Advances in agronomy volume 09

TRENDS IN THE OLD COTTON BELTtheshifts thathave been taking place inthe agriculture ofthe region to have at hand information on such regional characteristics as climate, topography, soil

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OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

Author KAenryvav , Q (sy

Tillsbookshouldbereturnedonor beforethedatelastmarkedbelow

ADVANCES IN AGRONOMY

ADVANCES IN

AGRONOMY

Prepared underthe Auspicesof the

ACADEMIC PRESS INC.

Ill FIFTH AVENUE

AllRights Reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced in any

form,byphotostat, microfilm, oranyother means, without written permission from the publishers.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: (50-5598)

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IX

Universityof California,LosAngeles,California.

Agricultural Research Service, U S. Department of Agriculture,

Univer-sity, Plast Lansing,Michigan

Agri-culturalResearchService,U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, Raleigh,

NorthCarolina

J. F DAVIS, Professor of Soil Science, Michigan State University, EastLansing,Michigan

Company, Agricultural Research iMboratory, Seal Beach, fornia

O KEMPTHORNE, Professor of Statistics, Statistical Laboratory, Iowa

StateCollege,Ames,Iowa

R S. LYNCH, Research Associate in Botany, Department of Botany,

Universityof California,LosAngeles,California.

Water Management, Soil and Water Conservation Research

Divi-sion, Agricultural Research Service, U S. Department of

G D SMITH, Director, Soil Survey Investigations, Soil Conservation

Service, U S. Department ofAgriculture, Washington25, D C

Insti-tuut, (State) Universityat Ghent, Ghent, Belgium

vi CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IX

WYNNE THORNE,Director, AgricultureExperimentStation, UtahStateAgricultural College,Logan, Utah.

J. A VOMOCIL, AssistantProfessor,Department of SoilsandPlant

Nu-trition, University of California, Davis,California

J. H YEAGER, Professor of Agricultural Economics, Department of

Agricultural Economics, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn,

Alabama.

It is an objective of this series to make available to professional

agronomists surveys or reviews of the progress in agronomic research

andpractice. Thesubjects selected fortreatmentthisyearare unrelated.

The precedent of selecting for special consideration the problems and

trends in land useand agricultural production in a geographical region

with some degree of unity with respect to soils, climate, and practice

has been continued This year it is the Old Cotton Belt of the southern

pres-sures ofvarious sorts,the agronomicpattern withinthisregion is

under-going great change Manyadjustments havehad to bemade; othersare

stillin progress

Soil properties and soil-plant relationships lie at the core of many

of the topics treated in this series. The chapters on /inc. deficiency and

recognition and identification of like soils. Pedology knows no nationalboundaries There is a long tradition of close cooperation among work-

ers in soil classificationandgenesis. Political boundaries haveno

of workinthis field.Tavernier andSmith, inthe chapteron Braunerde,

a largely descriptive science

Special reference ought tobemadealsoto thepaperby Kempthorne

in which he points out the contributions made by the application of

statistical methods to agronomy Reading between the lines, however,

theoryby thosewho have been stimulated by theproblemof analyzing

data obtainedinagronomicandgenetic investigations

A G NORMAN

Ann Arbor,Michigan

October, 1957

Page

AGRICULTURAL TRENDS IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

BYR. W. PEARSON, AgriculturalResearchService, UnitedStatesDepartment

of Agriculture, Auburn, Alabama

ANDJ. H YEAGER,Alabama Polytechnic Institute*Auburn, Alabama

BYWYNNE THORNE, UtahState Agricultural College, Logan, Utah

V Functions of Zinc in Higher Plants . .39

/III Factors Affecting AvailableZinc in Soils 45

IX. Methods of Zinc Determination 53

DEFOLIATION AND DESICCATION: HARVEST-AID PRACTICES

BYFREDRICKT. ADDICOTTANDRUTH S.LYNCH, DepartmentofBotany,

University of California, Los Angeles, California

X CONTENTS

Page

BY JOHN B. HEMWALL, TheDowChemicalCompany,AgriculturalResearch

Laboratory, Seal Beach, California

COORDINATED BY PAUL R.HENSON,Agricultural ResearchService,

UnitedStatesDepartment of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland

I. The Origin, History, andDevelopment ofLespedeza in theUnitedStates.

II CultureandUtilization. BYJOE D BALDRIDGE, UnitedStatesDepartment

III. Lespede/a Breeding and Improvement BYWILL A COPE, UnitedStates

III. Measurement of Soil Bulk Density 163

IV. Interpretation of Bulk Density Measurements 171

THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF STATISTICS TO AGRONOMY

BYOSCARKEMPTHORNE,Statistical Laboratory, IowaState College,Ames, Iowa

II. The Description andAnalysis of Existent Populations 178

IV. Applications of Statistics to Plant Breeding 201

BY R L.COOK ANDJ F DAVIS, MichiganState University, East Lansing, Michigan

and Minor

THE CONCEPT OF BRAUNERDE (BROWN FOREST SOIL)

IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES

BYR. TAVERNIER, (State) University at Ghent Ghent, Belgium

ANDG. D SMITH,Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C.

