A critical discourse analysis of globalization discourse

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Part A: Introduction

1 Rationale

The world has seen profound economic and social changes on a global scale in the pasttwenty years These changes bring not only opportunities but also challenges to manypeople These changes have also had profound influence on our sense of self and place,

causing considerable confusion and what has been widely referred to as a loss of meaning

(Baudrillard 1983, 1993; Featherstone 1995) These changes have led to the appearance ofmany social phenomena Globalization is the inevitable result of the economic and socialtransformation The establishment of many organizations such as World TradeOrganization (WTO), World Bank (WB), and International Monetary Fund (IMF) can beseen as the obvious examples of this process as these changes are partly the outcome ofparticular strategies pursued by particular people for particular interest within a particularsystem The appearance of many organizations such as International Monetary Fund andWorld Trade Organization reflects the power imbalance between the rich and the poorcountries

Globalization – a real but incomplete process- brings benefits to some people and hurtsothers Supporters of this new world order view it as an inevitable and irreversible processwhich brings a lot of benefits to people and communities Opponents believe that this neworder increases inequality within and between nations, threatens employment and livingstandards and thwarts social progress People who benefit from it try to extend it by usingdifferent resources such as discourse of globalization as well as other potent resources(donations to political parties) In this study discourse of globalization is thus considered

as discourse of power used by those in power to enhance their power This is the reasonwhy the heads of these organizations try to support the ideology of the possibilities andopportunities when accessing these organizations Therefore, in analyzing these changes/these new phenomena, the questions of power are always taken into consideration In order

to find out the relationship of language and power in our contemporary world, CriticalDiscourse Analysis (CDA) is considered as an important tool as what Fairclough stated:

‘This is an opportunity and a challenge for critical language study – it can make a

considerable contribution on issues which are vitally important for the future of humankind’

For all of the above-mentioned reasons the author conducts the research entitled ‘A Critical Discourse Analysis of Globalization Discourse’.

2 Aims of the study

The study is aimed at:

- finding out the ideology embedded in the globalization discourse

- the expression of ideology in the globalization discourse

- raising a critical awareness of the ideology of the globalization discourse for thelanguage learners and others concerned with globalization

3 Scope of the study

As mentioned above, through the globalization discourse people who benefit from theprocess of globalization try to highlight the bright side of this process This study thusfocuses on the speech made by the Director-General Mike-Moore of WTO

4 Research assumptions

Globalization -a controversial issue in recent years - has attracted the attention of manyresearchers as well as a hot topic of many discussions Antiglobalizers claim thatglobalization is making the rich richer and the poor poorer People who benefit most areseeking to extend it through a struggle to impose a new order by using a discourse ofglobalization which represents globalization as not only more complete than it is, but as asimple fact of life which we cannot dream of questioning or challenging Because of thischaracteristic, the globalization discourse works ideology As the head of WTO-a product

of globalization Director-General Mike Moore would like to extend the possibilities andopportunities of WTO as well as globalization Analyzing this speech in the light of CDA,the researcher assumes that:

- The discourse embeds ideology and power

- The speaker’s ideology can be uncovered by the analysis of vocabulary, mood andmodality, transitivity, thematic structure and macrostructure

5 Research questions

1 What are the ideologies embedded in the globalization discourse?

2 How are these ideologies linguistically expressed in the globalization discourse?

3 Why are ideologies encoded in the globalization discourse?

6 Design of the study

The study consists of three parts They are:

Part A: Introduction: This part includes the rationale, scope, aims, research assumptions,

research questions and design of the study

Part B: Development: This part includes three chapters

Chapter 1: Theoretical background

This chapter includes an overview of CDA theories in which a definition of CDA, views ofCDA in late modernity and some key concepts of CDA such as critical, ideology andpower are dealt with This chapter also presents a brief description of Systemic FunctionalGrammar and its role in Critical Discourse Analysis

Chapter 2: Methodology

In this chapter the social context of globalization including the definition and theperspectives of globalization, the introduction of WTO and Director-General Mike Mooreand the reason for choosing the speech ‘The Backlash against Globalization’ of Director-General Mike Moore will be presented This chapter introduces and explains theframework of Critical Discourse Analysis procedure which sets the basis for the analysis of

the speech ‘The Backlash against Globalization’ in chapter 3

Chapter 3: A Critical Discourse Analysis of the speech ‘The Backlash against Globalization’

This chapter applies the CDA procedure by Fairclough and FSG theory into analyzingDirector-General’s speech to see how language and power are embedded in the text

