein and secretion

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Biosynthesis of steroid hormones and phospholipids, metabolism of foreign compounds

Nucleus Storage of DNA, replication and repair of

DNA, transcription and post-transcriptional processing

Peroxisomes Metabolism of hydrogen peroxide and

oxidation of long-chain fatty acids Nucleolus Synthesis of rRNA and formation of ribosomes Mitochondrion ATP synthesis, site for tricarboxylic acid

cycle, fatty acid oxidation, oxidative phosphorylation, part of urea cycle and part

of heme synthesis Cytosol Site for glycolysis, pentose phosphate

pathway, part of gluconeogenesis, urea cycle and heme synthesis, purine and pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis

• The Plasma membrane is an organized structure

consisting of a lipid bilayer primarily of phospholipids

and penetrated protein molecules forming a like pattern (Fig 1.3).

mosaic-Membrane Lipids

• The major classes of membrane lipids are:

– Phospholipids– Glycolipids– Cholesterol

They all are amphipathic molecules, i.e they have both

hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends

• Membrane lipids spontaneously form bilayer in aqueous

medium, burying their hydrophobic tails and leaving their hydrophilic ends exposed to the water (Fig 1.2).

trans-– Peripheral or extrinsic proteins

• Integral proteins are either partially or totally immersed

in the lipid bilayer Many integral membrane proteins span the lipid bilayer from one side to the other and are called transmembrane protein whereas others are

partly embedded in either the outer or inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer (Fig 1.2) Transmembrane proteins

act as enzymes and transport carriers for ions as well

as water soluble substances, such as glucose

• Peripheral proteins are attached to the surface of the

lipid bilayer by electrostatic and hydrogen bonds They bound loosely to the polar head groups of the membrane phospholipid bilayer (Fig 1.2) Peripheral proteins

function almost entirely as enzymes and receptors.

Membrane Carbohydrates

• Membrane carbohydrate is not free It occurs in

combination with proteins or lipids in the form of

glycoproteins or glycolipids Most of the integral

proteins are glycoproteins and about one-tenth of the membrane lipid molecules are glycolipids The carbohydrate portion of these molecules protrudes to the outside of the cell, dangling outward from the cell surface (Fig 1.2).

• Many of the carbohydrates act as receptor for hormones

Some carbohydrate moieties function in antibody

processing

Functions of Cell Membrane

• The plasma membrane maintains the physical integrity

of the cell by preventing the contents of the cell from leaking into the outside fluid environment and at the same time facilitating the entry of nutrients, inorganic ions and most other charged or polar compounds from the outside. It permits only some substances to

pass in either direction, and it forms a barrier for other substances

• The cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the

organelles of the cytoplasm

• It maintenance of shape and size of the cell.

The Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membrane

• In 1972, Singer and Nicolson postulated a theory of

membrane structure called the fluid mosaic model,

which is now widely accepted

• A mosaic is a structure made up of many different

parts Likewise, the plasma membrane is composed of

Fig 1.2: The basic organization of biological membrane.

Fig 1.3: The fluid mosaic model of cell membrane.

different kinds of macromolecules like phospholipid, integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoproteins, glycolipids and cholesterol.

• According to this model, the membrane structure is a lipid bilayer made of phospholipids.

• The bilayer is fluid because the hydrophobic tails of

phospholipids consist of an appropriate mixture of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids that is fluid at normal temperature of the cell

• Proteins are interspersed in the lipid bilayer, of the plasma

membrane, producing a mosaic effect (see Fig 1.3).

• The peripheral proteins literally float on the surface of

‘sea’ of the phospholipid molecules, whereas the integral proteins are like icebergs, almost completely submerged

in the hydrophobic region

• There are no covalent bonds between lipid molecules

of the bilayer or between the protein components and the lipids

• Thus, there is a mosaic pattern of membrane proteins

in the fluid lipid bilayer

• Fluid mosaic model allows the membrane proteins to

move around laterally in two dimensions and that they are free to diffuse from place to place within the plane

of the bilayer Whereas, they cannot outflow from one side of the lipid bilayer to the other

• The Singer-Nicolson model can explain many of the physical, chemical and biological properties of membranes and has been widely accepted as the most probable molecular arrangement of lipids and proteins of membranes.

Cytoplasm and its Organelles

Cytoplasm is the internal volume bounded by the plasma membrane The clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm in which the particles are suspended is called cytosol.

Six important organelles that are suspended in the cytoplasm are:

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network

of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm

(Figs 1.4A and B).

• Endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between nucleus

and cell membrane by connecting the cell membrane at one end and the outer membrane of the nucleus at the other end (see Fig 1.1).

