Psychology in the work context 5th ed 2014

She is qualified as an Industrial psychologist, is an experienced academic, and has experience inapplying psychology in the work context, personnel psychology and employee and organisati

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Psychology in the work context

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Author biographies

Content editors

Ziel Bergh was employed as a senior lecturer and is still involved in the Department of Industrial

and Organisational Psychology at the University of South Africa (Unisa) He is a registered Industrialand Counselling psychologist, an experienced practitioner, has authored other publications, and hisspecial interests include personality, heath psychology, psychological assessment and counselling

Dirk Geldenhuys is a professor and Chair of the Department of Industrial and Organisational

Psychology at Unisa He has various other publications, is an experienced consultant in the field oforganisational design and change management and his special interests include systems-psychodynamics, appreciative inquiry and social constructionism

Authors

Amanda Werner is a senior lecturer in the Department Human Resource Management at the Nelson

Mandela Metropolitan University She has various publications, is an experienced academic andconsultant, and her special interests include organisational change and development

Michelle May is a professor in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at Unisa.

She is a registered Clinical psychologist, authored various other publications, and has extensiveresearch and consultation experience in the area of systems psychodynamics and diversitymanagement

Jerome Kiley is a lecturer in the Department of Human Resource Management at the Cape Peninsula

University of Technology, as well as lectured and moderated courses for other universities He isregistered as a Master Personnel Practitioner (Human Resource Development) and has publishedextensively

Leona Ungerer is a senior lecturer in the department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at

Unisa She is an experienced academic and has various other publications, and her area ofspecialisation is consumer psychology She is also keenly interested in open and distance learningand how technology can enhance teaching and learning in this type of environment

Theo Veldsman is professor and Head of the Department of Industrial Psychology and People

Management at the University of Johannesburg He is a registered Industrial psychologist,has published extensively, and has many years of academic and consulting experience in the fields ofbusiness/people strategy, organisational design, large scale organisational change, and leadershipdevelopment

Larisa Louw is a lecturer in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at Unisa.

She is qualified as an Industrial psychologist, is an experienced academic, and has experience inapplying psychology in the work context, personnel psychology and employee and organisational

Cebile Tebele is a lecturer in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at Unisa,

and is currently a registered intern psychologist She is an experienced academic and has a notablenumber of research publications Her special interests are the application of psychological processes

in the work context, the psychology of leadership, and career and personnel psychology

Abridged table of contents

PART TWO: Individual behavioural processe

PART THREE: Social behaviour and processes

PART FOUR: Personality in the work context

13 The nature of personality and fundamental assumptions in personality study

PART FIVE: Employee and organisational well-being

PART SIX: Psychological methodologie

Psychology in the work context was initially written to meet the need for an Industrial and

Organisational (I-O) Psychology textbook that South African lecturers and students could identifywith The text has been revised to stay abreast of developments in the field

This book aims to provide readers with foundational knowledge of important psychologicalconcepts, and to illustrate how psychology applies to work It can assist students who areencountering psychology and its applications for the first time, as well as senior students in I-

O Psychology, practising psychologists, and practitioners in the field of human resourcesmanagement

Selected academic content from South Africa and the rest of the world is presented in a mannerthat is scientifically relevant and acceptable to most people in work contexts The book aims to fosterrespect for people’s dignity South Africa has a constitution that honours human rights, and thisapplies to education as much as to practising as a professional person Since this book is aneducational resource, it alludes, where applicable, to the ethical and legislative implications ofpsychological practices

While the book deals with psychology as a science and its study and applied fields, many chaptersdeal with the attributes and behaviour (human capacities) that people “bring” to their workplaces, theconsequences of the employee-workplace interaction, and psychological methodologies

The orientation section explains the systemic context in which employees and work organisationsfunction Building on this explanation, many parts of the book also allude to the broader and culturalcontext of human behaviour

Part one shows that psychology as a science has a sound theoretical basis It introduces the theory

and practices utilised in study and in the applied fields of psychology, and it also discusses howpsychology influences I-O Psychology This part also introduces possible work and careeropportunities in I-O Psychology

