Qualitative techniques for workplace data analysis

Preface ...xiiSection 1 Foundation of Qualitative Studies Chapter 1 Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research ...1 Sheema Tarab, Aligarh Muslim University, India Chapter 2 Sampling in

Qualitative Techniques for Workplace Data Analysis

IFHE University, India

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Title: Qualitative techniques for workplace data analysis / Manish Gupta,

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Preface xii

Section 1 Foundation of Qualitative Studies Chapter 1

Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research 1

Sheema Tarab, Aligarh Muslim University, India

Chapter 2

Sampling in Qualitative Research 25

Musarrat Shaheen, IFHE University, India

Sudeepta Pradhan, IFHE University, India

Ranajee, IFHE University, India

Section 2 Data Collection Techniques Chapter 3

Storytelling 53

Sindhu Ravindranath, IFHE University, India

Thomas J Menachery, IFHE University, India

Chapter 4

Behavioral Event Interview 73

Sindhu Ravindranath, IFHE University, India

Chapter 5

Personal Diary Method: A Way of Collecting Qualitative Data 96

Farrah Zeba, IFHE Hyderabad, India

Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, IFHE Hyderabad, India

Chapter 6

Vignette Methodology: An Illustration From Conflict Research 117

Swati Alok, BITS Pilani – Hyderabad, India

Section 3 Data Analysis Techniques Chapter 7

Deductive Approach to Content Analysis 145

Jatin Pandey, Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode, India

Chapter 8

Case Study as a Method of Qualitative Research 170

Naila Iqbal Khan, MANIT, India

Chapter 9

Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research 197

Anindita Majumdar, University of Calcutta, India

Chapter 10

Action Research 221

Anitha Acharya, IFHE University, India

Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, IFHE University, India

Chapter 11

Ethnographic Study 246

Anitha Acharya, IFHE University, India

Compilation of References 272 About the Contributors 310 Index 315

Preface xii

Section 1 Foundation of Qualitative Studies Chapter 1

Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research 1

Sheema Tarab, Aligarh Muslim University, India

Qualitative research is a field of study that deals with exploring, describing, and interpreting the innate quality of entities and the social processes In the recent past,

an extensive growth in qualitative field of research has been witnessed, particularly

in the occupational settings It is a dynamic and exhilarating area that seeks to explain the research observations by means of insights which are hard to produce with quantitative methods Most of the work is concerned with developing a theory (i.e., an inductive way to find out new solutions or identify new questions related to social being) In this chapter, the author has targeted the segment which is mostly the students pursuing research courses or conducting empirical work; the faculties and the mangers who are handling the diversity of the social beings at their workplaces, whose varied needs are persistently evolving, would be able to understand the notion

of technique which is qualitative in nature Certain studies conducted in past and present have also been illustrated to maintain the reader’s interest

Chapter 2

Sampling in Qualitative Research 25

Musarrat Shaheen, IFHE University, India

Sudeepta Pradhan, IFHE University, India

Ranajee, IFHE University, India

The chapter discusses different types of sampling methods used in qualitative research

to select information-rich cases Two types of sampling techniques are discussed in the past qualitative studies—the theoretical and the purposeful sampling techniques

The chapter illustrates these two types of sampling techniques relevant examples The sample size estimation and the point of data saturation and data sufficiency are also discussed in the chapter The chapter will help the scholars and researchers in selecting the right technique for their qualitative study.

Section 2 Data Collection Techniques Chapter 3

Storytelling 53

Sindhu Ravindranath, IFHE University, India

Thomas J Menachery, IFHE University, India

The art of storytelling is an ancient method of conveying information to the masses with certain intent in mind (i.e., as in setting morals or cultural development) It starts from childhood, where children grow up with stories of great heroes and mystical happenings in an age where Gods and humans dwell together As time went by the stories lost their sheen but they are making a comeback of a different kind – as

a learning tool for individuals, whether employees or students These stories are adapting to the modern world lifestyle, medium is now digital though Therefore, this chapter explores this journey of stories and gives instances to showcase the effectiveness of storytelling as a tool for training employees

Chapter 4

Behavioral Event Interview 73

Sindhu Ravindranath, IFHE University, India

The behavioral interview is used to bring forth the understanding of the competencies

of a person The interviews and aptitude tests we conduct will tell us about the educational and expertise factors of the interviewee’s life To understand specific components of his/her talents there is a requirement for a much more guiding narrative technique which will help the interviewee recount the specific acts he/she has done with respect to the competency the interviewer is looking for There are certain preparations required for this as well This chapter outlines the procedure for conducting the BEI with the competency clusters given It also attempts to explain competencies and the process of how it can be used

Chapter 5

Personal Diary Method: A Way of Collecting Qualitative Data 96

Farrah Zeba, IFHE Hyderabad, India

Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, IFHE Hyderabad, India

There is a growing interest towards using diaries as a tool of data collection for

is the qualitative analysis of the data collected through this technique Hence, the objective of the chapter is to illustrate how diary method of data collection can be a better option than other data collection tools in cases where the informants are likely

to experience difficulties in recalling past consumption experience To delineate the steps and different types of codes used in inductive content analysis to analyze the qualitative data collected through the personal diary method, the chapter will also present an exploratory study with airline consumers using self-completion diaries about their online ticket purchasing experience followed by qualitative analyses of this information collected through diary using inductive content analysis Each step

of the content analysis will be illustrated in the full chapter

Chapter 6

Vignette Methodology: An Illustration From Conflict Research 117

Swati Alok, BITS Pilani – Hyderabad, India

This chapter initially introduces vignette methodology and explains the use of it in social research It clarifies the various methodological challenges while designing the vignette Drawing on the experience, while designing vignette for conflict research, this chapter provides a detailed presentation of the procedural and pragmatic issues that need to be considered when using vignette Categorizing the design of vignette

in three stages—predesign, design, and post-design—provides complete clarity in understanding this process This chapter can help budding researchers get a perfect insight into the entire process of vignette development

Section 3 Data Analysis Techniques Chapter 7

Deductive Approach to Content Analysis 145

Jatin Pandey, Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode, India

This chapter initially introduces content analysis and elicits different approaches to content analysis These include the distinctions based on qualitative and quantitative content analysis It clarifies the differences between inductive and deductive content analysis It then moves on to deductive content analysis Through an example, this chapter explains how deductive content analysis is used to elicit different factors that affect job performance of call center workers The steps of coding, grouping, abstraction, and model development are explained with excerpts from two interview transcripts The interview transcripts that deal with developing a model for the factors that affect job performance of call center employees in India

Chapter 8

Case Study as a Method of Qualitative Research 170

Naila Iqbal Khan, MANIT, India

Qualitative case study methodology provides tools for researchers to study complex phenomena within their contexts When the approach is applied correctly, it becomes

a valuable method for health science research to develop theory, evaluate programs, and develop interventions The purpose of this chapter is to guide the novice researcher

in identifying the key elements for designing and implementing qualitative case study research projects An overview of the types of case study designs is provided along with general recommendations for writing the research questions, developing propositions, determining the “case” under study, binding the case, and a discussion

of data sources and triangulation To facilitate application of these principles, clear examples of research questions, study propositions, and the different types of case study designs are provided The great contribution of qualitative research is the culturally specific and contextually rich data it produces This is proving critical in the design of comprehensive solutions to general problems in developing countries