• A large number of minute granular particles called ribosomes are attached to the outer surface of many

parts of the endoplasmic reticulum, this part of the ER

is known as rough or granular ER.

• During the process of cell fractionation, rough ER is

disrupted to form small vesicles known as microsomes

It may be noted that microsomes as such do not occur

in the cell

• Part of the ER, which has no attached ribosomes, is

known as smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Functions of the ER

• Rough ER functions in the biosynthesis of protein.

• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum functions in the

synthesis of steroid hormones and cholesterol

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the site of the

metabolism of certain drugs, toxic compounds and carcinogens (cancer producing substances)

Figs 1.4A and B: Structure of endoplasmic reticulum.

B A

Functions of Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus functions in association with the endoplasmic reticulum:

• Proteins synthesized in the ER are transported to the

Golgi apparatus where these are processed by addition

of carbohydrate, lipid or sulfate moieties These chemical modifications are necessary for the transport of proteins across the plasma membrane

• Golgi apparatus are also involved in the synthesis of

intracellular organelles, e.g lysosomes and peroxisomes

Lysosomes

• Lysosomes are vesicular organelles formed from Golgi

apparatus and dispersed throughout the cytoplasm

• Among the organelles of the cytoplasm, the lysosomes have the thickest covering membrane to prevent the enclosed hydrolytic enzymes from coming in contact with other substances in the cell and therefore, prevent their digestive actions.

• Many small granules are present in the lysosome The

granules contain more than 40 different hydroxylases (hydrolytic enzymes) All the enzymes are collectively called lysozymes

Functions of lysosomes

Lysozymes present in lysosomes digest proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids Apart from the digestive functions, the enzymes in the lysosomes are responsible for the following activities in the cell:

• Destruction of bacteria and other foreign bodies.

• Removal of excessive secretory products in the cells of

the glands

• Removal of unwanted cells in embryo

Peroxisomes

• These organelles resemble the lysosomes in their

appearance, but they differ both in function and in their synthesis

• They do not arise from Golgi membranes, but rather

from the division of pre-existing peroxisomes or perhaps through budding off from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria (Powerhouse of Cell)

• Mitochondria are called “Power Plant” of the cell since

they convert energy to form ATP that can be used by cell

• A mitochondrion is a double-membrane organelle (Fig

1.5) that is fundamentally different in composition and

function:

– The outer membrane forms a smooth envelope It

is freely permeable for most metabolites

– The inner membrane is folded to form cristae,

which give it a large surface area and are the site

of oxidative phosphorylation The components of

the electron transport chain are located on the inner membrane

• The space within the inner membrane is called the mitochondrial matrix It contains the enzymes of the:

– Citric acid cycle–

– β-oxidation of fatty acid– Some other degradative enzymes

Functions of mitochondria

• The mitochondrial matrix is the site of most of the

reactions of the citric acid cycle and fatty acid oxidation In contrast oxidative phosphorylation takes

place in the inner mitochondrial membrane

• The outer membrane is permeable to most small

mol-ecules and ions because it contains many mitochondrial

Fig 1.5: Structure of mitochondria.

porin (pore forming protein) also known as dependent anion channel (VDAC) that permit access

voltage-to most molecules In contrast inner membrane is impermeable to nearly all ions and polar molecules Many transporters shuttles metabolites such as ATP, pyruvate, and citrate across the inner mitochondrial membrane

• Mitochondria contain their own DNA (mtDNA) which encodes a few polypeptides involved in oxidative phosphorylation.

• It is worth noting that sperms contribute no mitochondria

to the fertilized egg, so that mitochondrial DNA is inherited exclusively through the female line Thus, mitochondria are maternally inherited.

Nucleus

The cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and those

without nucleus are known as prokaryotes Most of the

cells have only one nucleus but cells of skeletal muscles have many nuclei The matured red blood cell contains

no nucleus.

Structure of Nucleus

• The nucleus is spherical in shape and situated near

the center of the cell The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope

• The space enclosed by the nuclear envelope is called nucleoplasm; within this the nucleolus is present

Nucleolus is an organized structure of DNA, RNA and protein that is involved in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA The remaining nuclear DNA is dispersed throughout the nucleoplasm in the form of chromatin fibers At mitosis, chromatin is condensed into discrete

structures called chromosomes.

Functions of Nucleus

The major functional role of the nucleus is that of:

• Replication: Synthesis of new DNA.