Part C: Conclusion:

This part summarizes the major findings, provides concluding remarks, gives theimplications of CDA in teaching and learning English and makes suggestion for furtherstudy

Part B: Development

Chapter 1: Theoretical background

This chapter is aimed at outlining a theoretical background of CDA This chapter isstructured as follows: the first part gives the concept of CDA; the second part is about thetheories on CDA in late modernity and some key concepts of CDA The last part examinesthe importance of SFG in CDA

1.1 What is Critical Discourse Analysis?

A lot of CDA practioners like Chouliaraki and Falirclough, 1999; Fairclough, 1992, 1995;Gee, 1999; Luke, 1995; VanDijk, 1993; Wodak, 1996 treated social practices not only interms of social relationships but also in terms of their implications for things like status,power … from the critical approaches

In ‘An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis in Education’ James Paul Gee emphasizes that ‘in fact critical discourse analysis argues that language in use is always

part and parcel of, and partially constitutive of, specific social practices, and that social practices always have implications for inherently political things like status, solidarity, distribution of social goods, and power’

Fairclough (1993: 135) gives a definition of CDA by stating that ”By ‘critical’ discourse

analysis I mean discourse analysis which aims to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and determination between (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b), wider social and cultural structures, relations and processes; to investigate how such practices, events and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations

of power and struggles over power; to explore how the opacity of these relationships between discourse and society is itself a factor securing power and hegemony”

From these statements, it can be seen that CDA mainly focuses on the question of languageand power as language is an important element of social life

1.2 Critical discourse analysis in late modernity

This part will present the theories of Harvey, Giddens and Habermas in which theyemphasize the economic and social transformations are to a significant degreetransformation in language and discourse As a matter of fact, language is seen as animportant part of modern social life and social analysis is thus correspondingly orientedtowards language to a sub-stantial degree The method is to build up a picture of languagecondition of late modernity on the basis of what is said about language and what can beinferred about language It is appropriate and productive It is appropriate in the sense that

we are aiming to show how CDA can contribute to a tendentious field of research,productive in the sense that we believe that doing so yields greater insights to thecontemporary social use of language by foregrounding its contradictory properties

to re-establish collective and individual identities and which has involved the thematisation

of nation, region, community and family

Giddens

The matter of late modernity from Giddens’ point of view is in terms of its institutionalfeatures and its cultural characteristics and ways in which it reshapes daily and personallife

Late modernity is characterized by a shift in the nature of the world system involving adramatic acceleration of time- space distantiation, which Giddens refers to as

‘globalization’ In this case, globalization is understood in relation with power In his opinion, ‘globalization is related to a new modality of power characteristic of late

modernity’ Power is understood as the ‘transformative capacity’ of social action; where

an agent acts to transform the world in some way via the agency of others, we have

‘domination’, a particular form of power

Dealing with space distantiation, Giddens points out the intensification of space distantiation involves the disembedding of social relations from particular places andcontexts, and their generalization across temporal and spatial boundaries Giddens pays alot of attentions to disembedding by claiming that disembedding can be seen as a particularregulative practice within social systems by which social relations are lifted out of theirlocales and reorganized to travel, so to speak This is evident in the social use of language.

time-It as well as other resources for social interaction becomes a skill which has to be learntand which requires recourse to experts and expert systems

Habermas

He introduces two concepts instrumental rationality and communicative rationality inwhich the former is about getting results and the latter is about achieving understanding

The division between ‘system’ and ‘lifeworld’, and processes of rationalization are the

most prominent account of modernity from Habermas’s point of view in which lifeword isdefined as the unreflective background consensus which constitutes a necessary frame forsocial interaction and the concept of rationalization of the lifeworld is referred as a processwhich points to the ambivalent status of the concept of ‘lifeword’

Rationalisation of lifeworld enables and brings about the ‘uncoupling’ of systems from thelifeworld which defines modern societies These systems also remain dependent uponbeing institutionalized within the lifeworld This leads to the fact that systems can beshaped by lifeworlds and vice verse

Based on the critical theories of late modernity, CDA deals with some problems in late

modernity like colonization/appropriation, globalization/localization, reflexivity ideology

and identity/difference In analyzing these problems, the questions of power are always at

Globalization/localization dialectic can be considered as a particular form of thecolonization/appropriation dialectic but it is still be treated as a separate item because it is aform that is distinctive for late modernity and an important new feature of the social life ofdiscourse, which makes it increasingly difficult to justify taking a particular society as theobject of analysis in CDA research

Reflexivity/ideology

Enhanced reflexivity is said to include an enhanced reflexivity about discourse leading tothe fact that people are generally more aware of their practices and their practices andpervasively and deeply open to knowledge-based transformation However, people indifferent social positions seem to be in different relationships to discourse and languageand knowledge about discourse is a contested resource in social struggles Chouliaraki L

& Fairclough, N (1999) point out that ‘CDA can itself be regarded as a manifestation

within theoretical practice of generally enhanced language reflexivity, and should reflex

on its own position and role in knowledge-based struggles over discourse’.