II. Kinds and Distribution of Soils Called Braunorde and Brown Forest Soils 244

AGRICULTURAL TRENDS IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

R. W. Pearson and J. H Yeager

Agricultural ResearchService, United States Department of Agriculture,and

Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama

4. Fewer and Larger Farms 25

I. INTRODUCTION

The Old Cotton Belt, as defined for the purpose of this discussion,

includesanarea ofabout 300,000 squaremiles,lyingacrosseight eastern states in which cottonhas traditionallydominatedtheeconomy

south-(Fig 1) It is recognized that the eight states ofNorth Carolina, South

Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and

cotton was grown in eastern Texas as early as 1850 Also, owing to

physical and economic characteristics shared by these eight states, it

2 R. W PEARSON AND J. YEAGER

one of the oldest major agricultural areas of the country, and it hasexperienced many changes in soil-management and crop-production

practices during itshistory

Most of the Belt has been farmedfor at least 150years. Theearliest

settlements were made around 1700 along the Atlantic and the Gulf

coasts. The inland partof theregionwassettled primarilybymigration

from the Atlantic Coast, and so the western part ofthe region was, in

FIG 1.Majorphysiographic regions of theOldCotton Belt.

general, thelast to be broughtinto cultivation Mostof thealluvial soils

of the Mississippi flood plains, for example, have been cleared within

the past 75years.

The original settlers were of Anglo-Saxon extraction, and this

in-fluence is still strong in the social pattern of the region With the

ex-ception of a fewlocalities suchas the Black Beltand parts of the Delta,

relatively small family-operated farms have continued to be the rule,

with cottonfurnishing themainstayofincome

II. REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

TRENDS IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

theshifts thathave been taking place inthe agriculture ofthe region to

have at hand information on such regional characteristics as climate,

topography, soils, and water resources These factors are discussed

briefly inthe following sections.

The chief characteristic of the climate is the long growing season

that favors a wide variety of agricultural enterprises The number offrost-free days varies from about 200 in the northern part of the Belt

to as high as 260 inthe southern part. The summersare hotaridhumid

and the winters are mild The temperature averages about 85 F ing the summer months and about 45 F in the winter, with few pe-

dur-riods of sufficiently low temperaturetocause thegroundto freeze

The average annual rainfall ranges from 50 to 60 inches, with 50

inches being more representative of the entire area Morethan halfof

the total precipitation occurs during the cool season of November to

March. September and October are the driest months in the year,

the spring and summer often comes as short, high-intensity showers, whereas during the winter it comes usually in low-intensity

thunder-rainsover extended wetperiods.

Cot-tonBelt. These regions are differentiated in geology, topography, native

vegetation, and, as a result, in soils. Theregions as shown in Fig. 1 arethe Coastal Plain, Southern Piedmont, Southern Appalachian Plateau,

be briefly described inconnection with a subsequentsectionon the soils

ofthearea

of leveltogentlyrollingland occurin the Deltas,BlackBelt, and

Lime-stone Valleys, and smaller areas are found in the southern and easternreaches of the Coastal Plain The slopes become generally steeper to-

in the Clay Hills, Piedmont, and theSouthern Appalachian Plateau In

usually found in the valleys and on the ridge tops, with the slopes left

in forest.

Elevation of theland surfacevaries from less than 100 feet in parts

of the Deltas tomore than 2000 feet on the ridges of the Southern

Ap-palachian Plateau In general, the elevation decreases from its high

4 R. W PEARSON AND J. YEAGER

With the exception of the Deltas and immediately adjoining areas

the drainage pattern is made up ofa network of rivers that rise in thenorthern part of the Belt and flow south and southeast together withmanysmaller streamsthat risefurther south inthe CoastalPlain

3. Soils

The soils of the Old Cotton Belt, like those of the entire Southeast,

weredeveloped under climaticconditions that favored rapidweathering

and a high degree of leaching With the exception of the Black Belt,they were developed under forest vegetation, andalthough therewasa

wide variety of parent materials, this difference has been in a large

measure overshadowed by the effects of climate and vegetation. The

warm humid climate also prevents the accumulation of appreciable

amounts ofsoil organic matter Thus,thesoils ofthisarea are

mis-conception that the soils are unproductive Actually, most of the soils

are very responsive to good management, particularly to fertilization.