• Transcription: The synthesis of the three major types

of RNA:

1 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

2 Messenger RNA (mRNA)

3 Transfer RNA (tRNA)

CYTOSKELETON

• The cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells contains network

of protein filaments that interact extensively with each

other and with the component of the plasma membrane

Such an extensive intracellular network of protein has been called cytoskeleton The plasma membrane is

anchored to the cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is not a rigid permanent framework of the cell but is a dynamic, changing structure

• The cytoskeleton consists of three primary protein

filaments:

1 Microfilaments

2 Microtubules

3. Intermediate filaments.

1 Microfilaments are about 5 nm in diameter They

are made up of protein actin Actin filaments form a

meshwork just underlying the plasma membrane of cells and are referred to as cell cortex, which is labile They

disappear as cell motility increases or upon malignant transformation of cells The function of microfilaments is:

– To help muscle contraction– To maintain the shape of the cell– To help cellular movement

2 Microtubules are cylindrical tubes, 20 to 25 nm in

diameter They are made up of protein tubulin.

Microtubules are necessary for the formation and function of mitotic spindle They provide stability to the cell They prevent tubules of ER from collapsing These are the major components of axons and dendrites.

3 Intermediate filaments are so called as their diameter

(10 nm) is intermediate between that of microfilaments (5 nm) and of microtubules (25 nm):

– Intermediate filaments are formed from fibrous protein which varies with different tissue type

– They play role in cell-to-cell attachment and help to stabilize the epithelium They provide strength and rigidity to axons

Functions of Cytoskeleton

• The cytoskeleton gives cells their characteristic

shape and form, provides attachment points for organelles, fixing their location in cells and also makes communication between parts of the cell possible

• It is also responsible for the separation of chromosomes

during cell division

• The internal movement of the cell organelles as well as

cell locomotion and muscle fiber contraction could not take place without the cytoskeleton It acts as “track”

on which cells can move organelles, chromosomes and other things.

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

• One of the functions of the plasma membrane is to

regulate the passage of a variety of small molecules across it

• Biological membranes are semipermeable membranes

through which certain molecules freely diffuse across membranes but the movement of the others is restricted because of size, charge or solubility.

• The two types of transport mechanisms are (Fig 1.6):

1 Passive transport or passive diffusion

2 Active transport

Passive Transport or Passive Diffusion

• Passive transport is the process by which molecules

move across a membrane without energy (ATP)

• The direction of passive transport is always from a gion of higher concentration to one of lower concen- tration.

re-• There are two types of passive transport as follows:

1 Simple diffusion

2 Facilitated diffusion

Simple Diffusion

• Lipid soluble, i.e lipophilic molecules can pass through

cell membrane, without any interaction with carrier proteins in the membrane Such molecules will pass through membrane along the concentration gradient, i.e from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration This process is called simple diffusion.

Facilitated Diffusion

• The movement of water soluble molecules and ions

across the membrane requires specific transport system

They pass through specific carrier proteins A carrier

protein binds to a specific molecule on one side of the membrane and releases it on the other side This type

of crossing the membrane is called facilitated diffusion

or carrier-mediated diffusion.

• An example of facilitated diffusion is the movement of

glucose and most of the amino acids across the plasma membrane

• These diffusion processes are not coupled to the

movement of other ions, they are known as uniport transport processes (Fig 1.7).

Active Transport

• If a molecule moves against a concentration gradient,

an external energy source is required; this movement is referred to as active transport.

Fig 1.6: Types of membrane transport mechanism.

Fig 1.7: Uniport, symport and antiport transport of substance across

the cell membrane.

• Substances that are actively transported through cell

membranes include, Na + , K + , Ca ++ , H + , CI – , several

different sugars and most of the amino acids.

• Active transport is classified into two types according to

the source of energy used as follows:

i Primary active transport

ii Secondary active transport

• In both instances, transport depends on the carrier proteins; like facilitated diffusion However, in active

transport, the carrier proteins function differently from the carrier in facilitated diffusion Carrier protein for active transport is capable of transporting substance against the concentration gradient.

Primary Active Transport

• In primary active transport, the energy is derived directly from hydrolysis of ATP.

• Sodium, potassium, calcium, hydrogen and chloride

ions are transported by primary active transport

Primary active transport of Na + and K + (sodium-potassium pump)

• Na+-K+ Pump, a primary active transport process that pumps Na+ ions out of the cell and at the same time pumps K+ ions from outside to the inside generating an electrochemical gradient

• Carrier protein of Na+-K+ pump has three receptor sites for binding sodium ions on the inside of the cell and two receptor sites for potassium ions on the outside

The inside portion of this protein has ATPase activity (Fig 1.8).

• The pump is called Na + -K + ATPase because the

hydrolysis of ATP occurs only when three Na+ ions bind

on the inside and two K+ ions bind on the outside of the carrier proteins The energy liberated by the hydrolysis

of ATP leads to conformational change in the carrier

protein molecule, extruding the three Na+ ions to the outside and the two K+ ions to the inside

Physiological importance of Na + -K + pump

• The active transport of Na+ and K+ is of great physiological significance The Na+ – K+ gradient created by this pump

in the cells, controls cell volume.

