Ebook Anatomy and physiology (5E): Part 1

(BQ) Part 1 book “Anatomy and physiology” has contents: An introduction to anatomy and physiology - how the bod is organized; cells and tissues, the skin, hair and nails, the skeletal system, the muscular system.

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How to use this book

Before we begin the fascinating journey of

learning about how the body works, let’s look at

the terminology associated with the study of the

human body.

● Anatomy is the study of the structure and

location of body parts.

● Physiology is the study of the function of

body parts.

It is very important to co-ordinate these two

subjects because knowledge of structure is

incomplete without the knowledge of function,

and the knowledge of function is incomplete

without the knowledge of structure.

● Pathology is the study of disease in the body.

At the end of each chapter in this book there is a

section on the common pathologies associated

with a system of the body.

An introduction

to anatomy and physiology: how the body is organised

1

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this chapter you will understand:

● anatomical directional terminology used to

give a precise description of a body part

● anatomical planes, which divide the body

into sections

● anatomical regional terms, which refer to

specific areas of the body

● the main body cavities that divide the body

and its internal organs into sections

p Anatomical terms

Posterior (dorsal)

Anterior (ventral)

Deep Distal

Lateral Inferior

Superficial Proximal

Medial Superior

The body as a map

Knowing where parts of the

body are located will help your

understanding as you build up

a picture of how they function

In practice

Think of the structure of the

heart and all its chambers and

valves Visualising the individual

structures (the anatomy), can help

you to understand how the blood

flows through the heart and how

the heart beats You are relating

anatomy to function or physiology

Anatomical directional terms

TheanatomicaltermsinTable1.1willhelpyoutobespecificwhen

describingthepositionofabodypart

Study tip

The directional terms have been organised into pairs for ease of learning;

once you know one term, it is easier to learn the opposite term

1 An introduction to anatomy and physiology: how the body is organised

3

Table 1.1 Anatomical directional terms

Anatomical

directional term Definition In practice

Anterior (or ventral) Front surface of the body, or structure The biceps muscle is on the anterior surface of

the upper arm

Posterior (or dorsal) Back surface of the body, or structure The triceps muscle is on the posterior surface

of the upper arm

Superficial Near the body surface The most superficial layer of the skin is the

epidermis

Deep Further from the body surface The dermis is deep to the epidermis

Lateral Away from the midline The radius is lateral to the ulna

Medial Towards the midline The ulna is medial to the radius

Superior Situated towards the head, or above a

point of reference

The shoulder joint is superior to the elbow joint

Inferior Situated away from the head or below a

point of reference

The intestines are inferior to the stomach

Central At or near the centre The brain and spinal cord are part of the central

Proximal Nearest to the point of reference The wrist joint is proximal to the elbow joint

Distal Furthest away from the point of reference The shoulder joint is distal to the wrist joint

Prone Lying face down in a horizontal position When receiving a back massage a client lies

prone

Supine Lying face up in a horizontal position When receiving a facial a client lies supine

Caudal Away from the head, or below a point of

The brain is located in the cranial cavity

Palmar Relating to the palm side of the hand The thenar muscle is on the palmar surface of

Other directional terms

Make up a blank template

of the face and body Design

some small labels, each with

an anatomical region on it

(for example buccal, cervical)

Attach the labels onto the

facial/body template to indicate

where each region is located

Sagittal plane Frontal/coronal plane Transverse plane

p Anatomical planes of the body

1 An introduction to anatomy and physiology: how the body is organised

The head and neck

Table 1.2 Anatomical regional terms of the head and neck

Anatomical regional term Area of body

The upper and lower limbs

Table 1.3 Anatomical regions of the upper limbs

Anatomicalterm Areaofthebody

Digital/phalangeal Fingers (and toes, see Table 1.4)

Table 1.4 Anatomical regions of the lower limbs

Anatomicalterm Areaofthebody

Digital/phalangeal Toes (and fingers, see Table 1.3)