Part one further outlines the exploration of IOP’s metatheory or thinking frameworks consisting ofall the assumptions, values and beliefs which learners and practitioners have obtained from varioussources These different thinking frameworks provide psychological “thinking caps” or interpretationframeworks for the understanding of human behaviour, and can be used as a basis for assessing andinfluencing human behaviour However, learners and practitioners must also look critically “onto”their thinking, because one’s thinking frameworks may influence one’s scientific activities andpractices One such thinking framework is the established schools of thought in psychology andrelated theories and the many other psychological explanations used in I-O Psychology and humanresources management

Part two focuses on people’s basic behaviour and related processes that contribute to important

similarities and differences between individuals Differences and similarities between peoplerepresent crucial input factors in the interaction between employees and organisations Topics thatallude to differences and similarities are the biological basis of behaviour, human development,

learning, perception, cognition, and motivation and emotion (as well as personality, which isdiscussed in Part four).

Part three considers the social processes in human behaviour that are important in all human

interactions, and which are important building blocks in organisational functioning These socialprocesses include attitudes and values, and pro-social behaviours, aggression and conflict This partdiscusses group processes and social functioning in organisations, and it explores leadership andentrepreneurial behaviour

Part four discusses personality, which represents important individual-differences factors and

inputs in work functioning Personality is discussed in terms of concepts and assumptions of the known or classical theoretical approaches to personality Brief explanations in terms of African andAsian and cultural contexts are also included

well-Part five deals with issues related to psychological well-being, as well as with psychological and

work maladjustment Its chapters emphasise a positive perspective on well-being to optimise humanstrengths It also offers an introduction to psychological disorders and impaired work behaviours inemployees and organisational health

Part six explains methodology in psychology and I-O Psychology and discusses psychological

assessment of individual differences, scientific inquiry or research and other methods used to extendand apply knowledge of human behaviour It illustrates how sound methodology supports thetheoretical foundations of psychology and I-O Psychology

The book as a whole offers fundamental knowledge of human behaviour and psychologicalprocesses that are necessary to understand people in their work- and related life contexts

Ziel Bergh

Dirk Geldenhuys

In the work or organisational context, the application of psychology involves various processes thattogether constitute an open system

Human and organisational behaviour can be viewed as an open system

The essence of an open system is that it is dynamic, and characterised by ongoing growth and change,while its various subsystems (for example, employees, departments and work groups) areinterdependent and in constant interaction with each other

An organisational system consists of structures, processes and people, which all provide inputsinto the system Their interrelated functioning generates the work behaviours and work processes,which lead to particular outputs by and for both the individual employee and the organisation (forexample, productivity, job satisfaction, absenteeism, turnover and organisational citizenship) Inputsand outputs provide continuous feedback to the system, for example good or poor health, or businesssuccess or failure) In this way they either elicit the maintenance of work behaviours, or adaptation,change, renewal and growth (such as improved performance at work, higher job satisfaction, or achange in work values and attitudes)

Inputs to a work or organisational system include:

• processes within the individual (for example, employee motivation, abilities and skills) as well asthe personality of the individual (which is the unique organisation of attributes and processes

within the individual)

• social processes that involve interaction between individuals (for example, in work teams, groupsand the various sections of organisations)

• organisational processes and structures that affect individuals (for example, management,

leadership, recruitment and selection, and promotional, developmental, remuneration and

A systems model aims to study individuals, groups and their work using holistic thinking, whichimplies a recognition and understanding of the interrelatedness of psychological and work processes,rather than their separate functioning

Readers can use the systems model to access this text, because the text includes many of the basichuman behaviours and processes (inputs) involved in working, while attention is also given to someorganisational processes and structures, work and task processes, and outputs (for example employeeand organisational well-being) It will also help readers to consider the metatheory of I-

O Psychology, as discussed in Chapter 2 to critically reflect on how all thinking frameworks mayinfluence one’s science and practices