Chapter 9

Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research 197

Anindita Majumdar, University of Calcutta, India

The popularity of qualitative methods in social science research is a well-noted and most welcomed fact Thematic analysis, the often-used methods of qualitative research, provides concise description and interpretation in terms of themes and patterns from

a data set The application of thematic analysis requires trained expertise and should not be used in a prescriptive, linear, and inflexible manner while analyzing data It should rather be implemented in relation to research question and data availability To ensure its proper usage, Braun and Clarke have propounded the simplest yet effective six-step method to conduct thematic analysis In spite of its systematic step-driven process, thematic analysis provides core skills to conduct different other forms of qualitative analysis Thematic analysis, through its theoretical freedom, flexibility, rich and detailed yet complex analytical account has emerged as the widely used and most effective qualitative research tool in social and organizational context

Chapter 10

Action Research 221

Anitha Acharya, IFHE University, India

Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, IFHE University, India

This chapter is about action research Action research is defined as the comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action This chapter highlights the history of action research,

definition of action research, characteristics of action research, stages of action research, issues of action research, credibility and validity of action research In action research, the ultimate objective is in the perceived functionality of chosen actions to produce desirable consequences for an organization.

Chapter 11

Ethnographic Study 246

Anitha Acharya, IFHE University, India

This chapter is about ethnographic study Ethnography is the subset of social research The term ethnography originated in the nineteenth century in Western anthropology, where ethnography was an evocative description of the culture of group of people, generally one placed in the outskirts of the west The endeavor of ethnography is

to assess another way of life from the native point of view This chapter highlights the characteristics of ethnography, when to use ethnography, types of ethnography, procedure, and benefits and issues involved in carrying out ethnographic research

Compilation of References 272 About the Contributors 310 Index 315

This book, Qualitative Techniques for Workplace Data Analysis, is meant to discuss

different types of qualitative methods that can be employed to analyze workplace data The book will be a reference point for academics, professionals, managers, researchers in the field of organizational behavior, and the human resource development practitioners

PURPOSE OF THE BOOK

In qualitative research, both emic and etic perspectives of an event/subject (under investigation) are taken into consideration Qualitative research attempts to understand the social reality of individuals, groups and cultures as comprehensively as possible The individuals, groups and people are studied in their natural settings Thus, qualitative research allows in-depth exploration about the subject or event, which leads to in-depth understanding and rich analysis of the research area Despite such significance, qualitative research has been undermined for years over the quantitative research One of the reasons is the special skills required in both collecting the data and in analyzing and interpreting the qualitative data Lack of statistical packages for analysis of the qualitative data has further limited its popularity Nevertheless, it

is now gaining popularity among academics and practitioners Further, in emerging countries, such as India, consumer choices, employer-employer relationships, needs, desires, and expectations of the respondents and researchers vary Qualitative scholars often face difficulty in giving a proper justification for selecting a particular qualitative research technique or in grounding the subjects or events or in analyzing the data and interpreting it Hence, a practical guide that helps researchers choose the most appropriate technique for their studies is of paramount importance

The chapters in this book discuss different procedures for conducting a particular qualitative technique The book answers what measures should be adopted to ensure the credibility and dependability of the qualitative findings in workplace Six key techniques namely thematic analysis, phenomenological analysis, content analysis,

narrative analysis, and case study analysis are selected for detailed discussion Each chapter explains one of these techniques in detail from formulation of the objectives to representation and validation of the study findings Additionally, each chapter presents the results of application of that particular qualitative technique in

an occupational setting in emerging market(s) Thus, this book is expected to act

as a practical guide for the researchers and practitioners to understand the how’ of different research techniques It is hoped to thus help scholars make their research publishable

‘know-THE INTENDED AUDIENCES

The target audiences for this book include academicians, educators, scholar/ researchers, advanced-level doctoral students, libraries and information centers, research survey agencies and human resource consultants The book will be useful

to them in developing their knowledge and furthering their research through the usage and applicability of the qualitative techniques discussed in this book

STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK

To accomplish the aforementioned requirements, this book espouses three sections and 11 chapters The book encompasses both theoretical and practical perspectives of qualitative research For the ease of the readers, each of the aforementioned chapters largely follows the following structure: The chapters start with introduction about the entire chapter It is then followed by the details of a particular qualitative technique relating to the past literature, its significance, the conditions in which it is suitable for use, and the way it can be applied This section is followed by an illustration

in which the plot for the qualitative study is sketched along with the reasons for using a particular qualitative technique in that context and its application in that context Subsequent to this section is an elaboration on the implications relating

to the advantages, limitations, and cautions for managers Finally, the chapters end with author(s)’ recommendations and conclusion Each chapter is followed by some critical questions that encourage readers to apply their critical thinking A brief summary of each section and chapters are provided below

Section 1: Foundation of Qualitative Research

In Chapter 1, “Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research”, the author, Sheema Tarab, introduces readers to different paradigms associated with qualitative research

techniques, advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research, challenges of conducting qualitative techniques, comparison between qualitative and quantitative methods, and ethicality and precautionary measures of qualitative research.

In Chapter 2, “Sampling in Qualitative Research”, the authors, Musarrat Shaheen, Sudeepta Pradhan, and Ranajee, discuss the different types of sampling techniques employed in qualitative research Each sampling technique is illustrated with an example to familiarize readers with these techniques which will aid them in selecting the appropriate sampling techniques according to the purpose of the study

Section 2: Data Collection Techniques

In Chapter 3, “Storytelling”, the authors, Sindhu Ravindranath and Thomas J Menachery, explain storytelling as a tool for conducting qualitative research in the organizations The authors discuss the practical use of storytelling method in the process of training and development

In Chapter 4, “Behavioral Event Interview”, the author, Sindhu Ravindranath, describes how behavioral event interview is used to collected qualitative behavioral data In Context of competency mapping and analysis

In Chapter 5, “Personal Diary Method: A Way of Collecting Qualitative Data”, the authors, Farrah Zeba and Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, attempt to explain how individual level emic responses can be captured through the use of dairy Respondents record their routine experiences in the diary, which becomes the source of qualitative data

In Chapter 6, “Vignette Methodology: An Illustration from Conflict Research”, the author, Swati Alok, uses the context of conflict management and describes how vignette can be used to capture data in such situation

Section 3: Data Analysis Techniques

This section comprises of five chapters which explain five different techniques to analyze the qualitative data Last two chapters of this section deal with contemporary techniques of qualitative research

In Chapter 7 is “Deductive Approach to Content Analysis” in which the author, Jatin Pandey, describes how content analysis can be used as a deductive approach

to test a theory through several prepositions

In Chapter 8, “Case Study as a Method of Qualitative Research”, the author, Naila Iqbal, explains how cases can be used to capture qualitative data

In Chapter 9, “Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research”, the author Anindita Majumdar describes how a pattern across the qualitative data can leads to generation

of themes which aids in understanding the common thread running across the data

In Chapter 10, “Action Research”, the authors, Anitha Acharya and Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, elaborate on how action research can be used to explain an ongoing practical problem.