In recent years it has become increasingly evident that yields can be

attained that are comparable to those on the most fertile soils of thecountry

Inasmuch as the soils of this area form the basic resource, a more

detailed examination of their characteristics and management wouldbe

The area that has been designated as the Old Cotton Belt of theSoutheast includes seven physiographic regions, as outlined in Fig 1.

Thesoils ofthese regionsfall withintheRed andYellow PodzolicGreat

MajorSoilGroups,respectively IndiscussingthesoilsoftheBeltunder

the physiographic region headings, theterminologymostwidely

under-stood is used

a. CoastalPlain TheCoastal Plain province accountsfor abouthalf of the total area of the Cotton Belt. The elevation lies between

most part under pine forests, from unconsolidated marine-depositedsands and clays. They are, with few exceptions, sandy-textured in thesurface horizon The topography is undulatingtorolling, and both sur-

dis-cussion of land use and development in this province is presented by Anderson

THE OLD COTTON BELT

have sandy surface horizons varying in color from gray to brown and in thickness from 5 to 10 inches Underneath is an 18- to

reddish-30-inch layer of yellow to red friable sandy clay B horizon, underlain

bygrayto red,mottled, unconsolidated sands andclays.

These soils not only have been subjected toa high degree of

weath-ering and leaching during formation but were developed from parent

materials that had experienced a previous cycle of weathering,

leach-ing, erosion,and deposition. Consequently, theyhave a very low native

The SandHills form a distinctsubdivision within the Coastal Plainthat shouldbe mentioned, even though ithas riotbeenseparately delin-

eated in Fig. 1. The Sand Hills form a relatively narrow belt of deep

sands lying along the fall line between the Coastal Plain and the

sands and loamy sands Similar soils occur in spots throughout the

CoastalPlain, andwherever they occurtheypresent thesame

water-holding capacity

the Belt and occurs in four of tho eight states that constitute the Belt.

The soils in the Piedmont were derived from granites, gneisses, andschists and range in texture of the surface horizon from sandy loams

to clay loams Internal drainage is generally good in the upland

mem-bers. Cecil is the most extensive soil type Othor soils of this subregion

TheCecil, which isthe most prominent and onoof theredder

surface horizon, depending upon the degree of erosion This layer is

underlain at 4 to 8 inches by a red, stiff, but brittle, clay subsoil. A

lighter colored, more friable clay usually occurs at 30 to 40 inches

the lack of stable soil structure has resulted in widespread and severe

lost, exposing the red clay or clay loam B horizon These eroded soils

often present a considerable problem because of their poor physicalcondition and low water infiltration rate, which is usually less than

Y inch

6 R. W PEARSON AND J. H YEAGER

The present fertility level ofthe soils of the Piedmont is relatively

high compared with some of the coarsertextured soilsofthe SoutheastThis is particularly true with reference topotassium (Welch andNel-

son, 1951) Although the native phosphorus content of these soils was

has resulted in a considerably higher level of available and total phorus Organic matter and nitrogen are very low in these soils, as is

phos-true forothersoils ofthe Southeast

c. Black Belt. The soils of the Black Belt or Black Prairie, as this

and the region derived its name from the dark brown to black color

of the soils. They were developed from chalk and very heavy marine

area occurs only in Alabama and Mississippi inthe Southeast and

con-stitutes less than 10 per cent of the arable land in each of these twostates.

About one-third of the soils of the Black Belt are calcareous, the

chief series in this category being Sumter and Houston In the rest ofthe area, gray toredacid-clay soilsoccur,including theVaiden, Eutaw,

con-sidered to be an eroded phase of Houston, is an extensive series,

Belt; whereas by 1930 the Sumter series had largely replaced it

(Scar-seth, 1932)

the soils are often extremely acid. They were also very low in

available phosphorus in the virgin state. Their native potassium

soils.

cent of the Belt. The soils belong to the Red and Yellow Podzolic and

prima-rily fromlimestoneunderhardwood forests, andas aresulthavea siderably higher inherent fertility level than most of the soils of the

Thesoil seriesmappedincludeDewey,Decatur,Cumberland,

Fuller-ton, and Clarksville The topography is undulating to rolling, and the

internal drainageisgenerallygood Decaturistypical ofthebetter soils

IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

oc-curs in the northeast corner of Alabama and the northwest corner of

Georgia It consists of a series of relatively smooth-topped ridges, lying

in a northeast-southwest direction, and forms a very small but

impor-tantsegmentoftheBelt.