• It carries the active transport of sugars and amino acids.

Secondary Active Transport

Secondary active transport uses an energy generated by

an electrochemical gradient It is not directly coupled with hydrolysis of ATP Secondary active transport is classified into two types:

1. Cotransport or symport, in which both substances

move simultaneously across the membrane in the same direction (see Fig 1.7), e.g transport of Na+ and glucose

to the intestinal mucosal cells from the gut

2. Counter transport or antiport, in which both substances

move simultaneously in opposite direction (see Fig 1.7),

e.g transport of Na+ and H+ occurs in the renal proximal tubules and exchange of Cl– and HCO3– in the erythrocytes

Transport of Macromolecules Across the Plasma Membrane

• The process by which cells take up large molecules is

called endocytosis (Fig 1.9) and the process by which

cells release large molecules from the cells to the outside

is called exocytosis (Fig 1.10).

Endocytosis

• There are two types of endocytosis:

– Pinocytosis (cellular drinking)– Phagocytosis (cellular eating)

Pinocytosis

• Pinocytosis is the cellular uptake of fluid and fluid

contents and is a cellular drinking process

• Pinocytosis is the only process by which most

macromolecules, such as most proteins, polysaccharides and polynucleotides can enter cells (Fig 1.9).

• These molecules first attach to specific receptors on the

surface of the membrane

• The receptors are generally concentrated in small pits on

the outer surface of the cell membrane These receptors

Fig 1.8: Mechanism of sodium-potassium pump

(primary active transport).

are coated on the cytoplasmic side with a fibrillar protein called clathrin and contractile filaments of actin and myosin.

• Once the macromolecules (which are to be absorbed)

have bound with the receptors, the entire pit invaginates inward, and the fibrillar protein by surrounding the invaginating pit causes it to close over the attached macromolecule along with a small amount of extracellular fluid

• Then immediately, the invaginated portion of the

membrane breaks away from the surface of the cell forming endocyte vesicle inside the cytoplasm of the

cell

Phagocytosis

• Phagocytosis involves the ingestion of large particles

such as viruses, bacteria, cells, tissue debris or a dead cell

• It occurs only in specialized cells such as macrophages

and some of the white blood cells.

• Phagocytosis occurs in much the same way as

pinocytosis

Exocytosis

• Most of the endocytic vesicles formed from pinocytosis

fuse with lysosomes Lysosomes empty their acid hydrolases to the inside of the vesicle and begin hydrolyzing the proteins, carbohydrate, lipids and other substances in the vesicle

• The macromolecular contents are digested to yield

amino acids, simple sugars or nucleotides and they diffuse out of the vesicle and reused in the cytoplasm

• Undigestible substances called residual body is finally

excreted through the cell membrane by a process called

exocytosis, opposite to endocytosis (Fig 1.10).

• The undigestible substances produced within the

cytoplasm may be enclosed in membranes to form vesicles called exocytic vesicles.

• These cytoplasmic exocytic vesicles fuse with the

internal surface of the plasma membrane

• The vesicle then ruptures releasing their contents

into the extracellular space and their membranes are retrieved (left behind) and reused

Fig 1.9: Three stages of the absorption of macromolecules by

endocytosis.

Fig 1.10: Stages in exocytosis.

CELL FRACTIONATION

• To obtain purified preparations of organelles, the tissue

is first carefully broken up in a homogenizing apparatus using isotonic 0.25 M sucrose solution

• Sucrose solution is used because it is not metabolized in

most tissues and it does not pass through membranes readily and thus, does not cause inter organelles to swell

• Then homogenate is centrifuged at a series of increasing

centrifugal force (Fig 1.11).

• The subcellular organelles, which differ in size and

specific gravity, sediment at different rates and can be isolated from homogenate by differential centrifugation

• The dense nuclei are sediment first, followed by the

mitochondria, and finally the microsomal fraction at the

highest forces After all the particulate matter has been removed, the soluble remnant is the cytosol

• Organelles of similar sedimentation coefficient obviously

cannot be separated by differential centrifugation

For example, mitochondria isolated in this way are contaminated with lysosome and peroxisomes

These may be separated by isopycnic centrifugation technique.

MARKER ENZYMES

• The purity of isolated subcellular fraction is assessed by

the analysis of marker enzymes.