In Chapter 11, “Ethnographic Study”, the author, Anitha Acharya, discusses how a researcher becomes part of the research as a protagonist to understand the processes through his/her own experiences During the whole data collection process the researcher documents the data which is used as a source of qualitative data for further analysis

Foundation of Qualitative

Studies

Chapter 1

ABSTRACT

Qualitative research is a field of study that deals with exploring, describing, and interpreting the innate quality of entities and the social processes In the recent past,

an extensive growth in qualitative field of research has been witnessed, particularly

in the occupational settings It is a dynamic and exhilarating area that seeks to explain the research observations by means of insights which are hard to produce with quantitative methods Most of the work is concerned with developing a theory (i.e., an inductive way to find out new solutions or identify new questions related to social being) In this chapter, the author has targeted the segment which is mostly the students pursuing research courses or conducting empirical work; the faculties and the mangers who are handling the diversity of the social beings at their workplaces, whose varied needs are persistently evolving, would be able to understand the notion

of technique which is qualitative in nature Certain studies conducted in past and present have also been illustrated to maintain the reader’s interest.

INTRODUCTION

Humans are diverse and dynamic social beings To understand this diversity a mechanical approach is not always suitable This calls for a qualitative inquiry i.e looking into it through subjective lens In the recent past, an extensive growth in qualitative field of research has been witnessed, particularly in the occupational settings At workplaces, there are issues, concerns, and situations which are

Becoming Familiar With

Qualitative Research

Sheema Tarab

Aligarh Muslim University, India

complicated hence are extremely important to address Since these revolve around humans, an angle is needed to peep into the matter through the perspective of the concerned Qualitative inquiries seek to explain the research observations by means

of insights which are hard to produce with quantitative methods Qualitative research

is exhilarating, flexible and multi-foci in nature Despite of the growing popularity

of this field and a large number of submissions, there is a low rate of publishable acceptability, reason being the fundamental methodology to pursue a qualitative research goes missing Incorporating the theoretical knowledge into research work

is a challenge to neophytes The beginner has little knowledge about the concepts and application of different paradigms of existing qualitative methods, hence get confused Thus, this gap creates an urgency to help those who are interested in beginning research work by means of qualitative methods To overcome these concerns and limitations, a chapter highlighting the basic exposure of this genus

is proposed here It will serve the purpose of amplifying the basic conception of a qualitative inquiry Both the novice and the experienced researchers can refer to this chapter while constructing a successful premise of a qualitative inquiry

The target audience is mostly the students and scholars conducting empirical research work; also, the faculties and the managers who are handling the human diversity at their workplaces, whose varied needs are persistently evolving The structure of this chapter is arranged in a simplified way Remembering the words

of Gephart (2004), the relationship of theory and methodology is important; the organization of the text has been composed in a way that reflects the linkage of all elements in the framework with one another To assimilate the readers, discussion begun by mentioning about the field of study, and then moving to the need and emergence of qualitative inquiry talking about- why these types of studies are growing with the passage of time? One of the prime reasons for conducting a qualitative study is that its nature is exploratory (Mason, 2002) Meaning, not much literature is available about the subject or the inhabitants under observation, and the researcher has the scope to build a theory This feature of novel exploration attracts the researchers to undertake such research inquiries and unfold different realities about the social processes In an organizational setting, there are vast opportunities for an investigator to observe, explore and discover the interaction process of social beings, but it is challenging to decide upon the selection of a method to study To explicate the concept of what qualitative inquiry is; what different paradigms and types of qualitative methods are? I have employed straightforward language and lucid illustrations (readers may use them for cross-reference), to simplify the description, and also have integrated some review questions to ensure that the reader’s curiosity

in the concept remains intact In general, qualitative research has a long history in several disciplines, while particularly in organization settings qualitative methods

is taking a hike, as it holds the capability to bring out an in-depth understanding of

a phenomenon The longer the development proceeded, the more a profile of what was meant by this term became clear Knowledge of past research and theory can help a researcher to focus and choose a unit of analysis relevant to the undertaken problem Certain studies conducted in past and present have also been cited in the chapter to strike a balance between the knowledge existed and evolving overtime

in field of qualitative research

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is an interesting field of study in natural setting that encompasses through subjectivity, flexibility and reflexivity It is a manifold concept which is based upon qualitative methods in practice and often studies phenomena in the real-world setting Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher, the subject, and the situational constraints that shape a study Emphasis of such research is the value-laden nature of inquiry In contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the measurement and analysis of the causal relationships between variables and processes as a value-free framework (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998) The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and connotation that are not experimentally examined or quantitatively measured (if measured at all) so, individual opinion is crucial to begin and assimilate this kind

of study Textual materials such as interview transcripts, field notes, and/or visual materials such as artifacts, photographs, video recordings, that document human experiences about others and/or one’s self in social action and reflexive states etc are some forms of this methodology’s construal With the advent of rapid social changes and heterogeneity in life, social researchers are increasingly confronted with new social contexts and perspectives Workplace environment influence the behavior and interaction aspects of the workers, which expands the scope for the scholars to conduct qualitative investigations Hence, it becomes relevant in this context to know the fundamental elements of qualitative studies These are so diversified to them that their traditional deductive methodologies deriving research hypotheses from theoretical models and empirically testing them are failing due to the differentiation

of objects Thus, research is increasingly inclined towards inductive strategies in form of qualitative studies It is conducted within and across multiple disciplines for instance education, sociology, anthropology, psychology, communication, social work, organizational studies and other related fields Qualitative research stresses

on descriptions of words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data As cited in Taylor, Bogdan, and DeVault (2016), the theoretical underpinning

of social science research is dominated by two popular perspectives; the first is positivism and the second is phenomenology The foundation of the former is

credited especially to Comte (1896) and Durkheim (1938) in the early 19th and the

20th centuries While the latter, phenomenological viewpoint, has followed the lead

of (Deutscher, 1973) traces its roots in philosophical and sociological backgrounds (also see Berger & Luckmann, 1967; Bruyn,1966)

A positivist orientation is labeled as scientific and assumes that reality exists “out there” which is observable, stable, and measurable, while, the phenomenological orientation believes that reality is socially constructed, and there are manifold ways in which a single event can be interpreted (Merriam, 2009) Both the approaches embark

on dissimilar problems and seek diverse answers; hence, their methodologies differ The positivist employs methods like questionnaires, inventories, and demographic details that produce data amenable to statistical analysis While, the phenomenologist seeks answers by using qualitative methods, such as observations, in-depth interviews, field-notes etc The span of this field is not only limited to involve others as a subject, but it also includes inter and intra convoluted relationships among people and groups The aim of this chapter is not to describe any method of study as the best among the rest, but to familiarize the novice with the different orientations that exist or are evolving over time along with the issues related so as to enable an understanding about the basic foundations of qualitative field Before a researcher decide upon which method to follow, its foremost significant for him/her to know that each method is selected in relation to a research problem and not only this, but also the common problems and issues that need focused consideration from the researcher to maintain the integrity and confidentiality of the subject