Guidelines for using this book

The book has a number of features that will help the reader, whether a student, tutorial-group leader,

or lecturer The following features are important learning aids

Learning outcomes

At the start of each chapter there is a list of knowledge- and skills-oriented learning outcomes Afterstudying a chapter, students should to be able to express an informed opinion on each outcome, or beable to demonstrate the relevant skill An example of an outcome from Chapter 1 is “After studyingthis chapter you should be able to … explain what I-O Psychology involves” Student assignmentsand examinations should ideally reflect these learning outcomes

Applications in the text

Many practical examples, case studies and illustrations are utilised in the text to facilitate theunderstanding and application of psychological contents in the work context

• Ethical readers are boxes that outline and discuss essential ethical issues about which

contemporary I-O psychologists should be aware

Assessment activities

Assessment activities appear at the end of each chapter These activities include multiple-choicequestions, issues for discussion and practice, and case studies, most of which require critical thoughtabout that chapter’s topics

Students can use these activities to test their own knowledge on the content of the chapter Tutorialleaders may want to use these as classroom or assignment exercises

Ancillary material

Ancillary material (ISBN: 978 0 19 907585 0) is available on CD from Oxford University PressSouthern Africa for lecturers who confirm that they are prescribing this book for their classes Thismaterial includes:

• an instructor’s manual, which includes for each chapter a synopsis, a list of key concepts, and

additional multiple-choice questions, issues for discussion and practice, and a case study

• a set of PowerPoint slides to assist lecturers in preparing their presentations

The ancillary material can be obtained from the Higher Education Sales Manager

References and bibliography

References are placed in brackets within the chapters and their full details are given at the end of thebook in the bibliography The references are important because they acknowledge the authors andresearch used in compiling this up-to-date look at the subject area The references include journalarticles, books and websites Students can use the references to find other interesting informationabout a subject that they want to know more about

Engaging with the world of work – the invaluable contribution of psychology

Work is any purposeful activity undertaken by a person, individually and jointly, with the intention ofproducing a preconceived, desirable outcome within a certain context Without any doubt, work plays

on a daily basis, and for the greater part of his/her lifespan, a central role in the life of every person,regardless of the personalised meaning he/she gives to his/her work: a means to survival, self-realisation and/or the betterment of the community or society In turn, the quality of work impacts onindividuals, groups, organisations, communities and societies

Psychology studies the inner mental states and dynamics of individuals, and how these factorsmanifest themselves in behaviour If work plays a central role in the lives of people, communities andsocieties, it is critical that we have an in-depth and thorough understanding of how the science andpractice of psychology also applies to work as a most important domain of human experience andbehaviour Of particular importance is the application of psychological concepts, principles, theoriesand methods to the three key foundational concepts informing the world of work: the working person,the work context in which the working person is embedded, and the interrelationship between theworking person and the work context or the person-context fit These three aspects are intrinsicallypart of the study field and practices of Industrial and Organisational Psychology to which thishandbook is an introduction

The central thrust of this handbook is to demonstrate unequivocally how knowledge of and thethoughtful application of psychology to the world of work can contribute in establishing andsustaining a good fit between the working person and his/her work context Consequently, how such agood fit will bring about productive, satisfying and meaningful work for the persons involved Mayyour engagement with this handbook not only convince you in no uncertain terms that psychology canmake a real difference to and in the world of work, but also show you how psychology can enrichyour own life as a prospective or actual working person

Theo H Veldsman

Industrial Psychologist

Professor, Head of Department, Department of

Industrial Psychology and People Management,

University of Johannesburg, South Africa

PART ONE

Study fields and thinking frameworks in Industrial and Organisational Psychology

Industrial and Organisational (I-O) Psychology is an applied field of psychology that

is involved with employee and organisational behaviour, and which has become astudy field and professional speciality in its own right Though it also evolved intovarious sub-fields and practice areas, I-O Psychology requires and utilisespsychological knowledge as a necessary foundation I-O Psychology appliespsychological knowledge and methods in understanding employees’ behaviour andwork environments in order to facilitate the best possible quality of work life andwork performance In its application of psychological knowledge and methods, I-OPsychology continuously generates new knowledge and methods, which keeps itrelevant in the workplaces of an ever-changing world