Podzolic Great Soil Group and are in many respects quite similar in

ofthe CoastalPlain Theyare derivedfrominterbeddod sandstonesand

shales under hardwood forests. The topography is rolling, and internal

and silt loams They are characteristically acid in reaction, are low inorganic matterand plant nutrients, andhave arelatively high siltcon-

tent. Thosederivedfrom shalesare somewhatfiner textured, shallower,

and, in general, less productive than are those developed from

sand-stone

Hartsells is the most important soil series It has a grayish-brown,

of those developedfrom shale It usually has a silt loam surface

under-lain by a clay loam B horizon, and occurs on steepertopography than

does the Hartsells, making it particularly susceptible to erosion

Most ofthe soils of this subregion have unusually highsilt contentsand, as a result, form oriented particle crusts upon dryingafter a rain

These crusts are sometimes very troublesome in preventing seedling

emergence andinreducinginfiltration ofwater

/. Brown Loam. This physiographic province, which constitutes

region ofthe GulfCoast Several smaller areas occurwestof the

Missis-sippi River, also. A mantle of wind-deposited silt lies over the marine

sands and clays of the Coastal Plain throughout this subregion Thethickness of the loess varies markedly from eastto west, being thickest

some 30 to 50 miles to the east. Thetopography generallyvaries from

The principal upland soils are Memphis, Loring, Grenada,

Calla-way, and Henry, listed in order from good to poor drainage The

tex-ture of their surface horizons is predominately silt loam, although

fre-erosion has removedthis exposing the Bhorizon

8 R. W PEARSON AND J. H YEAGER

In such cases, the surface is somewhat finer textured Theprofiles arewell developed, and in all the members except the Memphis a distinct

fragipan occursatdepthsvaryingfrom 12to30inches

Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium are generally

de-ficient in the soils of this province In this respect they differ but

littlein degreefromthoseofthe CoastalPlain

g. Deltas Theflood plains ofthe Mississippi,Yazoo, White,

per centofthe OldCottonBelt.

The soils are, in general, themost fertileofanyinthe entire

South-east. They are derived entirely from sediments deposited by riversand

undu-lating to level, immaturity, and relatively high fertility level,

partic-ularly with respect to phosphorus, potassium, and other bases

Prom-inent soil series, listed in order of increasing fineness from sandy loam

toheavyclay,areBosket,Dundee,Dublos,Mhoon, Commerce, Sharkey,

and Alligator. These soils exhibit only faint horizon differentiation

owing to the relatively short period of time the parent materials have

been in place. A recent excellent discussion of these soils is available

4. Water Resources

The southeastern United States is a region of many rivers and

smaller streams fed by a relatively highrainfall. The water resources,

these resources is still in its infancy One of the most critical factorsrelating to water development and use for urban, industrial, agricul-

tural, or recreational purposes is the lack of up-to-date regulatory islation. Throughout the South present statutes are still based on theRiparian Rights doctrine (Scheele, 1952), although its obsolescence in

leg-the face of increasing competitionforthis resourcehas been repeatedly

demonstrated This problem has been widely recognized, and nearly

a view to revision

Wateris an all important factor in the current trendsofboth

agri-culture and industry and will have a marked influence on the future

growth and development of this area For this reason, and in view of

thelimited data available formany ofthestates,the waterresources of

Alabama will be briefly discussed as being typical of the Southeast.

creeks and larger streams, with a total surface area of 111,581 acres,

THE OLD COTTON

acres of brackish water in the extreme south, makes the total area of

usable water 758,080 acres, or an average of 1 acre of waterfor every

43 acres of land Omitting brackish water, the ratiobecomes 1 acreof

freshwaterforevery 80acres of land

Alabama can also be considered typical of the Belt with respect to

the runoff and water conservation problem, since it has essentiallythe

same ranges in topography, soils, and management practices that are

inches ofrain that fallon the average within Alabama, about 16 inches

conserv-ingforuseful purposes

Pollution of streams in the Southeast is a problem of tremendous

importance Largequantities of industrial wastes andlaxityon the part

serious situation in many sections. There is increasing concern about

Underground water resources vary tremendously among the

dif-ferent physiographic areas of the region. In the Piedmont and

Appa-lachian Plateau areas, the yields ofwells are generallyverylow, ing from 2 to 50 gallons per minute, and the cost of drilling is high,

rang-making underground water a relatively unimportant source except

large underground streams flow through solution channels, and when

these aretapped the yield is generally very high In the Coastal Plain,

which forms a major part of the region, subsurfacewater is quite

var-iable in quantity and depth. Yields of wells vary from 40 to 500

gal-lonsperminuteatdepthsof200to 1400feet.