Habermas has suggested that increasing reflexivity displaces ideology as a resource fordomination and ideology is replaced in this role by fragmentation

Identity/difference

Identity means an interactional focus on people constructing their own individual orcollective identities in discourse The struggle to find identities is one of the mostpervasive themes of late modernity Struggles over identity are also struggles over

difference CDA’s task is partly descriptive and partly normative, in the sense that it can

contribute to social struggles around identity and difference by identifying unrealized potentials.

1.3 Critical, Discourse, Analysis

This section helps us form the background knowledge about the three components of CDAnamely: Critical, Discourse, Analysis

Critical

In Fairclough’s opinion “Critical is used in the special sense of aiming to show up

connections which may be hidden from people – such as the connections between language, power and ideology referred above them”.

Wodak (2001:9) states that

Basically, ‘critical’ is to be understood as having distance to the data, embedding data in the social, talking a political stance explicitly, and focus a self reflection as scholars doing research

Discourse

Fairclough and Wodak (1997) point out CDA sees ‘discourse – language use in speech

and writing – as a form in speech and writing – as a form of ‘social practice’’

Chouliaraki L & Fairclough, N (1999) view discourse as a particular perspective on thesevarious forms of semiosis – it sees them as moments of social practices in their articulationwith other non-discursive moment

Analysis

According to Chouliaraki L & Fairclough, N (1999), the analysis of discourse covers thestructural and interactional analysis The structural analysis is concerned about the locatingthe discourse in its relation to the network of orders of discourse and specifying how thediscourse draws selectively From the interactional perspective the concern is with how thediscourse works the resource – how the genres and discourses which are drawn upon areworked together in the textual process of the discourse, and what articulatory work is done

in the text

1.4 Key concepts in CDA

Having deep understanding about CDA requires us to get used to some key concepts ofCDA like ideology and power since the notion of ideology and power were all seen asrelevant for an interpretation or explanation of text

1.4.1 Ideology

Wodak (2001) has pointed out that the concepts of ideology first appeared in late century France (Thompson, 1990) and has thus been in use for about two centuries

eighteen-According to Thompson ideology refers to social forms and processes within which, and

by means of which, symbolic forms circulate in the social world Ideology is an important aspect of establishing and maintaining unequal power relation CL takes a particular interest in the ways in which language mediates ideology in a variety of social institutions

For Thompson (1990), the study of ideology is the study of the way in which meaning isconstructed and conveyed by symbolic forms of various kinds This study also investigatesthe social contexts within which symbolic forms are used and not used

For Gramsci, ideology is tied to action, and ideologies are judged in terms of their socialeffects rather than their truth values

1.4.2 Power

The question of language and power is always taken into consideration especially inmodern times with a lot of profound social and economic changes The question oflanguage and power severs to understand the new order

For CDA, language is not powerful on its own – it gains power by the use of powerfulmake of it Wodak explains why CDA often chooses the perspectives of those who sufferand critically analyses the language use of those in power, those who are responsible forthe existence of inequalities and who also have the means and the opportunity to improveconditions

CDA emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary work in order to gain a proper understanding of how language functions in constituting and transmitting knowledge, in organizing social institutions or in exercising power

Power is about relations of different, particularly about the effects of differences in socialstructures Language is entwined in social power in a numbers of ways: language indexespower, expresses power, is involved where there is contention over and a challenge topower

1.5 Systemic Functional Linguistic in Critical Discourse Analysis

In this part, I will discuss systemic functional grammar, the reasons why FSL is used inCDA and how it is used in this study

Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999: 139) explain that ‘and especially the linguistic theory

which we believe has the most common with CDA and most to offer CDA, systemic functional linguistic (SFL)’ and ‘the version of CDA which we work with ourselves has used SFL as its main resource for textual analysis’

Fairclough (2003: 5) points out a ‘complementary relationship’ between SFL and CDA asfollows:

‘SFL is profoundly concerned with the relationship between language and other elements and aspects of social life, and its approach to the linguistic analysis of texts is always oriented to the social character of text…This makes it a valuable source for critical discourse analysis, and indeed major constructions to critical discourse analysis have developed out of SFL’

For Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999: 139), SFL ‘views language as a semiotic system

which is structured in terms of strata Language connects meanings (the semantic stratum with their spoken and written expressions (the stratum of phonology and graphology) Both meanings and expression interface with the extra-linguistics.’

