The financial management function Chapter learning objectives Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to: • explain the nature and purpose of financial management • distinguis
Trang 2transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
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Trang 5Introduction
Trang 6How to Use the Materials
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Trang 7• Summary diagrams complete each chapter to show
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Trang 8Online subscribers Paper introduction Paper background Objectives of the syllabus Core areas of the syllabus Syllabus objectives
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Trang 9The financial management function
Chapter learning objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
• explain the nature and purpose of financial management
• distinguish between financial management and financial and management accounting
• discuss the relationship between financial objectives, corporate objectives and corporate strategy
• identify and describe a variety of financial objectives, including:
– shareholder wealth maximisation– profit maximisation
– earnings per share growth
• identify stakeholders, their objectives and possible conflicts
• discuss the possible conflict between stakeholder objectives
• discuss the role of management in meeting stakeholder objectives, including the use of agency theory
• explain ways to encourage the achievement of stakeholder objectives, including:
– managerial reward schemes– regulatory requirements
• discuss the impact of notforprofit status on financial and other objectives
• discuss the nature and importance of Value for Money as an objective in notforprofit organisations
• discuss ways of measuring the achievement of objectives in not
1
Trang 101 The nature and purpose of financial management
Financial management is concerned with the efficient acquisition and deployment of both short and longterm financial resources, to ensure the objectives of the enterprise are achieved.
Decisions must be taken in three key areas:
• investment – both longterm investment in noncurrent assets and shortterm investment in working capital;
• finance – from what sources should funds be raised?
• dividends – how should cash funds be allocated to shareholders and how will the value of the business be affected by this?
Trang 11The dividend decision
The financing decision
The investment decision
Trang 12• management accounting – concerned with providing information for the more day to day functions of control and decision making
• financial accounting – concerned with providing information about the historical results of past plans and decisions
2 The relationship between corporate strategy and corporate and financial objectives
Maximising and satisficingFinancial objectives
Objectives and strategyFinancial roles
Trang 134 Stakeholder objectives and conflicts
Additional question Stakeholder conflicts
The stakeholder view
Trang 145 The role of management and goal congruence
Agency theory
Agency theory is often used to describe the relationships between the various interested parties in a firm and can help to explain the various duties and conflicts that occur:
Agency relationships occur when one party, the principal, employs another party, the agent, to perform a task on their behalf. In particular, directors (agents) act on behalf of shareholders (principals).
How to reduce the problems caused by agency relationships
Finding ways to reduce the problems of the agency relationship and ensure that managers take decisions which are consistent with the objectives of shareholders is a key issue.
Managerial reward schemes One way to help ensure that managers take decisions which are consistent with the objectives of shareholders is to introduce carefully designed remuneration packages. The schemes should:
• remuneration linked to:
– minimum profit levels– economic value added (EVA)– turnover growth
• executive share option schemes (ESOP)
Managerial reward schemesAgency theory
Trang 15Corporate governance codes
Trang 16Ratio analysis can be grouped into four main categories:
The specific ratios covered in the F9 syllabus will be looked at in detail in chapter 19 although some of them may already be familiar to you from previous papers
• Most key objectives are very difficult to quantify, especially in financial terms, e.g. quality of care given to patients in a hospital
• Multiple and conflicting objectives are more common in NFPs, e.g.
quality of patient care versus number of patients treated
Value for money (VFM) and the 3 Es
VFM can be defined as ‘achieving the desired level and quality of service at the most economical cost’.
VFMObjective setting in NFPs
Trang 18Suggest appropriate measures of achievement that could be set for the service.
Test your understanding 1 – Not for profit organisations
Trang 19Chapter summary
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Answer to additional question Managerial reward schemesAnswer to additional question Stakeholder conflicts
Answer to additional question Objectives and strategy
Trang 23Test your understanding answers
Trang 25Basic investment appraisal techniques
Chapter learning objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
• define a relevant cash flow (and distinguish it from an accounting profit)
• identify and calculate relevant cash flows in a scenario
• calculate the payback period and use it to appraise an investment
• discuss the usefulness of payback as an investment appraisal method
• calculate return on capital employed (ROCE) (accounting rate of return) and use it to appraise an investment
• discuss the usefulness of ROCE as an investment appraisal method
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Trang 261 Investment appraisal process
One stage in the capital budgeting process isinvestment appraisal. This appraisal has the following features:
• assessment of the level of expected returns earned for the level of expenditure made
• estimates of future costs and benefits over the project’s life
Two basic appraisal techniques are covered in this chapter:
More sophisticated methods of investment appraisal are dealt with in the next chapter.
• ROCE
• Payback
Examination questions may ask you to compare and contrast the use of these two basic techniques.
Trang 27Average annual profits before interest and tax ROCE = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– × 100%
Average capital investment
Initial investment + scrap value Average capital investment = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Trang 28In addition, at the end of the sevenyear project the assets initially purchased will be sold for $100,000.
Determine the project’s ROCE using:
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cash inflows ($000) 100 200 400 400 300 200 150
(a) initial capital costs(b) average capital investment
3 Advantages and disadvantages of ROCE
Test your understanding 2 – ROCE
Advantages and disadvantages of ROCEInitial capital cost
Trang 294 Accounting profits and cash flows
Trang 306 Payback method of appraisal
The payback period is the time a project will take to pay back the money spent on it. It is based on expected cash flows and provides a measure of liquidity.
Decision rule:
Constant annual cash flows
• only select projects which pay back within the specified time period
• choose between options on the basis of the fastest payback
initial investment Payback period = –––––––––––––
A project will involve spending $1.8 million now. Annual cash flows from the project would be $350,000.