In the Delta thereis generallyan abundant supplyof underground

suffi-cienthigh capacityfor irrigationsupply

The amounts and depth ofunderground water in the Brown Loam

area aremuch thesame as in the Coastal Plains, aswouldbeexpected.

minuteflow

10 R. W PEARSON AND J. H YEAGER

III. PROBLEMS INFLUENCING AGRICULTURAL TRENDS

As competition in agriculture becomes keener and more intensiveproduction practices have to be adopted in the Belt, myriad problems

modification of the farm operation to fit the circumstances Several of

1. Soil Fertility

Low inherent soil fertility is the first limiting factor in crop

pro-duction in the Belt. Since the soils are acid in reaction and low in

organic matter and plant nutrients, a progressive liming and

fertiliza-tion program is essential to any type of farming Unlike many other

parts of the country the agricultureof this area isabsolutely dependent

the soils of the Belt are very responsive to fertilization, and yields of

ofhigh rates offertilizer represents an operatingcost thatcanstrongly

influencetheover-all planforthefarmoperation.

the virgin soils of this area, except in the Deltas Now, however, after

the use ofphosphate fertilizers formany years, mostofthe soilshave aconsiderably higherlevelofavailable phosphorus (Gholston, 1956; Wil-

son, 1956; Welch and Nelson, 1951). Of course, past fertilization

practicesvaried widelyfrom farmtofarm, withthe resultthatthelevel

few if any observable soil characteristics This simply means that any

rational fertilization program, at leastwith respect to phosphorus, must

be basedon soil testinformation

was phosphorus, but since it does not accumulate appreciably under

the soil and climatic conditions of the region it has become much more

deficient with time Here, again, wide variations exist as a result ofpast cropping and fertilization treatment For example, cotton on fields

previously planted to peanuts for several years without adequate tions of potassium, will often be a complete failure owing toextremely

addi-low levels of potassium in the soil. This is in spite of the factthat thepeanuts probably producedsatisfactory yields.

production of any crop on practically all soils of the Belt, it is

partic-ularly important in the case of forage crops such as alfalfa and the

IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

management, yields of above 100 bushels are quite common (Krantz

and Chandler, 1954; Jordan, 1951) Similarly, yields above 500

nitro-gen does not accumulate in the soil to any extent and since the

effi-ciency of recovery by crops is poor, it will continue to be one of the

Liming has generally been considered a necessary step for foragecrop production, but there has been a strong tendency to neglect it as

the area nowfinds itselfina serious positionwithrespectto soil acidity,

and the increasing use of acid-forming nitrogen fertilizers is

per cent of the soils are too acid for best growth of legumes, and 25 to

50 per cent need limingfor satisfactorygrowthof anacid-tolerantcrop

such as cotton Estimates arethatupto 15 million tons oflimestone per

statewould be required to bringits arable soilsup tothe recommended

or 2 million tons per state as compared with the present average use of

2. Soil ErosionControl of soil and water loss is a major problem affecting landuse and soil management throughout the Old Cotton Belt and one thathas greatly influenced shifting management patterns in the area The

the frequent high-intensity spring and summer rains and the inherent

erosivity of many of the soils, explains the importance of runoff and

erosion control in any stablesystem of agriculture This is

particularly

true of the Brown Loam and Piedmont regions as well as of the clay

hill section ofthe CoastalPlain

The early agriculture of the Belt was based entirely on a

given to the problem of erosion control When fields became gullied

or marred by "gall spots" owing to removal of the surface soil and

many instances of abandonment of entire farms, and the results areevident to the casual observer the Piedmont or

12 R. W PEARSON AND H YEAGER

Brown Loam areas today. These areas usuallygrew up in pine, broom

further depredation. In more recent years, with increasing

concen-tration ofthe paper industry in the Southeastand with expanding

live-stock production, there has been considerable interest in the

reclama-tion of abandoned areas for pulpwood, forage crops, and even rowcrops under improved management The economic feasibility of such

reclamation is strikingly shown in a recent study by Ulrich (1953),

pro-duction in the semiarid West and the humid Southeast He concluded

that after allowing for differences in inherent productivity of soils inthe different areas 6.25 equivalent acres could be brought into produc-

tion in the Piedmont region for the cost of each acre in the Columbia

Basin area of the Northwest Since there are several million acres of

reclaimablelandnotnow in production in theBelt, thiswould form an

The erosionhazardin parts oftheBrown Loamregionis evenmore

critical than in the Piedmont The high sand and silt content of the

soils and the widespread occurrence of a strong genetic pan combined

the extent that some areas are useless for any kind of agriculture

of effort is being directed toward getting proper land-use and

soil-management practices adopted, the erosion hazard will continue toexist as one of the predominant factors influencing agricultural trends

in themoresusceptibleparts oftheBelt.