• Marker enzymes are the enzymes that are located

exclusively in a particular fraction and thus become characteristic of that fraction

• Analysis of marker enzymes confirms the identity of

the isolated fraction and indicates the degree of tamination with other organelles For example, isolated mitochondria have a high specific activity of cytochrome oxidase but low catalase and acid phosphatase, the catalase and acid phosphatase activities being due

con-to contamination with peroxisomes and lysosomes respectively

• Some typical subcellular markers are given in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Marker enzymes of subcellular fractions

Plasma membrane 5 Nucleotidase, Na + -K + -ATPase Nucleus DNA polymeraseRNA polymerase

Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi bodies Glucose-6-phosphataseGalactosyl transferase Lysosomes Acid phosphataseβ-glucuronidase Mitochondria Succinate dehydrogenaseCytochrome C-oxidasePeroxisomes Catalase

Cytosol Lactate dehydrogenaseGlucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

Fig 1.11: Subcellular fractionation of cell by differential

centrifugation.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1 The following is the metabolic function of ER:

a RNA processing

b Fatty acid oxidation

c Synthesis of plasma protein

d ATP-synthesis

2 In biologic membranes, integral proteins and lipids interact mainly by:

a Covalent bond

b Both hydrophobic and covalent bond

c hydrogen and electrostatic bond

d None of the above

3 Plasma membrane is:

a Composed entirely of lipids

b Mainly made up of proteins

c Mainly made up of lipid and protein

d Composed of only carbohydrates and lipids

4 Select the subcellular component involved in the formation of ATP:

c Mitochondria d Golgi apparatus

5 Mitochondrial DNA is:

a Maternal inherited

b Paternal inherited

c Maternal and paternal inherited

d None of the above

6 All of the following statements about the nucleus

are true, except:

a Outer nuclear membrane is connected to ER

b It is the site of storage of genetic material

c Nucleolus is surrounded by a bilayer membrane

d Outer and inner membranes of nucleus are nected at nuclear pores

7 Golgi apparatus is present in all of the following,

except:

c Skeletal muscle cells d Pancreatic cell

8 Peroxisomes arise from:

9 Na + – K + ATPase is the marker enzyme of:

c Golgi bodies d Cytosol

10 Exocytosis:

a Is always employed by cells for secretion

b Is used to deliver material into the extracellular space

c Take up large molecules from the extracellular space

d Allows the salvage of elements of the plasma membrane

11 The approximate number of cells in a normal human body is:

12 The largest cell in the human body is:

a Nerve cell b Muscle cell

c Liver cell d Kidney cell

13 Which one of the following eukaryotic cell structures does not contain DNA?

15 Ribosomes are found:

a Only in the nucleus

b In the cytoplasm

c Attached to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

d Both b and c

16 The Golgi apparatus is involved in:

a Packaging proteins into vesicles

b Altering or modifying proteins

c Producing lysosomes

d All of the above

17 All of the following are functions of the cell

mem-brane, except:

a Participating in chemical reactions

b Participating in energy transfer

c Being freely permeable to all substances

d Regulating the passage of materials

18 Who proposed the fluid mosaic model of cell membrane structure in 1972?

a Davidson and Singer

b Frye and Edidin

c Brown and Goldstein

d Singer and Nicholson

19 Which of the following are involved with the movement or transport of materials or organelles throughout the cell?

a Rough endoplasmic reticulum

b Cytoskeleton

c Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

d All of the choices are true

20 Lysosomes are produced by the:

a Nucleus b Mitochondria

c Golgi apparatus d Ribosomes

21 Glucose-6-phosphatase is the marker enzyme of:

c Golgi bodies d Endoplasmic reticulum

22 Galactosyltransferase is the marker enzyme of:

c Golgi bodies d Cytosol

23 Acid phosphatase is the marker enzyme of:

a Mitochondria b Lysosomes

c Golgi bodies d Cytosol

24 Succinate dehydrogenase is the marker enzyme of:

The carbohydrates are widely distributed both in animal and plant tissues Chemically, they contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen The empirical formula of many simple carbohydrates is [CH2O]n Hence, the name

“carbohydrate”, i.e hydrated carbon They are also called

“saccharides” In Greek, saccharon means sugar.

Although many common carbohydrates confirm the empirical formula [CH2O]n, others like deoxyribose, rhamnohexos do not Some carbohydrates also contain

nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur.

DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION, AND FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates may be defined chemically as aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydroxy (more than one hydroxy

group) alcohols or as compounds that yield these derivatives

on hydrolysis

Functions of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates have a wide range of functions The following are few of them:

• Source of energy for living beings, e.g glucose

• Storage form of energy, e.g glycogen in animal tissue

and starch in plants

• Serve as structural component, e.g glycosaminoglycans

in humans, cellulose in plants and chitin in insects

• Non-digestible carbohydrates like cellulose, serve as

dietary fibers

• Constituent of nucleic acids RNA and DNA, e.g ribose

and deoxyribose sugar

• Play a role in lubrication, cellular intercommunication

Monosaccharides (Greek: Mono = one)

Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars The term

sugar is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste They consist of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit, and thus cannot be hydrolyzed into

a simpler form They may be subdivided into two groups

as follows:

1 Depending upon the number of carbon atoms they possess, e.g

– Trioses– Tetroses– Pentoses– Hexoses– Heptoses.