As a science and academic discipline, I-O Psychology has evolved largely fromgeneral psychology with which it shares a common history and origin I-O Psychologyhas grown with psychology from philosophical inquiry into different theoreticalapproaches or schools of thought or paradigms Each of these approaches hasassumptions regarding the human psyche and how human behaviour is to beunderstood, researched and assessed There are however, also many other thinkingframeworks or metatheory, which influence I-O Psychology and which will influenceits scientific inquiry or research methods and its practices All these thinkingframeworks serve as explanatory frameworks, and continuously give direction to thedevelopment of I-O Psychology as a dynamic, evolving science and applieddiscipline It is therefore necessary for the learner and practitioner to continuously andcritically reflect, or look “into”, its thinking frameworks and how these influence itsscience and practice

Chapter 1 Fields of study/practice areas in psychology, and Industrial

and Organisational (I-O) Psychology

Chapter 2 Exploring the metatheory of Industrial and Organisational

Psychology

CHAPTER 1

Fields of study/practice areas in psychology, and industrial and organisational (I-O) psychology

Ziel Bergh

1.1 Introduction

1.3 The nature and identity of I-O Psychology

1.5 The history of I-O Psychology

1.7 Future challenges for I-O Psychology

Learning outcomes

After studying this chapter you should be able to:

• define and describe the fields of psychology and I-O Psychology

• explain how psychology is related to I-O Psychology

• using examples, describe study fields and applied areas in I-O Psychology

• give examples of tasks, jobs and careers related to the various applied fields in I-OPsychology

• outline the origins of I-O Psychology by referring to influential events and people

• comment on the development and status of I-O Psychology in South Africa

• understand issues related to the training, professional status and practice of

psychologists

How can people ensure and be assisted to find the correct study field, job, organisation orworkplace? How can managers ensure that their decisions and actions in the workplace are fair andnon-discriminatory? How can employees stay optimally developed and motivated? How can thewell-being of employees be facilitated? How can effective coping behaviours be encouraged?

These are some of the questions with which industrial psychologists engage in their study,

research, jobs and careers Industrial psychologists apply psychological knowledge in the work

context to determine why and how people engage in work activities, whilst also trying to improve the

interaction and agreement between employees, their work, their workplaces and other relevant parties(Aamodt, 2004; Silvester, 2008; Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010) In fact, industrial psychology, morethan any other discipline, contributes to our understanding of work and working, which makes up one

of our three most important life interests, the others being religion and family People spend most oftheir waking time at work and working, which are arguably as important as family and religious life

T he aim in this chapter, then, is to introduce industrial psychology as an applied field of

psychology, and its sub-disciplines and practice areas But before going further into the fields andorigin of industrial psychology, it is useful to establish how industrial psychology is related topsychology (Bergh, 2011)

FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 2 indicates how ideas and methods from the main psychological schools of thought are stillrelevant and applicable in I-O Psychology These paradigms or broad psychological approacheswere and are used as “thinking caps” by academics and practitioners in the various psychological andI-O Psychology sub-fields to explain human behaviour and to execute interventions regarding humanbehaviour The various chapters of this book will explore and illustrate how psychological theory,concepts, applications and research findings are applied in the world of work It will also become

clear how the various sub-fields in psychology are related to and utilised in the sub-fields andpractices of I-O Psychology.