The relatively high annual rainfall of the Belt might lead one to

expect that lack of moisture would not be a problem in crop

produc-tion. In order to understand the problem as it exists, however, severalfactors must be considered In the first place much less than half of

the total rain occurs during the six-month period April to September

received during this period comes too rapidly to be taken in by the

soil, and relatively high runoff losses often occur In addition, thehigh

summertemperatures result in large evapotranspiration losses of

mois-ture. Values exceeding 0.3 inch per day are not uncommon As a sult of these factors and the relatively low available water-holdingcapacities of many of the soils of the Belt, there is no doubt but that

Increasing competition, acreage controls, labor shortages, and other

TRENDS IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

cially of crops requiring relatively high cash outlay for production

This situation, together with the dramatic effects ofoccasional drought

years, has brought supplemental irrigation to theforefront as a means

of increasing average crop yields and providing insurance against crop

made in this direction in the Mississippi Delta,for example, where the

leveltopography, largefields, and abundantwater supplyare combined

to make conditions for irrigation exceptionally favorable. The

phe-nomenalincrease in irrigation inthisareaisillustratedbyFig.2,which

THOUSANDS OF ACRE-FEET f

for irrigation from 1949 through 1954 Prior to 1950 little water was

used for irrigation. Since that time,however, each succeeding year has

seen a 70 to 100 per cent increase over the preceding year. Of course,

these figures do not give an estimate of total irrigated area because alarge amount of water is pumped from the numerous streams and

bayous Althougha breakdownoftheuseofwaterbycropsisnotable, it is a matter of record thatricehasrisenfroma position ofinsig-nificance to that of a relatively important crop in this part of the Belt

acres of rice were grown in Mississippi, all of itin the Delta By 1954

14 R. W PEARSON AND J. H YEAGER

therewere84,000acres ofrice,a twelvefold increasein five years ever, the increase inuse of irrigation in theDelta cannot beattributed

How-primarily to increased rice acreage Supplemental water is more and more being used on cotton to insure maximum yields on a partof theacreage of many plantations, and for pasture and forage production

prac-tical experience areshowing thatthe practiceiseconomically sound.

There has also been a rapid rise in the use of irrigation in other

parts of the Belt, particularly in the Coastal Plain and Limestone

Val-leys regions, for both row and forage crops. This trend is illustrated in

con-TABLE I

New Irrigation Systems Installed in Alabamaand Acreage Covered, 1949 1955 1

Numberofnew Acreagein these

Year irrigation systems irrigation systems Acres/system

sidered to betypical for the bulk of theOld Cotton Belt. Relatively few

of these irrigation systems wereinstalled in the Piedmont or the Black

Belt. Most of them were in the Coastal Plains With the one exception

of 1953, therewas an approximate 100 per cent increaseinthe number

of new systems installed and an even higherrate ofincreasein acreage

irrigated each year during the period 1949 to 1955 TableIIshowsthatcotton accounted for about one-third of the total new acreage in 1955,

with corn, pasture,and truck crops followingin that order

Several factors must be considered in attempting to evaluate the fectof irrigation on over-allproductionlevels intheBelt. Certainlycrop

ef-yields on individual farms will be drastically increased, and levels will

beraised appreciably within areas especially suited totheuse of

irriga-tion, such as in the Delta arid in parts of the Coastal Plains However,

and the high level of over-all managementthat is absolutely necessary

on

TRENDS IN THE OLD COTTON BELT 15reasonable to expect that cotton production levels in the Belt may be

affected more than those of most other agricultural crops. This is true

potentials

Tobacco is a crop of localized importance in the Old Cotton Belt.Most of the area devoted to its production in the Southeast lies in the

primary importance However, areas lying within the Belt in North

Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia that have fairly extensive

acre-ages of tobacco (Anderson, 1956; Wilson and van Bavel, 1954) have

TABLE II

New Irrigation Systems and Acreages Used for Various Cropsin Alabama, 1955 1

Crop No ofnewsystems Acreage

shown that tobacco responds markedly to supplemental irrigation in

value of the crop, means that irrigation can be expected to beusedfor

tobacco production as extensively as water supplies and other tions willpermit

limita-Inspite ofthe rapidly increasing importanceofsupplemental

prac-tical management practices that will increase the effectiveness with

which the natural precipitation is utilized offers more real promise of

general improvementin crop productionlevels acrosstheBelt thandoes

irrigation There is a special need for management practices that will

increase the amount of water entering the soil profile during the crop

Atthe other endof the soil moisture range there aremanyareas of

poor drainage in theOld Cotton Belt. Drainage is an especially

impor-tantproblem on thefinertextured soils of theDeltas, inthe BlackBelt,

andinmanyofthevalleys ofthePiedmont.In someinstancesdrainage

excel-16 R. W PEARSON ANDJ. H YEAGER

lent example of this is furnished by the Black Belt, which, until the

cottonfarms in the Southeast The soils on which cotton was grownatthat time were very fine-textured and had retarded internal drainage