2 Depending upon the functional aldehyde (CHO) or tone (C=O) group present:

ke-– Aldoses– Ketoses

Classification of monosaccharides based on the number of carbon and the type of functional group present with examples is given in Table 2.1 The most abundant

monosaccharide in nature is six carbon sugar D-glucose

Biologically important monosaccharides are listed in

Table 2.2.

Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo = few)

Oligosaccharides consist of a short chain of monosaccharide units (2 to 10 units), joined together by a characteristic bond called glycosidic bond which, on hydrolysis, gives two to

ten molecules of simple sugar (monosaccharide) units

Oligosaccharides are subdivided into different groups based

on the number of monosaccharide units present (Table 2.3).

The disaccharides which have two monosaccharide units are the most abundant in nature Oligosaccharides

with more than three subunits are usually found in glycoproteins; such as blood group antigens

Polysaccharides (Greek: Poly = many) or Glycans

Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharide units They are also called

Table 2.1: Classification of monosaccharides and their examples.

and Mannose Fructose

Table 2.2: Biologically important monosaccharides.

Trioses Glyceraldehyde and

Dihydroxyacetone

• Intermediates in the glycolysis

• Precursor of glycerol which is required for the formation of triacylglycerol and phospholipid

Tetroses D-Erythrose • Intermediate product of carbohydrate metabolism (Hexose

monophosphate pathway) Pentoses D-Ribose • Constituent of nucleic acid RNA and coenzymes, e.g ATP, NAD, NADP, and

FAD

• Intermediate product of pentose phosphate pathway D-Ribulose • Intermediate product of pentose phosphate pathway D-Xylulose • Constituent of proteoglycans and glycoproteins L-Xylulose • An intermediate in uronic acid pathway Hexoses D-Glucose • The main sugar of the body which is utilized

by the tissue for energy purposes D-Fructose • Can be converted to glucose in the liver and so used in the body for

energy purpose D-Galactose • Can be converted to glucose in the liver and metabolized

• Synthesized in mammary gland to make the lactose of milk

• A constituent of glycolipids, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins D-Mannose • A constituent of glycoprotein, glycolipids and blood group substances Heptoses Sedoheptulose • An intermediate in the pentose phosphate pathway

Table 2.3: Classification of oligosaccharides and their examples.

Type of oligosaccharide No of monosaccharide Example Type of monosaccharide present

Lactose Sucrose

Glucose + Glucose Glucose + Galactose Glucose + Fructose

Galactose + Glucose + Fructose

Galactose + Glucose + Fructose

glycans or complex carbohydrates They may be either linear (e.g cellulose), or branched (e.g glycogen), in

• When a polysaccharide is made up of several units of one

and the same type of monosaccharide unit, it is called homopolysaccharide

• The most common homoglycans are:

– Starch– Dextrins– Glycogen– Inulin– Cellulose

• Some homopolysaccharides serve as a storage form of

monosaccharides used as fuel, e.g starch and glycogen, while others serve as structural elements in plants, e.g

cellulose

Heteropolysaccharides (Heteroglycans)

• They contain two or more different types of

mono-saccharide units or their derivatives

• Heteropolysaccharide present in human beings is

glycosaminoglycans (mucopolysaccharides), e.g

– Heparin– Chondritin sulfate– Hyaluronic acid– Dermatan sulfate– Keratan sulfate– Blood group polysaccharides

STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE

Physiologically and biomedically, glucose is the most important monosaccharide The structure of glucose can

be represented in the following ways (Fig 2.1):

1 The straight chain structural formula (Fisher projection)

2 Cyclic formula (Ring structure or Haworth projection)

• Monosaccharide in solution is mainly present in

ring form In solution, aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group of monosaccharide react with a hydroxy (OH) group of the same molecule forming a bond

hemiacetal or hemiketal respectively.

• The aldehyde group of glucose at C-1 reacts with

alcohol (OH) group of C-5 or C-4 to form either six membered ring called glucopyranose or five mem-

bered ring called glucofuranose, respectively (Fig 2.1).

• However, in case of glucose, the six membered glucopyranose is much more stable than the

glucofuranose ring In the case of fructose, the more stable form is fructofuranose.

Table 2.4: Classification of polysaccharides.

Polysaccharides

Homopolysaccharides or Homoglycans, e.g.