Popliteal Hollow behind knee

p Anatomical regional terms

Anterior view Posterior view

or coeliac (abdomen) Umbilical (navel) Coxal (hip)

Phalangeal (toes)

Otic (ear) Cranial (skull)

Trunk

Facial (face)

Occipital (back of skull)

Cervical (neck)

Vertebral (spine) Dorsal (back) Acromial (shoulder)

Plantar (sole of foot) Calcaneal (heel) Sural (calf)

Popliteal (back of knee) Femoral (thigh)

Manual (hand) Gluteal (buttocks) Sacral (sacrum)

Antebrachial (forearm) Lumbar (lower back)

Olecranal (back of elbow)

Cephalic (head)

Upper limb

Lower limb

Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)

Pedal (foot) Hallux (big toe)

Anterior view Posterior view

Frontal (forehead) Orbital (eye) Nasal (nose) Oral (mouth) Mental (chin)

Pelvic (pelvis) Inguinal (groin) Pubic (pubis) Femoral (thigh)

Crucial (leg)

Patellar (kneecap)

Phalangeal (fingers)

Palmar (palm of hand) Pollex (thumb) Carpal (wrist)

Antebrachial (forearm) Cubital (elbow) Brachial (arm) Axillary (arm pit) Costal (ribs)

Pedal (foot) Hallux (big toe)

Buccal (cheek) Cervical (neck) Pectoral (chest) Thoracic (chest) Pericardial (heart) Mammary (breast) Abdominal

or coeliac (abdomen) Umbilical (navel) Coxal (hip)

Phalangeal (toes)

Otic (ear) Cranial (skull)

Trunk

Facial (face)

Occipital (back of skull)

Cervical (neck)

Vertebral (spine) Dorsal (back) Acromial (shoulder)

Plantar (sole of foot) Calcaneal (heel) Sural (calf)

Popliteal (back of knee) Femoral (thigh)

Manual (hand) Gluteal (buttocks) Sacral (sacrum)

Antebrachial (forearm) Lumbar (lower back)

Olecranal (back of elbow)

Cephalic (head)

Upper limb

Lower limb

Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)

Pedal (foot) Hallux (big toe)

1 An introduction to anatomy and physiology: how the body is organised

Key words

Anatomical position: point of reference in anatomy;

the body is erect and facing forwards, arms to the

side, palms facing forwards with the thumbs to the

side, and the feet slightly apart with toes pointing

Caudal: away from the head, or below

Contralateral: on the opposite side to another

structure

Cranial (cephalic): relating to the head end or skull

Deep: further from the body surface

Distal: furthest away from the point of reference

Frontal or coronal plane: divides the body into a

front (anterior) portion and a rear (posterior) section

Inferior: situated away from the head or below

Ipsilateral: on the same side as another structure

Lateral: away from the midline

Median or sagittal plane: vertical plane that divides

the body lengthwise into right and left sections

Medial: towards the midline Palmar: relating to the palm side of the hand Parietal: relating to the inner walls of a body cavity Pathology: the study of disease in the body Peripheral: away from the centre; outer part of the

the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) sections

Visceral: relating to the internal organs of the body

Revision summary

● Anatomy is the study of the structure and location of body parts

● Physiology is the study of the function of those body parts

● Pathology is the study of disease in the body

● An anatomical position follows an imaginary line running down the centre of the body, with the body

erect and facing forwards, arms to the side, palms facing forwards with the thumbs to the side, and the

feet slightly apart with toes pointing forwards

● By learning and using anatomical terms it will help you describe the specific position of a body part; for

instance the biceps muscle is located on the anterior (front) surface of the upper arm.

● There are three planes that separate the body into sections:

● Frontal or coronal plane: divides the body into a front (anterior) portion and a rear (posterior) section.