What is the expected payback period?
Additional question Relevant costs
Test your understanding 4 – Payback with constant annual cash
Test your understanding 5 – Payback in years and months
Trang 31Uneven annual cash flows
What is the expected payback period?
Test your understanding 7 – Payback with uneven cash flows
Test your understanding 6 – Payback with uneven cash flows
Trang 327 Advantages and disadvantages of payback
• it favours quick return:
– helps company growth– minimises risk
Advantages and disadvantages of payback
Trang 33Chapter summary
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Answer to additional question Relevant costs
Trang 35Test your understanding answers
Average book value
of assets Test your understanding 1 – ROCE
Trang 36$2,000,000 Payback period = ––––––––– = 4 years
$500,000 Test your understanding 4 – Payback with constant annual cash Test your understanding 3 – Relevant costs
Test your understanding 2 – ROCE
Trang 37$1,800,000 Payback = –––––––– = 5.1429 years
Test your understanding 5 – Payback in years and months
Test your understanding 6 – Payback with uneven cash flows
Trang 38Payback in years and months is calculated by multiplying the decimal fraction of a year by 12 months. In this example, 0.625 years = 7.5 months (0.625 × 12 months), which is rounded to 8 months. So therefore, payback occurs after 3 years 8 months
Note that if cash flows were deemed to arise at the end of the year then the payback period would be 4 years.
The payback period would be calculated as follows.
Payback is between the end of Year 3 and the end of Year 4, in other words during Year 4.
If we assume a constant rate of cash flow through the year, we could estimate that payback will be three years, plus ($400/500) of Year 4, which is 3.8 years.
0.8 years = 10 months (0.8 × 12)
We could therefore estimate that payback would be after 3 years 10 months.
Year Cash flow Cumulative
Trang 39Investment appraisal – discounted cash flow techniques
Chapter learning objectives
• calculate the internal rate of return (IRR) of an investment and use
it to appraise the proposal
• discuss the usefulness of IRR as an investment appraisal method and its superiority over nonDCF methods
• discuss the relative merits of NPV and IRR
3
Trang 401 The time value of money
Money received today is worth more than the same sum received in the future, i.e. it has a time value.
The time value of money
Trang 423 Discounting
In a potential investment project, cash flows will arise at many different points in time. To make a useful comparison of the different flows, they must all be converted to a common point in time, usually the present day, i.e. the cash flows are discounted.
Discounting a single sum
The present value (PV) is the cash equivalent now of money receivable/payable at some future date.
The PV of a future sum can be calculated using the formula:
This is just a rearrangement of the formula we used for compounding.
Trang 434 The cost of capital
Trang 44Assumptions used in discounting Unless the examiner tells you otherwise, the following assumptions are made about cash flows when calculating the net present value:
Also note, you should never include interest payments within an NPV calculation as these are taken account of by the cost of capital.
Convert these cash flows to a PV.
Calculate the net present value (NPV) of the project to assess whether it should be undertaken.
Assumptions used in discounting
Test your understanding 3 – Net present value
Trang 45Test your understanding 4 – Net present value
Advantages and disadvantages of NPV
Trang 467 Timesaving in the exam
Although you will be able to perform almost any NPV calculation using the above information, there are a number of timesaving techniques that can help you in the exam.
Present Value Tables
(1 + r)–n is called the discount factor (DF). In the exam you will be provided with a Present Value table that gives the discount factors for various
different discount rates over various time period. So, to find the DF, for example if r = 10% and n = 5, you can:
What amount should be invested now to receive $10,000 in four years' time if r = 8% pa.
Show your workings using the formula approach and then compare this with using the present value table.
Discounting annuities
An annuity is a constant annual cash flow for a number of years.
Test your understanding 5 – Discounting using tables
Trang 47The annuity factor (AF) is the name given to the sum of the individual DF.
Trang 48Annuity Tables
Just as you are provided with a Present Value Table in the exam showing precalculated discount factors, you will also be provided with an Annuity Table (sometimes referred to as a Cumulative Present Value Table), which provides precalculated annuity factors for various different discount rates over various periods.
So again, you have a choice. For example, for a threeyear annuity at 10%:
Note: there might be a small difference due to roundings.
The tables should not be used as a substitute for knowing how to use the formula. Remember, the tables only cover a small range of discount rates and time periods and you may be required to calculate a discount factor or annuity factor for variables outside of this range.
A payment of $11,400 is to be made every year for 13 years, the first payment occurring in one year’s time. The interest rate is 5%. What is the PV of the annuity.
Show you workings using both the formula approach and the annuity table.
Test your understanding 7 – Discounting annuities using tablesTest your understanding 6 – Discounting annuities
Trang 50Delayed annuities and perpetuities Some regular cash flows may start later than T1.
These are dealt with by:
(1) applying the appropriate factor to the cash flow as normal(2) discounting your answer back to T0
8 The Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
The IRR is another project appraisal method using DCF techniques.
The IRR represents the discount rate at which the NPV of an investment is zero. As such it represents a breakeven cost of capital.
Decision rule:
• projects should be accepted if their IRR is greater than the cost of capital
Calculating the IRR using linear interpolation
The steps in linear interpolation are:
(1) Calculate two NPVs for the project at two different costs of capital(2) Use the following formula to find the IRR:
Advanced perpetuities: An illustration
Additional question Delayed annuities and perpetuities
IRRDelayed annuities: An illustrationAdditional question Advanced annuities and perpetuities