Starch Dextrin Glycogen Cellulose Inulin

Heteropolysaccharides or Heteroglycans, e.g

Glycosaminoglycans or Mucopolysaccharides

The compounds possessing identical molecular formula but different structures are referred to as isomers The

phenomenon of existence of isomers is called isomerism

(Greek “isos” means equal, “meros” means parts) The five

types of isomerism exhibited by sugar are as follows:

in structural formula with respect to their functional groups

There is a keto group in position two of fructose and an aldehyde group in position one of glucose (Fig 2.2) This

type of isomerism is known as ketose-aldose isomerism.

D and L Isomerism

• D and L isomerism depends on the orientation of the

H and OH groups around the asymmetric carbon atom adjacent to the terminal primary alcohol carbon, e.g

carbon atom number 5 in glucose determines whether the sugar belongs to D or L isomer

• When OH group on this carbon atom is on the right,

it belongs to D-series, when it is on the left; it is the

member of the L-series The structures of D and

L-glucose based on the reference monosaccharide, D and L glyceraldehyde, a three carbon sugar (Fig 2.3).

• D and L isomers are mirror images of each other These

two forms are called enantiomers.

• Most of the monosaccharides in the living beings belong

Fig 2.1: Structure of D-Glucose.

Fig 2.2: Ketose-Aldose isomerism.

Fig 2.3: D and L isomers (enantiomeric pairs) of

glyceraldehyde and glucose.

• When a beam of plane-polarized light is passed through

a solution of an optical isomer, it will be rotated either

to the right and is said to be dextrorotatory (d) or (+)

or to the left and is said to be, levorotatory (l) or (-).

• When equal amount of D and L isomers are present,

the resulting mixture has no optical activity Since the activity of each isomer cancel one another, such a mixture is said to be a racemic or dl mixture.

Epimerism

When two monosaccharides differ from each other in their configuration around a single asymmetric carbon

Fig 2.4: Epimers of glucose.

(other than anomeric carbon) atom, they are referred to

as epimers of each other.

For example, galactose and mannose are two epimers

of glucose (Fig 2.4) They differ from glucose in the

configuration of groups (H and OH) around C-4 and C-2 respectively Galactose and mannose are not epimers of each other as they differ in configuration at two asymmetric carbon atoms around C-2 and C-4

Anomerism

α and β Anomerism

The predominant form of glucose and fructose in a solution are not an open chain Rather, the open chain form of this sugar in solution cyclize into rings An additional asymmetric center is created when glucose cyclizes

Carbon-1 of glucose in the open chain form becomes an asymmetric carbon in the ring form (Fig 2.5) and two ring

structures can be formed These are:

• a-D-glucose

• b-D-glucoseThe designation a means that the hydroxyl group attached to C-1 is below the plane of the ring, b means that

it is above the plane of the ring. The C-1 carbon is called the

anomeric carbon atom and so, a and b forms are anomers.

Fig 2.5: Formation of a and b anomers.

• Mutarotation is defined as the change in the specific optical rotation by the interconversion of a and b forms

of D-glucose to an equilibrium mixture

• In water, a-D-glucopyranose and b-D-glucopyranose

interconvert through the open chain form of the sugar

This interconversion was detected by optical rotation

• The specific rotation [a]D, of the a and b anomers

of D-glucose are +112° and +18.7° When crystalline sample of either anomers is dissolved in water, specific rotation [a]D changes with time until an equilibrium value of + 52.7° is attained (Fig 2.6) This change

called mutarotation, results from the formation of

an equilibrium mixture containing about one-third

a-anomers and two-thirds b-anomers Very little of the

open chain form of glucose is present (<1%)

• Non-reducing sugar cannot show mutarotation due to

the absence of the free anomeric OH group

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MONOSACCHARIDES

Some of the important chemical properties of saccharides are:

mono-1 Action of strong acids: Furfural formation

2 Action of alkalies: Enolization

3 Oxidation: Sugar acid formation

4 Reduction: Sugar alcohol formation

5 Action of phenylhydrazine: Osazone formation

Action of Strong Acids (Furfural Formation)

On heating a sugar with mineral acids (H2SO4 or HCl), the sugar loses water and forms furfural derivatives These may

condense with a-naphthol, thymol, or resorcinol to produce colored complexes This is the basis of the:

• Molisch’s test

• Seliwanoff’s test

• Bial’s test

• Tollen’s-phloroglucinol-HCl test.

Action of Alkalies (Enolization)

• On treatment with dilute aqueous alkalies, both aldoses

and ketoses are changed to enediols Enediol is the enol

form of sugar because two OH groups are attached to the double bonded carbon (Fig 2.7).

• Enediols are good reducing agents and form basis of the Benedict’s test and Fehling’s test.