The relationship between strata is one of ‘realization’: each of the strata defines a potential,

a set of possibilities – a meaning potential (semantics), a wording potential(lexicogrammar), an expression potential This relationship can be extended in the ‘context

of situation’ The context of situation can be specified in terms of possible values for three

variables – the field (the activity which the language is part of), the tenor (the social actors involved and the relation between them), and the mode (the part language plays in the

activity) corresponding respectively the ideational, interpersonal and textual

macrofunctions More specifically, the macrofunctions covers ideational function

(language in the construction and representation of experience in the world, the

interpersonal function (language in the enactment of social relations and the constructions

of social identities) and the textual function (language in the specifically semiotic –

textual –form of productive practice) In SFL, lexicogrammar is seen as functionallygrounded, shaped by the social functions it serves, and in particular built around theintersection of the ‘macrofunctions’ of language Corresponding to these three

macrofunctions are three major networks of grammatical system which are transitivity,

mood and modality, and information – including theme – rheme and given-new.

Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999: 140) state that:

“Every clause in the text (as well as lower and higher-level grammatical units) is seen as

grammatically constituted simultaneously as semiotic production (textual function) which constructs the world (ideational function) while enacting social relations between its producers and others who inhabit the world (relational function) Thus the social is built into grammatical tissue of language…………so that the semiotic constitution by the social and of the social is constantly at issue in the language analysis”.

Concerning to three macro-functions of language, I find two macro-functions relevant tothis study They are the Experiential function and the Textual function The two functions

at the discourse – semantic level are realized at the lexico-grammar represented by choices

in the Transitivity and Thematic system and the unit of this level is the clause

1.5.1 Transitivity

The transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of processtypes A process includes three components:

The process itself

Participants in the process

Circumstances associated with the process

Transitivity provides us with the potential to group the infinite variety of occurrence into afinite set of process type They are Material, Mental, Relational, Behaviour, Verbal andExistential Process

Table 1: Summary of process types ( adapted from Halliday, 1994)

Process type Definition Category

meaning

Participants Examples

1 Material Process of doing

things, express the notion that some entity ‘does’

something, which may be done to some other entity

‘doing’ Actor, Goal

Event ‘happening ’ The major resigned

2 Behaviour Process of

(typically human) physiological and psychological behaviour like breathing, coughing, dreaming

conscious participant

5 Relational Process of ‘being’

‘being at’ and

‘having’

‘being’ Carrier

AttributeIdentifiedIdentifierTokenValue

the topical theme and any elements that come before it If there is nothing before thetopical Theme, it remains single If there are other things before it, it becomes multiple

Table 2: Components of a multiple theme ( Bloor, T and Bloor, M, 1995:78)

Table 3: The main tendencies for the selection of Theme in declarative clauses

( Bloor, T and Bloor, M, 1995:78)

Chapter 2: Methodology

2.1 Social context of globalization

In this part I will provide the readers with the social context of globalization with the hopethat readers can have the general ideas about globalization As mentioned before,globalization – a controversial issue - has attracted the attention of people from differentperspectives so in this chapter I try to portrait the picture of globalization in modern timefrom different points of view This chapter also gives a brief introduction about WTO andDirector-General Mike Moore In addition to that, the framework of Fairclough used toanalyze the speech will be given

2.1.1 What is globalization?

Globalization – a controversial issue – has attracted attention of many researchers fromdifferent points of view They have formed different concepts of globalization.Globalization is based on the cornerstone of Adam Smith’s concept of laissez faire andRicardian theory of comparative cost of advantage

According to Fairclough ‘globalization is first an economic process, and the neo-liberal

doctrine it is currently associated with is centred upon maximally free trade – the free movement of goods, finance and people internationally What is involved is a shift in the relationship between the market and the state which characterized capitalism for most of the twentieth century, freeing the market from state controls and undermining the role of the state in providing social welfare, and converting the state into a local advocate and agent for free market

The term ‘globalization’ describes the growing political, social, cultural, economic ad

technological interconnectedness and interdependence of the world today Globalization has been described as the world getting smaller – as markets and people become more accessible to one another As communication technologies advance, cultures continue to overlap and influence each other In addition, an increase in international trade has created an economic interdependence between many states This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and human physical well-being in societies around the world

The globalization introduction web page of Centre for Strategic & International Studies(2002) gave the definition:

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.