● Median or sagittal plane: a vertical plane that divides the body lengthwise into right and left sections

● Transverse plane: a horizontal plane that divides the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior)

sections

● There are two main cavities, or spaces within the body that contain the internal organs:

● The dorsal body cavity, which is located in the posterior (back) region of the body and is subdivided into

two cavities: the cranial and spinal cavity

● The ventral body cavity, which occupies the anterior (front) region of the trunk and is divided into the

thoracic cavity and the abdominal and pelvic cavities

1 An introduction to anatomy and physiology: how the body is organised

Test your knowledge questions

Multiple choice questions

1 What does the study of physiology entail?

a study of disease in the body

b study of the function of body parts

c study of the structure of body parts

d study of anatomical terms

2 Which of the following defines the term proximal?

a at or near the centre

b away from the centre

c nearest to the point of reference

d furthest away from the point of reference

3 Which of these anatomical terms describes lying

face down in a horizontal position?

a a vertical plane that divides the body

lengthwise into right and left sections

b a horizontal plane that divides the body into

top (superior) and bottom (inferior) sections

c a vertical plane that divides the body into top

(superior) and bottom (inferior) sections

d a horizontal plane that divides the body

lengthwise into right and left sections

5 To which area of the body does the term cervical

6 Cubital is an anatomical term relating to which

area of the body?

a the wrist

b the elbow

c the forearm

d the upper arm

7 Where is the pericardial region of the body

8 Which of these anatomical terms describes the

area of the body relating to the foot?

a plantar

b pedal

c pelvic

d popliteal

9 When describing a structure or body part that is

above, or near to the head, which is the correct term to use?

a inferior

b ipsilateral

c contralateral

d superior

10 Which of these options is used to describe the

back surface of the body or of a structure?

a median or sagittal plane 1 mark

b coronal or frontal plane 1 mark

14 List the two main body cavities 2 marks

15 State the anatomical regional area to which each

of the following applies:

The human body is like a universe; it is made up

of very small structures that are organised to

function as a whole.

It is incredible to think that the human body, a

complicated and sophisticated machine, starts

its journey of life as a single cell In order to

understand how the body functions as a whole,

we need to consider how the structure of the

body is organised on five basic levels:

All the body systems, and the tiny cells that are

the basic component parts of all organs and

tissues, are involved in maintaining health and

keeping the body in a state of balance.

Cells and tissues 2

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this chapter you will understand:

● the different levels of structural

organisation in the body

● the importance of metabolism and

homeostasis for body function

● the structure and function of the cell and

its parts

● the structure and function of the main

tissue types in the body

● how to identify the major systems of the

body

● the interrelationships between the cells,

tissues and body systems

● common pathologies associated with cells

and tissues

2 Cells and tissues

11

In practice

In order for a therapist to carry out the most

successful treatment possible for their client’s

needs, they should have an understanding of

cells and tissues as the building blocks of the

human body

Examining cells and tissues is like looking at the

body from the inside out Understanding how the

body functions at a cellular level will help you to

understand how the body functions in times of

health and illness, and will enable you to link the

structure and function of the body’s organs

The different levels of

When learning the levels of structural organisation,

you may find it helpful to memorise this mnemonic:

Clever Carol takes organisation seriously!

Pharynx (throat)

Stomach Pancreas

Epithelial tissue

Layers of smooth muscle

Large intestine Gall bladder

Anus Rectum

Cellular level

Organ level (stomach)

System level (digestive system)

Tissue level (epithelium)

Systems combine to form the

living organism, such as a

human

2 Cells and tissues

Acidic

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

p The pH scaleKEY FACTPart of the brain, the hypothalamus, is vital in homeostasis Throughout the body, receptors

in blood vessels detect the blood’s pressure, temperature, glucose level and pH These receptors send signals through the nervous systems to the hypothalamus, where changes initiate (start) to bring the body back to balance An example is the stimulation by the hypothalamus of the pancreas to secrete insulin when the blood sugar level gets too high

KEY FACTHomeostasis is maintained by adjusting the metabolism of the body

Table 2.1 Overview of chemical components of the cell

Major compound Elements present Main significance in body

Water Hydrogen and oxygen The body’s reservoir, water provides a universal solvent for

the facilitation of chemical reactions in the tissuesHelps transport substances around the body