Advantages and Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

The two genres qualitative and quantitative are not exact opposites, but different in terms of their approaches, methods and analysis If we look at the deductive logic, researchers conduct some measurements, go to the field and collect data, follow a scientific method and analysis for interpretations The process is quantified; it is somehow unable to reveal a deeper understanding of the event or a phenomenon While some qualitative studies also follow deductive steps ensuring reliability, but majorly qualitative research is inductive, as the field is an open way to smudge the gap between deeper exploration and understanding Beginning of qualitative research interest seekers but also confuses them in choosing the right technique from the existing and evolving methods To be on the right track, it is highly important

to consider the rationale of this genre To comprehend why qualitative research is emerging, we will delve into the merits and limitations of quantitative research to track the gap between the two orientations, since both are two sides of a continuum Pros of quantitative study are:

• It aims to empirically test the developed theories and facts in present times, hence based on deductive logic The focus is on verifying the validity of the theory and not any further inquisitiveness.

• It follows a scientific method of data analysis thus, it consumes less time Once the data is collected, statistical tests could be performed with the help

of appropriate software

• A large number of samples could be covered, as more and more samples ensure reliability and validity of the results

• Results are descriptive in nature, it becomes easy to interpret

• Most of the studies are survey based, once a valid instrument is developed,

it does not always require the personal involvement of researcher to retrieve data

• Data collection and interpretation involves quantitative measures; hence researcher’s bias is not a major concern in this field of study

• Replication of quantitative studies in a different context is possible, as it is not affected by the subjectivity of the cases (ensuring proper control variables) Keeping in mind the advantages, we understand that quantitative study follows

a path; however, there exist few gaps that allow qualitative studies to complement them Following are some of the limitations of quantitative research:

• It follows a scientific method, hence lacks flexibility

• Law of inertia of large numbers always keeps the door open for more and more sample inclusion for reliability issues

• This approach does not offer an in-depth understanding of any event; it covers only the surface impact

• Quantitative research is not much suitable in situations where human attitude

or perception is under observation

• Selection of the sample is another considerable issue pertaining to quantitative assessments

To surmount the limitations of quantitative paradigm, qualitative studies come

as a rescue and a complementary field of research Since, both the approaches are neither same, nor opposites; there exist some point of differences Although, the focus of this chapter is to develop a conceptual base for the latter genre, however the purpose to familiarize prospective researchers with the basic framework will remain incomplete until a broad overview of differences between both the approaches is made (see Table 1)

Qualitative work is, by design, open-ended and skeptical Researchers in this domain is a fairly contentious lot, typically unwilling to grant much credence to another’s observations or theories As mentioned earlier, there is no mechanical way to comprehend qualitative content of a phenomenon; rather a flexible sync of data collection and analysis is needed And while in the process of collection and analysis, data handling also plays a key role

Philosophical Orientations

Several studies under the roof of qualitative research with different perspectives and methods convey about the range this field comprises of It is necessary for a researcher to identify and reflect upon them with wit and receptivity to contribute some worthy conclusions Multiple paradigms may sometimes create confusion in understanding their application; hence I consider this issue important to be addressed

in this segment Since qualitative research field is multi-paradigmatic; its landscape

is robust with research conducted from diverse approaches (see Table 2)

For the purpose of building credibility in a study, it’s important for the investigator

to become aware with different kinds of studies possible under an approach and their basic framework, so as to make the right choice while choosing the methodology and gaining the perspective of the participants with reflexivity and empathy

Table 1 Qualitative vs quantitative approach at a glance

Basis of Contrast Qualitative Studies Quantitative Studies

Research focus quality (nature, essence) quantity (how much, how many) Philosophical Roots phenomenology, symbolic interactionism, constructivism positivism, logical empiricism

Purpose of inquiry observations, discovery, hypothesis generation prediction, control, hypothesis testing

Data collection researcher as primary instrument, interviews, observations, documents Inanimate instruments (scales, statistical tests)

Findings holistic, expansive, richly descriptive Precise, numerical

Source: Adapted from (Merriam, 2009, p 18)

Types of Qualitative Studies

Despite a number of assumptions and characteristics in common, the innate disciplinary base of a qualitative study differs on the facet of purpose and design The most popular and much-practised kind of qualitative inquiries are:

• Grounded Theory: The term grounded theory first came to prominence with

the publication of The Discovery of Grounded Theory by Glaser and Strauss

in 1967 (Leavy, 2014).A grounded study seeks not only to comprehend but also to build a substantive theory about the phenomenon of interest A rich description is also important but is not the primary focus of this type of study

• Ethnography: Strives to understand the interaction of individuals not just

with others, but also with the culture of the society in which they live Maanen (1982, pp.103-104) rightly notes that the result of an ethnographic inquiry is cultural description It is, however, a description of the sort that can emerge only from a lengthy period of intimate study and residence in

Table 2 Major paradigms that exist on a continuum

Interpretivism

Interpretivists believed that empathetic approach should be employed

to understand the viewpoint of fellow human beings i.e stepping into their shoes and seeing the world through their lens It assumes that reality is socially constructed, that is, there are no single but multiple realities of a single event (Merriam, 2009) Constructivism is also used interchangeably with Interpretivism

Critical theory

A ‘critical’ orientation is a power-attentive approach it seeks human emancipation and a disruption of the status quo Instead, critical theorists assume that reality can only come to be known through a subjective frame as shaped by values and mediated by power relations that are socially and historically constituted (Renee, Pryce, & Walsh,

2014, p 90) They do this either in terms of some set of ideas built into their own political or ethical position or against standards that they identify as inherent within the socio-cultural contexts they are examining

Source: compiled from various sources

a given social setting It calls for the language spoken in that setting, hand participation in some of the activities that take place there, and, most critically, a deep reliance on intensive work with a few informants drawn from the setting In order to understand the culture of a group, immersion

first-in the site as a participant observer is the key technique of data collection as cited in (Merriam, 2009, p 28)

• Phenomenological Study: Associated with Husserl (1970) it focuses on

the experience itself and how experiencing something is transformed into consciousness Phenomenologists are interested in retrieving the essence or basic underlying structure of lived experiences, by means of engrossed and immersed interviews

• Narrative Analysis: “Narrative inquiry is stories lived and told,” (Clandinin

& Connelly, 2000, p 20) Storytelling has a history of being treated as a good source of comprehending human experience Narratives follow the same philosophy of analyzing experiences revealed through stories

• Case Study: A case study method involves an in-depth observation and

analysis of a subject within a bounded context It may be one individual, several individuals, a group, an entire program, or an activity (Creswell,