soils. The boll weevil is particularly destructive of late crops As a sult, cotton production on prairie soils of the Black Belt rapidly de-clined, and farmers on these soils turned to crops better adaptedto the

re-soils. Todaylivestockproductionpredominatesinthearea

4. Biological Factors

Biological factors have playedanimportantrole insoilmanagement

in theOld CottonBelt. Certainchangesin landuse, shiftsfromone-crop

to more diversified farming, and development of livestock in this area

biologi-cal factors. These factors have accounted for serious losses in farm come in many instances Specific biological factors which limit yields

factorsare difficult tomeasure

In the case of cotton, certain biological factor data are available

By 1904, theboll weevilwasreported inwesternLouisiana In 17 years

and excessiverainfall during the summer monthsare conducivetoboll

weevil activity. Boll weevil damage may run as highas 50 per cent or

moreofthe crop (Agelastoel al., 1921)

In Alabama, from 1909 to 1950,insects and diseaseswere ble, on the average, for a 17.5 per cent reduction in cotton yields, or

responsi-slightly morethan half the reduction dueto all causes Of the 17.5 percent reduction from "full" or "normal"yieldsdueto thebiological fac-

tors, 13.9 per cent was from the boll weevil, 2.0 per cent from plant

diseases, and 1.6 per cent from other insects. Of the 15.6 per cent

re-duction resulting from nonbiological causes, 5.4 per cent was due toexcessive moisture, 5.3 per cent to deficient moisture, 3.4 per cent to

other climatic conditions, and 1.5 per cent to all other causes In terms

of yields per acre, therefore, plant diseases and insects alone were

re-sponsible for an average annual reduction of 43 pounds of lint cotton

per acrefrom 1909to 1950 (Lanhamelal., 1953)

For the eightstates included in theOld Cotton Belt, thebollweevil

to 1929 Including the destructiveness of other insects with that ofthe

TRENDS IN THE OLD COTTON BELT 17

boll weevil, the reduction from full yield was 18.4 per cent in this

period Thesedata areshown inTableIII. Considerable variation in

re-ductionfromfullyieldof cotton existedover thearea.For example,from

varied from 23.1 per centin Georgia to 4.9 per centin Tennessee.

De-ficient moisture was ofsecond most importanceinthe reduction of

cot-ton yields. In this connection it should be recognized, however, that

TABLE III

Average PercentageReductionfromFull Yield of Cotton perAcre

by 10-Year Periods, OldCotton Belt, 1909-19491

Averagepercentage reduction from full yield

1 Source: Averages were calculated from data reported in U.S Dept Agr Statistical Hull 99, 08-78

"Sta-tistics on Cotton and Related Data," June, 1951.

yield reductions were calculated from state average yields. Thus,

con-ditions that would cause a given yield reduction dueto deficient tureatthe 300 poundlevel oflintwouldhavea considerablymoreseri-

mois-ous effect where management practices are intensified to produce, say,

A number of changes in agriculture have taken place in the Old

Cotton Belt during the past quarter century These embracechanges in

machinery and equipment, facilities, and farm practices, and farmers

themselves.A numberofchanges havebeori accelerated inrecentyears.

These changes, in a large measure, have arisen from farmers'

ad-justmentsto physical, economic, social, institutional, andbiological

fac-tors. Reorganization offarms, often toincreasesizeortotakeadvantage

of machinery and machine efficiency, has taken place. The relativeprofitableness of different crop and livestock enterprises has influenced

has been affected by advances in science and in the arts. In addition,

government institutional and forces which reflect

18 R. W PEARSON AND H YEAGER

agricultural trendsinthearea

soil management, machines, facilities, and farm people in the Old tonBelt? Someofthese are discussedin the followingsection.

Cot-/. Changesin Cotton

Cot-ton Belt, its importance has declined Numerous economic and

institu-tional forces have brought about a decrease in cotton acreage. The fects oftheboll weevilwerediscussedabove Inaddition, the depression

material shortages have played importantpartsinthedecline.

June 11)51; Statistical Hull 99, 46 59 (revised), Feb 1957 Standard deviations and coefficients of variation

were ralrulntcti from yield data for eaeli of the eitfht states.

In 1930, 74 per cent of the farms in the Old Cotton Belt compared

to 54 per cent in 1950 reported cotton harvested.1

Ninety per cent of

1930

The cotton acreage harvested as a proportion of total cropland vested declined from 43 per cent in 1930 to 29 per cent in 1950 as an

Total cotton production didnot decline asmuchas acreage. In 1930

the eight states produced 8.8 million bales. In 1950, they produced 6.8

million bales. Thus, production decreased only 23 per cent, whereas

acreage declined40 percent Obviouslyyields per acrehave improved.Average yields of cotton by 10-year periods and for the 5 -yearperiod 1950 to 1955 show considerable improvement (Table IV) A

1

Many of the data in this and following sections are reported for census years.