Elements of globalization include transborder capital, labour, management, news, images, and data flows The main engines of globalization are the transnational corporations (TNCs), transnational media organizations (TMCs), intergovernmental organizations

(IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) alternative government organizations

(AGOs) From a humanist perspective, globalization entails both positive and negative consequences; it is both narrowing and widening the income gaps among and within nations, intensifying and diminishing political domination, and homogenizing and pluralizing cultural identities

2.1.2 Globalization from different perspectives

Globalization has been and will continue to be a topic of discussion and debate As amatter of fact different experiences and information will generate different opinions.Globalization is much like fire Fire itself is neither good nor bad Used properly, it cancook food, sterilize equipment, form iron, and heat our homes Used carelessly, fire candestroy lives, towns and forests in an instant

2.1.2.1 Opportunities and possibilities

Supporters assert that globalization actually helps the poor Reports of World Bank (WB),World Trade Organization (WTO) often give the illustration of successful countries thanks

to the process of globalization For instance, between 1980 and 2000, trade in goods andservices expanded from 23 to 46 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in China andfrom 19 to 30 percent in India

Globalization offers opportunities to many countries Global markets offer moreopportunities people have more chances to access capital flows, technology, cheaperimports and lager export markets

In the speech ‘Making Globalization work’, Director –General Mike Moore stated that:’

What are the most important issues for people across the globe? Life expectancy, hunger and poverty reduction Access to clean drinking water, democracy, a better living environment And on almost every useful measurement of the human condition, we have seen the greatest advances in the history of our species during the last half century, according to data collected by the UNDP and other agencies.

For example:

 In 1900, average life expectancy was 30, today it is 67.

 On average, developing countries have increased their food intake from 2,463 to 2,663 calories per person over the past decade — an increase of 8%.

 In 1970, 35% of all people in developing countries were starving In 1996, the figure had fallen to 18% and the UN expects the figure will have fallen to 12% by 2010.

 Between 1990-1999, adult illiteracy rates in low-income countries for males aged

15 and above decreased from 35%-29%; and for females aged 15 and above, the figure decreased from 56%-48%.

 While only 30% of people in the developing world had access to clean drinking water in 1970, today about 80% have.

 Wages and conditions have improved as economies grow.

 In the US, lead concentration in the air has dropped more than 97% since 1977 The US EPA estimates that about 22,000 deaths are avoided every year because of the dramatic decline in lead levels.

 Some of the Great Lakes were considered dead 30 years ago and rivers sometimes caught fire Today, people can swim and fish in them.

2.1.2.2 Constraints and difficulties

Globalization is no bed of roses Globalization is considered as the root of poverty andinequality in many countries People in poor countries still live in poverty without access

to electricity and drinking water They also lack of access to credit, poor infrastructure

Globalization is also considered as the major cause of social, environmental problems inmany countries Unskilled workers will face increasing competition across border.Workers in some developing countries are losing their jobs to their counterparts Manyconservationists argue that international integration encourages the overexploitation offragile natural resources, such as forests and fisheries, damaging the livelihoods of thepoor They claim that the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank are the majorcauses of poverty in many countries today In fact, The IMF and World Bank are largelyowned and controlled by the developed countries such as USA, German, UK, and Japan.Receiving the assistance from IMF and World Bank the economic direction of thesecountries would be planned, monitored and controlled by these organizations or countries.

2.1.3 WTO

2.1.3.1 Mike Moore – the former Director-General of WTO from 1999 to 2002

This section will briefly point out some prominent features about his bibliography

Trade has been a key interest in Mr Moore's career He was the longest serving member

of the New Zealand Parliamentary Select Committee on Foreign Affairs and Trade As Minister of Overseas Trade and Marketing, he led trade missions to Australia, Japan, China, South-East Asia, the Middle East, Western and Central Europe, Russia, South America, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan and Turkey Mr Moore advanced New Zealand's Closer Economic Relations trade treaty with Australia and promoted a trade treaty with vulnerable small South Pacific Island nations who, because of their stage of development, needed special and differential treatment into the New Zealand market.