Carbohydrates Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Main fuel for the body

Proteins Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

(may also contain sulfur)

Main building blocks of the body’s tissues

Fats/lipids Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Energy source for the body’s activities

2 Cells and tissues

Each type of cell has a structure that is suited to

its specific function A muscle cell is long and

thin with structures that enable it to contract

and shorten, while skin cells are flat and tough,

providing a waterproof covering

When examining the function of each organelle, it

is helpful to think of the cell as the ‘factory’ and the

organelles as ‘departments’ within the factory Each

cell organelle is responsible for the production of a

certain product or substance that is used elsewhere

in the cell or body

1 the outer part – the cell membrane

2 the inner part – containing the nucleus

3 the middle layer – a semi-fluid substance called

cytoplasm which contains all of the cell’s

receivesafullsetofchromosomes

KEY FACT

DNA is often called the body’s blueprint,

as it is a record of a person’s inherited

characteristics – their height, bone structure,

hair colour and body chemistry, for example

When cells divide and multiply, DNA passes

on its hereditary information, ensuring new cells

are direct copies

If the spiral of DNA in the nucleus of just one

human cell were stretched out in a single line,

it would extend more than 6 feet

RNA is the molecule that transports the genetic

information out of the nucleus and allows

translation of the genetic code into proteins

A nuclear pore is a bit like a ticket gate, acting as

a security control system that guards the barrier

between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

The middle part of the cell

2 Cells and tissues

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Nucleus

Vacuole

Mitochondrion Nuclear membrane

Nucleolus

Ribosome Chromatin

Cell membrane

Cytoplasm

Summary of function of main cell organelles

Table 2.2 Summary of main cell organelles

Cell organelle Description Location Function

Cell membrane Fine membrane that encloses the cell Outer part

of cell

Selectively controls the movement of molecules into and out of the cell

Nucleus Largest organelle in the cytoplasm,

containing DNA in chromosomes

Cytoplasm Gel-like substance that is enclosed by

the cell membrane

Middle part

of cell

Substance that fills the cellMost cellular metabolism occurs within the cytoplasm

Ribosomes Tiny organelles made up of RNA and

Mitochondria Oval-shaped organelles that lie within

Lysosome Round sacs located in the cytoplasm Middle part

2 Cells and tissues

Cell growth and reproduction requires favourable conditions such as an

adequate supply of food, oxygen, water, suitable temperatures and the

ability to eliminate waste

Some factors, such as smoking, sun damage and air pollution, create

unfavourable conditions for the skin These can impair cell function and

cells may be destroyed, resulting in loss of skin elasticity, lines, wrinkles

and dehydration

In these cases, massage treatments can be beneficial Massage

procedures encourage cell nutrition, as well as increasing elimination

of waste from the cells and tissues Practitioners can advise clients to

have treatments regularly to aid cell regeneration

The cell life cycle

The acronym PMAT (prophase,

metaphase, anaphase and

telophase) can be helpful when

learning the stages of mitosis

2 Cells and tissues

There is virtually no limit to the ways in which

a reproductive cell’s 23 chromosomes can

be combined during meiosis, meaning that

every sperm and every egg contains different

hereditary information Consequently, the

genetic characteristics of brothers and sisters are

never the same (except for identical twins, who

share the same genetic code)

High concentration

Low concentration

Equal concentration

p  Diffusion: the process in which small molecules move from

an area of high concentration to lower concentration

2 Cells and tissues

p  Osmosis: the movement of water through the cell

membrane from low to high chemical concentration

● pinocytosis = cell drinking

● phagocytosis = cell eating

Table 2.3 Overview of tissue types

Type of tissue Main function

Epithelial tissue Provides a protective covering for surfaces inside

and outside the bodyConnective tissue Protects, binds and supports the body and its organsMuscle tissue Provides movement

Nervous tissue Initiates and transmits nerve impulses

● Muscle tissue takes longer to regenerate

● Nervous tissue regenerates very slowly

● Muscle and nerve cells divide more slowly as they are more specialised in their function Once cells in the body become specialised, they take on structures unique to their specific functions; these structures are not always compatible with cell division