In many cases the information is applicable to the year preceding the census. The

1955 census data were not available for all eight states included in the Old Cotton

IN THE OLD COTTON BELT 19number of things contributed to thismarked improvementinyields. In

1930, farmers in the area applied an average of 262 pounds of

com-mercial fertilizer per acretocotton In 1940, they applied 276,in 1950,

380, and in 1953, 403 pounds of commercial fertilizer per acre Thestrong trend in recent years toward higher analysis fertilizers would magnify the increase in plant nutrient use Better varieties, improved

1954

FIG 3 Percentage of cotton ginned 1 inch or longer in staple length, United

States and Old Cotton Belt, 1935-1954 (Cotton Quality Statistics, United States, U.S Dept Agr., 1935-1954).

cultural practices, and numerous other things also contributedto yield

improvement

variation, were calculated for each group of average yields per acre

per cent greater in 1940 to 1949 than in 1910 to 1919, whereas yields

were about 50 per cent greater. However, relative to average yields,variation in yields has changedlittle during thepast 45years.

Improvement also was made in the staple length of cotton

20 R. W PEARSON AND H.

one-thirdof the cottonginnedinthe area was 1 inch or longerin staplelength; in subsequent years therewas a rapid increase until atpresent

betterthan 90 per cent is 1 inch or longer. Relativeto cotton produced

in other areas, the Old Cotton Belt has also progressed in

improve-mentof staplelength since 1935.

2. Land Use

increase of 14 per cent over 1930. In the United States, 61 per cent ofthetotallandareawasinfarmsin 1950 Intotal,therewere 147,155,241

acres in farms in the Old CottonBelt in 1950 About one-eighthof the

total land in farms in the United States is included in the Old Cotton

Belt.

1950; thus, almost 30 per cent of the land in farms was cropland

harvested The same relationship of croplandharvested to total area of

land infarms existed for theUnited Statesin 1950

From 1930 to 1950, harvested cropland acreage in the Old Cotton

Belt decreased from 48.8 to 43.4 million acres The decrease in cottonacreage more than accounted for the total decline in harvested crop-

land The area occupied by corn and several other crops also declined

har-vestedcroplandperfarmchanged verylittle.

The major increases in land use that occurred in the Old Cotton

Belt 1930 to 1950 were for land pastured, for the production of hay,soybeans, oats, peanuts, and for woodland Land pastured and farm woodland each increased by approximately 16 million acres during

Oats harvested for grain also increased from about 300,000 acres in

1930 to 1% million in 1950 Although the acreage of several harvestedcrops increased, the decrease in acreage of cotton, corn, and certain

other harvested crops exceeded the increase It seems logical that thenet decrease in harvested cropland was accounted for by the increase

in landpastured, woodland, and othermiscellaneoususes

bearslittleresemblance tothat ofa quarter

IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

TABLE VChanges inAcreage and Proportion ofLand UsedforVariousPurposes

in the Old Cotton Belt, 1930-1950*

Acreage for 7 states not available for Louisiana.

*Apartof the decline in acreage of sweet and Irish potatoes was due to not including acres for farms with

leas than 15 bushels harvested in 1049.

* Source: "1930 Census of Agriculture," U.S Dept Comm., Bureau of Census, Vol II, Part 2; 1950 Census

22 R. W PEARSON AND YEAGER

it occupied a greater acreage than cotton Improvement in average

yields of corn came about after the 1930's (Table VI)

The acreage of corn planted with hybrid seed has shown a steadyincrease during the past ten years In 1945, less than 10 per cent ofthe acreage of corn for the states included in the Old Cotton Belt was

planted with hybrid seed compared to 64 per cent in 1956 Fourof theeight states reported more than 70 per cent of their corn acreageplanted with hybrid seed in 1956.2

This, along with changes in ing, heavier fertilization, and improved cultural practices, made

spac-possible theincreasedyieldperacre

The increased use of commercial fertilizer for cotton, corn, and

other crop and pasture enterprises as indicated by actual amounts and

by the trend toward higher analysis materials constitutes a major

Belt (Fig 4) For the UnitedStates it more than doubledfrom 1930 to

higher analysis materials are used in general in other parts of the

3. Shifts to Livestock

Changes in numbers and production of livestock and poultry

con-stitutedmajor trends during the pastquarter century inthe Old Cotton

Belt. The number of cattle and calves on farms increased from 6

mil-lion to almost 12 million head in the eight states ofthe area duringthe

25 years from 1930 to 1955 (Fig 5). The numberofmilk cowsshowed

8

"Hybrid Corn," Crop Reporting Board, U.S Dept Agr., Washington, D.C.,