• Thus, alkali enolizes the sugar and thereby causes them

to be strong reducing agents

• Through the formation of a common 1, 2-enediol,

glucose, fructose, and mannose may isomerize into each other in a dilute alkaline solution (Fig 2.7).

Oxidation (Sugar Acid Formation)

• When aldoses oxidize under proper conditions they

may form:

– Aldonic acid– Saccharic acids– Uronic acid

• Oxidation of an aldose with hypobromous acid (HOBr),

which acts as an oxidizing agent gives aldonic acid

Thus, glucose is oxidized to gluconic acid (Fig 2.8).

• Oxidation of aldoses with nitric acid under proper

conditions converts both aldehyde and terminal primary alcohol groups to carboxyl groups, forming saccharic acid.

Fig 2.6: Mutarotation of glucose.

• When an aldose is oxidized in such a way that the

terminal primary alcohol group is converted to carboxyl without oxidation of the aldehyde group (usually by specific enzymes), uronic acid is formed (Fig 2.8).

Reduction to Form Sugar Alcohol

Both aldoses and ketoses may be reduced by enzymes

or non-enzymatically to the corresponding polyhydroxy alcohols The alcohols formed from glucose, mannose, fructose and galactose are given in Figure 2.9.

• Manitol, the sugar alcohol derived from mannose, is

frequently used medically as an osmotic diuretic to reduce cerebral edema

• Sorbitol, the sugar alcohol derived from glucose, often

accumulates in the lenses of diabetics and produces cataracts

Action of Phenylhydrazine (Osazone Formation)

Osazones are yellow or orange crystalline derivatives of reducing sugars with phenylhydrazine and have a charac teristic

Fig 2.7: Action of alkali on reducing sugar.

Fig 2.8: Sugar acids produced by oxidation of glucose.

Fig 2.9: Reduction of sugar to form alcohol.

crystal structure, which can be used for identification and characterization of different sugars having closely similar properties (like maltose and lactose).

The reactions of glucose with phenylhydrazone are shown in Figure 2.10.

• Osazone formed from glucose, mannose, and fructose

are identical because these are identical in the lower four carbon atoms

• The osazone crystals of glucose and of the reducing

disaccharides, lactose and maltose differ in forms

(Fig 2.11):

– Glucosazone is needle shaped– Lactosazone is powder puff or tennis ball shaped– Maltosazone is sunflower shaped

• Non-reducing sugars like the disaccharide sucrose

cannot form osazone due to the absence of a free carbonyl (CHO or C = O) group in them

GLYCOSIDE FORMATION

• Glycosides are formed when the hydroxyl group of

anomeric carbon of a monosaccharide reacts with OH

or NH group of second compound that may or may not

be a carbohydrate The bond so formed is known as

glycosidic or glycosyl bond.

Fig 2.10: Formation of glucosazone.

Fig 2.11: Structure of different osazones.

• The monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic bonds

to form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.

• In disaccharides, the glycosidic linkage may be either

a or b depending on the configuration of the atom attached to the anomeric carbon of the sugar (Fig 2.16).

Therapeutic importance of glycosides

• Glycosides are found in many drugs, e.g in antibiotic

streptomycin.

• Cardiac glycosides such as Ouabain and digoxin increase

heart muscle contraction and are used for treatment of congestive heart failure.

• Anthracycline glycosides (daunorubicin and doxi rubicin),

Daunorubicin is used to treat leukemia Doxirubicin is used

to treat a wide range of cancers.

DERIVATIVES OF MONOSACCHARIDES

Some important sugar derivatives of monosaccharides are:

• Phosphoric acid ester of monosaccharides

Phosphoric Acid Ester of Monosaccharides

These are formed from the reaction of phosphoric acid with hydroxyl group of the sugar, e.g glucose-1-phosphate or glucose-6-phosphate (Fig 2.12).

Importance

• Phosphorylation of sugar within cells is essential to

prevent the diffusion of the sugar out of the cell

• Nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) of cell nuclei also contain

sugar phosphates of ribose and deoxyribose

Amino Sugar

Amino sugars have a hydroxyl group replaced by an amino

or an acetylated amino (acetyl amino) group For example, glucosamine, N-acetyl glucosamine (Fig 2.13), galacto-

samine, and mannosamine

Importance of Amino Sugar

• Amino sugars are components of glycolipid (ganglioside),

glycoprotein, and proteoglycans (glycosaminoglycans)

• Several antibiotics, e.g erythromycin, carbomycin

contain amino sugar

Fig 2.12: Phosphoric acid ester of glucose.

Fig 2.13: Structure of amino sugars.

Deoxy Sugars

Deoxy sugars possess a hydrogen atom in place of one of their hydroxy groups (Fig 2.14), e.g 2-deoxyribose found

in nucleic acid DNA