● The less vascular forms of connective tissue, such as ligaments and tendons, are even slower to heal than muscle tissue

Cartilage is among the slowest to heal

2 Cells and tissues

Found in the bladder

Stratified keratinised epithelium

Found in the skin

p Types of epithelial tissue

Table 2.4 The structure, location and function of the different types of simple epithelial tissue

Lining the alveoli of the lungsLining blood and lymphatic vessels and the heart

Allows for exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases

Simple

cuboidal

Single layer of cube-like cells Ovaries, kidney tubules,

thyroid gland, pancreas and salivary glands

Secretion and absorption

Simple

columnar Single layer of tall, cylindrical column-shape cells, each with a nucleus

situated towards the base of the cell

Lining the small and large intestine, stomach and gall bladder

Secretion and absorption

Lining the upper part of the respiratory system

Lining the uterine tubes

Beating cilia carry unwanted particles, along with mucus, out of the system

Helps propel the ova towards the uterus

2 Cells and tissues

White blood cells

Red blood cells

Platelets

Extracellular matrix

Table 2.5 Types of connective tissue

Areolar Most widely distributed type of

connective tissue in the body

A loose, soft and pliable tissueContains collagen, elastin and reticular fibres

Under the skin, between muscles, supporting blood vessels and nerves, and in the alimentary canal

Provides strength and elasticity

Connects and supports organs

Adipose A type of areolar tissue

containing fat cells (adipocytes)

Surrounds organs such as kidneys and the heart

Under the skin (subcutaneous layer)Between bundles of muscle fibres,

in the yellow bone marrow of long bones and as a padding around joints

Provides insulation, support and protection

Emergency energy reserve

Type Structure Location Function

White

fibrous

Strong connecting tissue made

up of mainly closely packed bundles of white collagenous fibres, with very little matrixContains cells called fibrocytes between the bundles

Forms tendons which attach muscle

to bone, ligaments which tie bones together and as an outer protective covering for some organs, such as kidney and bladder

Provides strong attachment between different structures

Yellow

elastic

Consists of branching yellow elastic fibres with fibrocytes in the spaces between the fibres

Arteries, trachea, bronchi and lungs To allow the stretching of

various organs, followed

by a return to their original shape and size

Lymphoid This tissue has a semi-solid

matrix with fine branching fibresThe cells contained within this tissue are specialised and are called lymphocytes

In the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids, walls of the large intestine and glands of the small intestine

Forms part of the lymphatic system whose function is

to protect the body from infection

Blood Also known as liquid connective

tissue, it contains the blood cells erythrocytes, leucocytes and thrombocytes which float within

a fluid called plasma

Contained within blood vessels Helps maintain homeostasis

by transporting substances throughout the body, by resisting infection and by dispersing heat

Bone Hardest and most solid of all

connective tissuesConsists of tough, dense compact bones and slightly less dense cancellous bone

organs and soft tissues

Cartilage Very firm tissue; matrix is quite solid See Table 2.6 See Table 2.6

Found on the surfaces of the parts of bones which form jointsForms the costal cartilage which attaches the ribs to the sternumForms part of the larynx, trachea and bronchi

Provides a wearing, low friction surface within jointsProvides flexibility

hard-in the nose and trachea

It is found as pads between the bodies of the vertebrae, called the intervertebral discs, and in the symphysis pubis which joins the pubis bones together

Its function is one

of support and to join together or fuse certain bones

2 Cells and tissues

It forms the pinna (lobe of the ear) and the epiglottis

To provide support and to maintain shape

Lining the respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts

As well as lining the openings to the external environment, secretes a viscous slippery fluid called mucus that coats and protects underlying cells