2007, p 73) This technique of inquiry is research-based, inclusive of multiple methods and is evidence-led

• Content Analysis: It is an objective and a systematic technique widely

used in social science and media research, however rapidly pacing up in organizational settings as well This research method analyses and interprets coded material (textual, verbal or visual) Content analysis is a descriptive approach that aims to construct a model or a system for better inference and description of the material This approach can be pursued in either ways; inductive or deductive, depending upon the need of the study

• Thematic Analysis: This technique is also descriptive in nature It aims

to describe the pattern of the content underlying the textual material and artifacts Unlike content analysis, where the process interprets qualitative data into quantitative codes or model, thematic analysis is a pure qualitative process of decoding the themes within data by considering both the latent and the manifest content (Vaismoradi, Turunen, & Bondas, 2013) It is a flexible method suitable to obtain extensive and enriching data

With the passage of time, the branch of qualitative research is expanding There are variety of methods that helps to fetch information from the respondents Along with the traditional techniques, a number of methods have evolved over time that deserves a mention in the context of conceptual phenomena related to sources of data collection and analysis In this section below, those methods are discussed briefly

Traditional and Evolving Methods of Data Collection

• Interviews: Personal interviews are the main source of getting data for

qualitative research These are structured, sometimes also unstructured depending upon the requirement of the situation This method helps in exchanging the intention of study and perspectives to justify it Since the researcher himself interacts with the respondents, his understanding of the shared experiences is subject to growth and his broad vision that assist in articulating the findings

• Focus Groups: This method of qualitative study is a form of source that seeks

opinion, perception, or beliefs of a particular set of people (organization) This method is useful in studying a particular set of culture or behaviour in a restricted bounded context

• Observations: Another traditional method to begin a qualitative inquiry

about any event or fact Observation method lead to questions like what is the implication of a particular event on a segment of people or how does a particular fact affect the happenings in a particular context? Etc

Along with these prominent customary methods, there are some new methods which are frequently being used in changing times, in a way to complement the existing ones These methods are:

• Text Mining: This is a digital era; all individuals are exposed to one or more

of social media platforms A huge amount of information is available at the end of user; text mining techniques followed for qualitative approaches may help in retrieving structured information by classifying and sorting which is applied to extract data patterns

• Web Crawling: it is basically about building up a web of keywords formed

by a program for the purpose of facilitating the process of information filter and indexing This function is performed with the help of program software which is employed for the purpose of data collection and analysis There

is further classification of crawling like; breadth-first crawling, depth-first crawling, targeted crawling, and context focused crawling etc depending upon the need of sorting

• Netnography: It is simply an ethnographic approach in the digital world The

literal understanding of netnography is that it is drafted culture information which is available online and on web portals This approach is widely used

in the business research to comprehend the social interactions in context of online research

• Complexity Theory: A grounded approach to understand the complexity

of behaviour within an interactive dynamic system like an organization

In workplaces, there includes huge diversity and chaos The basic tenet of this approach states to be acquainted with the system from its rooted hidden behaviour

In a nutshell, to pursue a qualitative study, selected method and type of study may depend upon the need and problem to be resolved It is important to note that the evolving techniques are complementary to the traditional ones that aid in addressing the issues of validity and trustworthiness in qualitative findings

Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research

After a long discussion about different types of qualitative studies and several traditional and evolving methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation

in a qualitative approach, it is imperative to recognize and acknowledge the role

of ethical deliberations in this orientation of research Though ethics are vital for research, but in a qualitative field of study, the soul of the results lies in the ethical manner in which the data is gathered, maintained and interpreted Ethics aims for good with considerate avoidance of any harm to the parties involved The core of

a good qualitative research is the relationship between the researcher, the social setting, and the environment in which the study takes place Settings like workplaces are composed of people with different skills, values, diverse social and economic backgrounds, and differing organizational philosophies, owing to such huge diversity, the challenges and issues pertaining to research in such type of settings are again dynamic Qualitative research is considered to be a flexible approach because a rigid methodology cannot successfully capture the intrinsic subjectivity of the case It should be flexible enough to be constructed and reconstructed with respect to its research design It is a holistic process, which intends to discover the deeper feelings, views and experiences of any observable fact in a transparent and ethical manner Due to the rigorous mechanism, sample size is usually less; this may question the reliability of outcome, thus, it is managed by enriching the process of retrieving responses and transcribing first-hand experiences in a moral pursuit

Major Ethical Predicaments

• Emic Perspective: Researcher should lay due emphasis to the observations or

the views and say of the participants as they are the basis of his understanding and reflexivity towards their lives, situations and outcomes The interpretation

of a researcher is the core outcome of qualitative findings; hence what he/she may perceive is crucial.

• Participant’s Autonomy: It is imperative to comprehend that the

participants should be given due freedom in becoming a part of any research

It should be kept in mind that the respondents should take part willingly in giving interviews (structured/unstructured), or communicate or share their experiences and lives and should not be forced For example, if a researcher is interested in understanding the work engagement of contractual employees in any organization, then he should initiate the process of questioning from those employees who give their consent and not all the employees of contractual nature

• Informed Consent: Inclusion of participants requires informed consent In

simple words, the respondents should be aware of the publication of their responses, and the intention of the study Maintaining privacy of data and information is the prime obligation of the researcher For example, in a study

of the behaviour of HIV patients who are under treatment is observed, the personal details of the patients, their experiences, doctors who are treating them, the hospital and several other related information (if not properly handled) may cause damage to the reputation of any patient or the hospital Implications are sensitive; therefore transparency is an ideal prerequisite of ethics in a qualitative study

• Equity: Researcher should be fair and honest in giving equal opportunity to

all participants and focus on their views in an equitable manner There should

be no unjust or biased exploitation rather; an empathetic concern is expected for reliability of the study

• Trust: When there are subjective interactions and those being a part of

some study it is the trust between the parties involved that the privacy of information, confidentiality of data should be maintained No researcher should in any way harm the interest of respondents for the sake of biased outcomes

BACKGROUND AND EXAMPLES OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES

Researchers have certain beliefs of reality and a blur idea of problem in mind before they start working on any project Dilemma and doubt to solve the problem, associated with the selection of the most suitable type of study exist amid backend

of their knowledge To overcome these doubts regarding different situations, let us look at an illustrative situation and also certain examples from the past literature to get a clear picture that appreciates the rationale of qualitative studies If the question

is a qualitative one, then the most suitable and rigorous way of answering it is to employ qualitative methods For instance, if someone is exploring the culture of a specific tribe, then ethnographic inquiry is the best option to choose Or if someone observed something unusual, or unnatural, and there is also not much literature available about that particular event, then the suitable methodology to be undertaken will be grounded observations, here the inductive method of theory building will justify the problem statement

Adapted from an article published by (Brickci & Green, 2007), if the working hours in an organization are proposed to be changed from 6 days to 5 days a week, a cross-sectional survey among the employees will tell you that 18.4% of population is resisting this change To introduce a major change in an organization, such relative information related to resistance is crucial, but there are several other implications and queries that may arouse in a curious mind like;

• What are the views of people about working 5 days a week?