Mr Moore has long been an active participant in international discussions on trade liberalisation As Minister of Overseas Trade and Marketing, he played a leading role in launching the Uruguay Round of GATT negotiations He was a member the International Eminent Persons Group on World Trade (formed in 1989 to press for a successful outcome

to the Uruguay Round, made up of 14 influential political and business leaders from around the world) He attended key WTO meetings including in Punta Del Este (1986), Montreal (1988), Brussels (1990), and Marrakesh (1994).

Mr Moore has received numerous awards He was awarded the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal In 1999, he was awarded New Zealand's highest honour, the

Order of New Zealand In 2000, Lincoln University, New Zealand, conferred upon Mr Moore an Honorary Doctorate of Commerce Mr Moore is a member of the Privy Council

Mr Moore is the author of numerous books: “On Balance”, “Beyond Today”, “A Pacific Parliament”, “The Added Value Economy”, “Hard Labour”, “Fighting for New Zealand”, “Children of the Poor”, and the latest, “A Brief History of the Future”, published in September 1998.

From his bibliography we can see that he plays an active role in the process of tradeliberalization It is easily understood that he always tries to extend the bright side ofglobalization It can also be clarified when we examine his ideology embedded in thespeech

2.1.3.2 WTO

In the official website of WTO they state that ‘ In brief, the World Trade Organization

(WTO) is the only international organization dealing with the global rules of trade between nations.’

Functions:

• Administering WTO trade agreements

• Forum for trade negotiations

• Handling trade disputes

• Monitoring national trade policies

• Technical assistance and training for developing countries

• Cooperation with other international organizations

It can be clearly seen that WTO wants to portrait itself as a reliable and trustful friend infacing global rules of trade between nations

2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis in practice: a framework

In order to serve the analysis of the speech in the light of CDA this study will follow thestages proposed by Fairclough

Fairclough (2001) introduces a framework of critical discourse analysis consisting of threestages:

1 What experiential values do words have?

What classification schemes are drawn upon?

Are the words which are ideologically contested?

Is there rewording or overrewording?

What ideologically significant meaning relations are there between words?

2 What relational values do words have?

Are there euphemistic expressions?

Are there markedly formal or informal words?

3 What expressive values do words have?

4 What metaphors are used?

B Grammar

5 What expressive values do grammatical features have?

What types of process and participant predominate?

Is agency unclear?

Are processes what they seem?

Are nominalizations used?

Are sentences active or passive?

Are sentences positive or negative?

6 What relational values do grammatical features have?

What modes are used?

Are there important features of relational modality?

Are the pronouns we and you used? And if so, how?

7 What expressive values do grammatical features have?

Are these important features of expressive modality?

8 How are sentences linked together?

What logical connectors are used?

Are complex sentences characterized by coordination or subordination?

What means are used for referring inside and outside the text?

C Textual structure

9 What interactional conventions are used?

Are there ways in which one participant controls the turns of others?

10 What larger-scale structures does the text have?

2.2.2 Interpretation

This stage is concerned with the discourse processes and their independence onbackground assumptions According to Fairclough, interpretations are generated throughwhat it is the text and what is ‘in’ the interpreter (MR) What is in the text (also calledformal features) are ‘cues’ which activate elements of interpreters’ MR and are generatedthrough the dialectical interplay of cues and MR and because of this characteristic MR isalso referred to as interpretative procedures

Text structure and point

explanation is a matter of seeing a discourse as part of processes of social struggle, within a matrix of relations of power

2.3 Why ‘Backlash against globalization?’?

Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999: 95) state that ‘the concept of ‘globalization’ tends to

underplay this power struggle, and might indeed seen as within an ideologically potent discourse which misconstrues a bid for global hegemony as a benign coming-together.’

Fairclough (2000) confirms that ‘globalization is a real but incomplete process which

benefits some people and hurt others’ Those who benefit from globalization seek to

extend it by different ways and among these ways discourse of globalization has been used

as an effective way to convey their ideology As said before ‘ Discourse of globalization is

thus considered as discourse of power, a discourse which is used in conjunction with other potent resources (e.g donations to political parties) by those in power to enhance their power.’ Moreover, in fact, The IMF, WTO and World Bank are largely owned and

controlled by the developed countries such as USA, German, UK, and Japan Therefore,Director-General Mike Moore would like to portrait globalization as a bright picture formany people

As Fairclough states ‘the discourse of globalization works ideologically’, this speech is

thus chosen as a representative of other globalization discourses to uncover the ideology ofsupporters of globalization