● a parietal layer – lines the wall

of body cavities

● a visceral layer – provides an external covering to organs in body cavities

The pericardium of the heart

Pleural membranes

in the lungsThe peritoneum lining the abdominal organs

As well as lining body cavities that are not open to the external environment, they secrete a thin, watery (serous) fluid that lubricates organs to reduce friction

as they rub against one another and against the wall of the cavities

Synovial

membrane Type of membrane that lines the cavities of freely movable joints

Lining the spaces around certain joint cavities (shoulder, hip and knee)

Secretes synovial fluid which provides nutrition and lubrication to joints so they can move freely without undue friction

Create a mind map that identifies the different type(s) of tissue found

in the following body parts:

Table 2.8 Overview of body systems

Body system Function

Skeletal system Provides shape, support and protection for the body

Muscular system Enables movement of the body

Cardiovascular

system

Provides a transport system of blood around the body

Lymphatic system Provides a filtering system for the blood and tissues

Respiratory system Enables gaseous exchange through the lungs

Nervous system Responsible for receiving and interpreting information from inside and outside the body

Endocrine system Secretes hormones to help regulate body processes

Reproductive system Responsible for producing human offspring to continue the species

Digestive system Responsible for the breakdown of food and absorption of nutrients

Urinary system Provides elimination of metabolic waste through the kidneys via the production of urine

2 Cells and tissues

31

Study tip

The human body is extremely complex When you start learning about the body’s systems, it can be helpful to

think of them in comparison to a house:

● The cells and tissues are the building blocks (bricks and mortar).

● The skin represents the outside of the house (a protective covering).

● The skeletal and muscular systems are the structural framework and support.

● The circulatory system is part of the plumbing, taking fluid to all parts of the house.

● The lymphatic system is also part of the plumbing system, helping to remove waste fluids.

● The respiratory system provides the home’s ventilation.

● The digestive system is the kitchen and sewerage system!

● The excretory system compares to the toilet and drainage.

● The endocrine system is like the heating thermostat, controlling the temperature (and keeping other

processes running smoothly)

● The nervous system is the electrical wiring.

● The reproductive system is the family within the house that has the potential to grow.

Common pathologies of cells

The study of tumours is called

oncology and a physician who specialises in this field is called

an oncologist.

Interrelationships with

other systems

Cells and tissues

Cells and tissues are found in the following body

systems

Skin

Keratinised stratified epithelium (a type of tissue

containing layers of cells) is found on dry surfaces

such as the skin, hair and nails

Skeletal

Bone is the hardest and most solid type of

connective tissue in the body It is needed for

building the structures of the skeletal framework

Muscular

There are three types of muscle tissue:

1 skeletal muscle, which controls voluntary

Blood is a form of liquid connective tissue that

transports substances to and from the cells in

different parts of the body

Respiratory

A type of tissue called ciliated columnar epithelium lines the respiratory tract The cilia carry unwanted particles, such as bacteria, pollen and dust, out of the system

Digestive

The digestive system is lined with epithelial tissue

This contains goblet cells which secrete mucus to aid the flow of material through the digestive system

Urinary

The bladder is lined with transitional epithelium which allows the bladder to expand when full and deflate when empty

Key words

Cells

Active transport: the process by which molecules

move across a cell membrane from a lower to a

higher concentration using energy

Atom: the smallest particle of an element

Cell: the basic unit of all living organisms

Cell membrane: a fine membrane that encloses the

cell and protects its contents

Cell respiration: the chemical processes that

generate most of the energy in the cell

Centrioles: small spherical structures which are

associated with cell division

Centromere: the portion of a chromosome where

the two chromatids are joined

Centrosome: an area of clear cytoplasm around the

nucleus which contains the centrioles

Chromatid: a pair of identical strands of a replicated

chromosome that are joined at the centromere and which separate during cell division

Chromatin: the substance inside the nucleus that

contains the DNA

Chromosome: the thread-like DNA structure in the

cell nucleus that carries the genetic information in the form of genes

Cytokinesis: the cytoplasmic division of a cell at

the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells

Cytoplasm: a gel-like substance enclosed by the cell

membrane that contains organelles

Diffusion: the process in which small molecules

move from areas of high concentration to those of lower concentration