• What benefit do they see in getting weekends off?

• What are the implications of this policy change over the performance and motivation levels of employees?

• Does any gender disparity over the support of working 5-days or 6 days a week exist?

• Does the difference of opinion is moderated by the values of different work cohorts, etc?

These are some important issues that need to be addressed and can be dealt well with qualitative methods which enables assembling of exhaustive information A survey can help in identifying the magnitude of the problem, but methods such as observations, personal interviews or focus group study may help in revealing the deepen and the emic story of the participants

Basically, qualitative researchers are attracted towards understanding the participant’s perspectives to know how people make sense of their world and their experiences, without distorting them There are several excellent qualitative studies which cannot be ignored while mentioning this phenomenon Talley’s Corner (1967) is considered as one of the classic examples of qualitative study (Yin, 2011) Numerous incidents or constant changes within the social beings accelerate the growing need

of more qualitative studies The most distinctive aspect of qualitative research is that it is not based on a unified philosophical and methodological concept but has several approaches in which it could be undertaken The exquisiteness of qualitative study field is that its scope to conduct profound inquiries is quite wide

In 1994, Atkinson & Hammersley conveys that the writing style of ethnographers

is extensively narrative; and the flow of text shapes the subject matter to the

“literary” conventions and devices used by authors (Creswell, 2007, p 192) It sets

no limits on any tribe or section of people, all the unusual happenings around, all the unanswered questions come under the umbrella of qualitative research Thus, the description of the study becomes prime when qualitative study is undertaken

in general and ethnography in particular

Another good example of multi-sited ethnography is the doctoral work by (Dayal, 2013) “A Study of Prostitution/Dhandha among the Kanjars: Family, Kinship and Economy” The author has vividly captured the travelling culture in a narrative form

of the traditional entertainer’s community namely Kanjars The author has focused

on the family structure of this community for almost a decade in Rajasthan (India) Researchers are becoming more and more interested in finding out how the world looks like from the perspective of others, or what does it mean to be in someone else shoes People have started becoming sensitive to the social happenings and make effort to feel what others are feeling To shed further light on different type

of qualitative inquiries, I would mention the work of (Maanen, 1978) entitled “the Asshole” in Policing: A view from the street, as a good example of ethnography The author has captured the policemen (patrolmen in particular) views and their work attitudes while compiling this article The purpose of this article is to explore the work of policeman, what they do? And how they perform their job? What influences their decisions? What are their experiences of enforcing law and order in society? The author included not just the interactions with the participants, but also has become an embedded part of the police academy for almost a year to understand their culture, this imbibe sensitivity into the work

Several other studies have been notified of great work in this field, I will mention few more to collate the understanding of this phenomenon intending to do justice with briefing the basics of the field The evolving role of females in American context has been the focus of numerous studies, such as: Ruth Sidel’s (2006) inquiry into how single mothers confront their social and economic challenges; Pamela Stone’s (2007) examination of why successful career women drop out to stay at home; wherein the researchers conducted extended interviews with several women and their families, also visiting their homes and observing family behavior Another work exploring the woman’s place in a man’s world by Carol Gilligan’s (1982), also deserve a mention (Yin, 2011, p 5)

Another example explains, home is a place where there is shelter from all tribulations of the world, how would it feel to become homeless? What if there is

no shelter for the women? These questions have been explored by Elliot Liebow’s insightful study, in Washington, D.C., area This work speaks about the struggle, ordeal, and triumph stories of homeless women The author imbibes the compassion

to do the study by volunteering at the shelter for almost four good years, including many overnight stays Primarily, he looked for the answer to his own question-“How?

in short, do they stay fully human while body and soul are under continuous and grievous assault? (Liebow, 1993, p 25) The participant’s (women) are of diverse age groups and racially mixed, and some have had their own families The author successfully points out the nation’s economic failure for not providing ample livable wage-earning job opportunities and views the homelessness as a manifestation of class oppression in the United States Source: Adapted from (Yin, 2011, p 4)Where there is limited theory available about a phenomenon, then choosing

a grounded approach is a wise pick To be precise, the theory generated by the researcher will serve the purpose of a general framework and is often needed to explain how people are experiencing a phenomenon (Creswell, 2007, p 66) The two popular approaches to grounded theory are the systematic procedures of Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998) and the constructivist approach of Charmaz (2005, 2006)

as mentioned by (Creswell, 2007, p 64) To put more light on a grounded approach,

an illustration of such type of study needs consideration For example, (Pratt, Rockmann, & Kaufmann, 2006) carried out a six-year qualitative study employing

a grounded approach to understand the unexplored dynamics among professionals regarding identity construction The primary method of data collection involved semi-structured interviews of medical residents The study revealed that identity construction was elicited by work-identity integrity violations: an experienced mismatch between what physicians did and who they were The following excerpts from the study disclose how a theoretical underpinning is developed

Q: What does it mean to you to be a surgeon?

A: The reason I like surgery, there’s the active nature of it I love being in the operating room I love doing operations [Surgery] is not a technical discipline you’re thinking about these things all the time then you bring in the art aspect

of it as well The last time you talked to me, I hadn’t done too many operations Now I’m doing very complicated operations routinely Like every day, that’s a major difference, so now instead of talking about “well, you know it’s really fun to play chopsticks .” Now it’s like talking about the nuances of playing Beethoven piano sonatas -Interview with a surgical resident (p.235).

The purpose of this article is to build and enrich theory around how professionals construct their own professional identities There are situations that lead to dilemma

in developing professional identities Another excerpt by a medical resident: Mostly your workload is working on the floor working with patients, doing paper work basically a social worker for the year All the patient care and all the paperwork

is put on you basically You get removed from thinking that you are here for surgery, you just have to try and block it out (p.246) These violations were resolved through

identity customization processes (enriching, patching, or splinting), which were part

of interrelated identity and work learning cycles

A qualitative angle of approach is a sensitive way to identify deeper details about

a phenomenon The visible facts lead to observations, but these events or incidents attract deepen inquiries for discoveries Thus, qualitative study is all about conveying information in an elaborative, extended and interesting form

Challenges in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has a humanistic focus; therefore, description and understanding

of a real-life setting like organizations is tricky So far, I made a point that qualitative researching is stimulating as it offers a broad array of options to explore, unfold and interpret the social phenomenon, it assists in discovering the fabrication of everyday life, the experiences and perspectives of the participants and entail the relevance

of the surroundings and meanings generated thereby Hence, a qualitative study demands an engrossed engagement from the researchers which is fascinating and complicated at the same time Dealing with this dilemma, and the social diversity

is the challenge posed to the people who are undertaking a qualitative inquiry In this context Denzin and Lincoln, states ‘The field of qualitative research is defined

by a series of tensions, contradictions, and hesitations This tension works back and forth between the broad, doubting postmodern sensibility and the more certain, more traditional positivist, post-positivist, and naturalistic conceptions (Mason, 2002) Keeping in mind, that no challenge is insignificant; I would mention that this vision

of qualitative research is possible to achieve, there are certain key points that would help the researchers to enhance their reflexivity into the research process Before

I put forward key suggestions, let’s see what the possible challenges of qualitative research are?

• One of the prominent challenges that came across over the debate on comparisons of qualitative and quantitative research is the differences in their epistemology The postmodernist view is that truly objective research, social science or otherwise, may be impossible to achieve under any circumstance The challenge arises from recognizing that qualitative research does not exist

in a vacuum (Yin, 2011)

• A major challenge for qualitative researcher is to know where and how to begin, to build and maintain its own reputation, without getting caught up in

an ultimately self-defeating debate

• Selection of Sample is another confront, it not only focuses the selection of people to be interviewed or situations to be observed but also the selection of sites in which such persons or situations can be expected to be found

• Researcher’s presence during data gathering in a qualitative study sometimes

is also a limitation as it may influence the subject’s responses

• Research quality is heavily dependent on individual skill and idiosyncrasy, therefore the researcher’s bias turns out to be a major concern that needs careful handling of data collection and analysis

• Whilst, qualitative methods focus on an in-depth analysis of social beings at work in particular context, but it will be time consuming and expensive

• Another limitation at the outset is probably the rules for writing the convincing qualitative study The connection between theory and methodology is important

• Ethical issues cannot be ignored Confidentiality of respondent’s details, information and views are extremely significant A qualitative researcher has

to undergo a rigorous process of managing the validity aspect of the study, but at the same time data confidentiality is vital

Pillars of a Good Qualitative Research

Qualitative inquiries are rewarding but at the same time also highly demanding and involves rigor, dedication and ethical deliberations To carry out this process, one must take care of certain significant aspects that can help in avoiding redundant problems

• Right Methodology: The central criterion of this study design depends upon

the appropriateness of methods selection and application Qualitative research

is a dynamic field of study characterized by budding thoughts and processes

of social beings due to their innate complex nature in reality, hence cannot be explicated in isolation An open and dynamic perspective is required towards the objects to interpret the differences

• Data Confidentiality: This is a very critical aspect to congregate data from

the participants, understanding their in-depth perspectives and at the same time conveying the information which is not distorted A researcher has to be careful while handling the details and information related to the participants and research setting The data should neither harm the identity of the people nor does it have repercussions over the emotions of the parties involved Data anonymity, confidentiality and informed consent are significant pillars of basic ethical considerations crucial for conducting qualitative research

• Data Validity and Reliability: Qualitative findings are the outcome of

subjective understanding and interactions A big challenge that confronts the researcher is regarding the credibility of such findings Since the number of samples is small as compared to quantitative studies, where this issue can be

overcome by including more and more samples A rigorous involvement of researcher can help this challenge, by focusing on enriching the gathered data more than its quantity

• Participant’s Heterogeneity: Diversity and subjectivity of human make

this approach different from other genres of research studies The focus of qualitative researcher is to study participant’s knowledge and practices The successful conduct of any qualitative study involves discovering how human beings comprehend, experience, and interprets the social world by adopting the suitable strategies

• Researcher’s Reflexivity: Qualitative study demands an engrossed

involvement of practitioner The etic view of the researcher on their actions and observations in the field becomes part of the interpretation and findings Reflexivity in this sense means thinking critically about what you are doing and why?

IMPLICATIONS OF QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUE

Qualitative research is a meticulous process that accentuates to understand the eminence of human and environment, their interaction with each other and self

It requires highly contextualized individual judgement, as cited in (Maanen, 1998) To develop a sense of what is qualitative about qualitative research one must overview the strengths and weaknesses of this variety Human interaction and processes constitute real-life workplace settings Hence, qualitative research becomes important in context of organizations for the managers and practitioners

to identify and discover new insights in settling issues pertaining to employer and employee relationship and organizational commitment Such investigations provide bases for understanding social processes underlie field of management (Gephart, 2004) This field of study is complementary to the quantitative field but a little more sensitive as it seeks to explain the research observations via insights and subjective interpretations that are difficult to produce with quantitative research The qualitative study offers its scholars a rewarding and momentous experience Rewards include improved involvements with routine management and organizational realities and opportunities that facilitate their contribution to this field Qualitative research has

an advantage of deeply examining the phenomenon and flexibility in redesigning its framework to improvise emerging situations The methods of data collection are not confined to specific or limited questions until the search process reaches the stage of theoretical saturation Since the process of qualitative study is rigorous, the researcher’s analytical capability expands Its presumed to be a strength of qualitative research that it cannot be neatly pigeon-holed and abridged to a simple

and prescriptive set of principles” (Mason, 2002, p 3) This field of study opens

up novel areas of research and unleashes opportunities to build new theories There are many things that cannot be anticipated well in advance, which are termed as situational, indeed, any researcher should become capable to spot and resolve a whole range of unexpected issues in their research process They, therefore, need

to become proactive in their approach, belief and understanding to carry out any type of research inquiry For a smooth conduct of qualitative research, one must follow certain principles:

• The approach adopted should be systematic and rigorous; it cannot afford to

be untailored or extemporized

• Analysis requires moving from specific raw data to abstract concepts; hence thinking inductively is critical in this reference

• A researcher should take responsibility for his claims and findings He should

be able to build a trust and credibility for his study

• Qualitative research design should be flexible and contextual; it should be adaptable to the sensitive changes occurring in context of social phenomenon

• Ethical code of conduct in qualitative research plays a significant role The moral ideology of research study demands that researchers should not harm the participants involved; respect their needs and interests and should be based on informed consent

The methodological choices are never atheoretical or value-free Qualitative research has its own opportunities and challenges which call for a consideration before pursuing any inquiry It combines an exhaustive understanding of the phenomenon investigated with general theoretical insights that surpass a particular type of setting The advantages of qualitative studies are more of intrinsic in nature which of course

is a challenge to seek A good qualitative research should demonstrate utmost sensitivity to the context, commitment, and coherence in collection and analysis of data and most importantly linkage of the earlier theory A careful examination of these elements may turn out to be painstaking and fully immersed activity but also

be rewarding to the researcher

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

Through imagination, visualization, and choosing new thoughts and actions, we can create a new reality in our lives -Candy Paull

With this philosophical couplet, author would like to present a gist of qualitative studies in her personal views According to the author, qualitative research is an outcome of a fusion made from empathy, determination, rigorous efforts and patience

It is a flexible approach which inquires phenomena through some observations or curiosity and aim to explore hidden reality The researcher unfolds the unexplored aspects by employing different methods and first-hand experience; described in an interesting manner so as to bind the researcher to the investigation, and the reader

to the work The credibility is built with indulgence and an exhaustive process There are several methods to conduct a qualitative research, which already has been discussed thoroughly in the chapter The choice of the method/ paradigm depends upon the problem one undertakes It takes the intrinsic desire in a person (researcher) to explore and ascertain the veiled facts behind the social happenings Unveiling the reality through qualitative methods is crucial and critical What is happening in real world, to the real people, how they perceive it, the craving to identify such realities, understanding them, and presenting it to the world without distorting them is the core rationalization of qualitative genre of studies However, undertaking such research study is challenging, but also rewarding Qualitative research requires engaging in the study wholly ensuring the data confidentiality and concern for ethics A key concern of qualitative approach by now we know is

to understand the phenomenon through emic (participant’s) view, rather than etic (researcher) view For example, an ethnographer becomes a part of the culture and comprehends it as if he belongs to that environment This feeling of belongingness

is the essence of depicting the emic standpoint If that purview is distorted for any reason, then the purpose remains unaccomplished Looking at the grounded theory concept, the observations made are credited for developing new theories or expanding the existing stock of literature It assumes that reality is socially constructed, and has multiple interpretations, not one angle to describe it This multiple nature of realities is addressed by different qualitative methods Thus, we cannot bind the term qualitative in one or two definitions, it’s an open-ended array of inquisitiveness that does not carry any precise meaning, and rather it’s a comprehensive term The input for a qualitative inquiry is generated, when a researcher metaphorically puts brackets around the temporal and spatial domains of the social world, where these brackets represent the territory to be explored (Maanen J V., 1979, p 520) So

a qualitative study demands an intimate contextual familiarity with the research setting that is possible through an immersed in-depth effort and first-hand or lived experiences Qualitative methods are varied because the research settings and the natural occurring are so diverse So it should be clear to a neophyte, that the topic under discussion is wide open, comprehensive, and an inquisitive field of study Another important aspect of qualitative research is its language and description, i.e the manner in which matter is communicated to the readers The skill of narration

is crucial for qualitative studies The problem that needs to be addressed and the message that need to be communicated should not be distracted or distorted The researcher plays an important role here, as he is the one who visits the participants, interact with them, and his sensitivity to the subject and reflexivity towards those social processes add meaning to the interpretations It is highly important that the researcher is sensitive towards the problem, subject and the environment under consideration abiding ethical conducts

To put all together in simple words, to understand the perspective of others, one needs to step into other’s shoes and feel what they have been feeling; to see the world through their lens It’s an interesting way to discover and probe hidden problems and the realities lying beneath which should be interpreted and articulated in an interesting manner without generalizing the results to the masses The roots of this genre could be traced back to sociology, anthropology and different related applied fields of study Simply, for the successful wrapping up of any research inquiry, it is important to take the first step right Qualitative research is a continually evolving arena which has been growing as an interdisciplinary, trans-disciplinary, or counters disciplinary field (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998), the past and the present conceptual developments need to be linked for better understanding and conduct of any type

of qualitative inquiry Generally, the investigative methods are diverse, heuristic, and holistic, rather than prescribed, algorithmic, and linear, qualitative studies, therefore, offer a massive potential, and also poses a challenge to its practitioners This necessitates a great deal of effort: intellectual, practical, physical and emotional (Mason, 2002) This chapter would serve as a roadmap for those who are lost in the situation of where to start and how to proceed? For the purpose of conducting

a qualitative research practically or with the goal of teaching it, sync between the technical, ethical and theoretical perspectives should be formulated

CRITICAL QUESTIONS

1 What is qualitative research? Discuss its evolution from then and now

2 Qualitative research is a multi-paradigmatic phenomenon and is qualitative in nature Discuss

3 ‘Qualitative Studies demands sensitivity to the issues which has been referred

as pluralization of life worlds’ With reference to this statement, what are the essential requisites of a qualitative research inquiry?

4 Contrast the two research approaches i.e qualitative and quantitative How these two are different from each other? Discuss

5 What are opportunities and challenges of qualitative research studies?

SUGGESTED ANSWERS

Answer 1: Qualitative research is a field of study that deals with exploring the innate

quality of the entities and the social processes The meaning of qualitative research should be discussed and some definitions can also be quoted In the recent past, an extensive growth in the qualitative field of research has been witnessed especially in the occupational settings Evolution should be shown

by describing the historical origin of this field An example of qualitative questions can also be included for better description

Answer 2: Start by discussing the basic meaning of qualitative study How it begins,

i.e the process of theory building and the importance of articulating words

in its description This will help in explaining about what does qualitative in nature is all about and what are the basic requirements of this field that need

to be addressed while conducting it Then discuss its various paradigms viz; positivism/post-positivism, critical inquiry, and Interpretivism/constructivism Further, some small examples of each type may also be included to enhance the worth of the explanation

Answer 3: One should begin by mentioning the main objective of qualitative

approach Qualitative research is a vibrant field with many contradictions and diverse perspectives; it does not represent a monolithic, agreed-upon approach

to research A brief mention of its several paradigms should also be a part of this question and then the essential features mentioned in the chapter should

be included; it will serve the answer at its best

Answer 4: Quantitative and qualitative methods both are not mutually exclusive,

begin the answer by describing the meaning of research very briefly and state that there are two major approaches for carrying it out viz; qualitative and quantitative Both the fields have diverse set of challenges and focus Qualitative research is a dynamic and exhilarating field of study because it seeks to explain the research observations by means of insights which are difficult to produce with quantitative approach These and some other point of differences needs mention, followed by a conclusion mentioning about how both approaches are important and two poles of a continuum

Answer 5: Qualitative research requires highly contextualized judgement from

its researchers to understand the perspective of social beings; it demands an engrossed engagement from them which is fascinating and complicated at the same time One must start discussing the scope and opportunities of creativity and exploration of this field, and then the related challenges must be addressed The prerequisites or the cautionary steps need to be discussed at the end for explaining the coping mechanism

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Confidentiality: An act of keeping the trust and confidence of the respondents/

cases who have shared their personal information and other details with the researcher related to their living, culture, or environment

Empathy: It is a prerequisite ability of a qualitative researcher to comprehend

the subjective, diverse, and evolving emotions of others, from their perspective In other words, it is to be in the shoes of others and understand their viewpoint

Etic View: It is the researcher’s view through which he perceives and analyses

the responses and behavior of the participants

Open-Ended: Referring to the nature of qualitative studies, as open and not

bounded or confined or structured Qualitative research methods are not mechanical rather flexible that can be modified keeping in mind the subjectivity aspect of respondents under consideration

Qualitative Research: A field of study that captures the essence of the culture

and perspective of the phenomenon in a way as it exists, without modifying its meaning This process is challenging due to the diversity in social beings and situational dynamics, hence demands exhaustive effort in collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data Above all, handling the physical, psychological, and emotional interest of the parties involved is the core of this branch of research

Rigor: The constant and thorough effort employed in any direction.

Subjectivity: It is the diversity of opinion, beliefs, choices and reactions of

human which accounts to be different from person to person Every person may hold

a different experience or feelings towards a certain event or culture, to understand that perspective is an act of addressing and interpreting subjectivity which is the core of qualitative data