With regards to the scientific status of psychology and all its sub-fields, there is increasingrecognition of the science of psychology, but mixed ideas of where psychology belongs (Pawlik andRosenzweig, 2000) However, psychology is sometimes also classified with the natural sciences, orwith the biological or life sciences, as a medical science or as belonging to the social sciences(economics, sociology, anthropology and political science) and educational sciences In 1998, forexample, psychology was classified differently by different countries, by different universities, andeven between different departments in the same university (Pawlik and Rosenzweig, 2000)

In South Africa, psychology and I-O Psychology are classified differently in various situations Atthe University of South Africa (Unisa), for example, psychology is classified with the humanities, I-OPsychology is classified with economic and management sciences and educational psychology isclassified with the education sciences and humanities It is also taught in other departments such asnatural and medical sciences, building and design, law, HR and marketing Our proposal and alogical approach could be to view psychology as a separate, independent science in humanities, and

to recognise that the domain of psychology overlaps with many other sciences The fact thatpsychology is taught and utilised in many different fields emphasises that psychology is a necessarysupport discipline in many areas

Psychology develops basic knowledge, concepts and research findings into theories Through

Figure 1.1

I-O Psychology concerns human behaviour at work.

research, these concepts and theories are accepted, discarded or changed The bulk of research hasthe task to establish whether concepts, assumptions, theories and methods of psychology haverelevance and practical value in the real world.

All psychology’s sub-fields have theoretical and applied contents However, some may be moretheoretical than others The fields of personality, social and developmental psychology may be moretheoretical in nature, whilst I-O Psychology and clinical and counselling psychology are morepractical in nature, as they use knowledge and methods from psychology in work- and life-relatedchallenges Yet it is often such applications of psychology that give rise to new theoretical questionsand research

ETHICAL READER: Studying the person as a human being

Psychology is the scientific study and understanding of people’s internal processes,behaviour and experiences in order to formulate general and unique principles thatcharacterise human nature These principles are utilised to develop, influence, assessand predict human behaviour

But only some human attributes are directly observable; many others are notobservable and need to be deduced from a person’s behaviour and through systematicmeasurements The constructs, concepts or terms that are used to describepsychological attributes are created by psychologists in order to provide some order inthe multitude of “human information” They help psychologists to identify, describe andexplain human behaviour In addition, psychological constructs are used to reach someagreement on how to communicate with colleagues and others about human behaviour.However, concepts or scores on psychological measures alone do not explain theperson as a living human being Psychologists need to be critical about their ownconcepts, and also understand the person’s unique context of living and interaction,from where he/she communicates about him/herself, others and the world (Hook,2004)

The box below listing the sub-fields of psychology gives just some of the well-known applied fields

in psychology According to Weiten (2011), clinical psychology, counselling psychology, educationaland school psychology, and Industrial and Organisational Psychology represent the four clear areas ofspecialisation or practice The main research areas in contemporary psychology are in the fields ofdevelopmental, social, experimental, physiological, cognitive and personality psychology, as well as

in psychometrics or psychological measurement

Sub-fields of psychology

The field of psychology can be divided into the following sub-fields:

• Clinical psychology aims to assist people to cope more effectively in life It is,

however, more specifically involved in alleviating psychological and emotional

distress caused by psychological disorders, and promoting psychological well-being

by facilitating independence, decision-making skills, effective coping skills, a healthysense of self, and maintaining successful interpersonal relationships

• Counselling psychology, related to clinical psychology in many ways, is primarily

involved in reducing psychological pain caused by problems in life, facilitating animproved understanding of life, and fostering the use of effective coping skills to livemore meaningfully and to adapt to and solve problems in life by making good

decisions in life and work

• Career psychology involves studying and facilitating occupational development

across the lifespan, with the emphasis on adult career development It is often used

in the practices of counselling psychology

• Educational and school psychology is primarily involved in studying influencing

factors, behaviour, processes, learning problems, and learning, teaching,

assessment and management methods at pre-school, school and adult levels It canalso include aspects of career or occupational development

• Developmental psychology is concerned with the age-related changes and phases

across a person’s lifespan It involves motor, emotional, social, intellectual and moralaspects, all of which contribute to work competencies and career development

• Social psychology involves studying human social interaction by understanding the

influence of behaviour, beliefs and feelings amongst people Topics that are studiedinclude attitudes and values, pro-social behaviour (such as interpersonal attractionand affiliation), anti-social behaviour (such as conflict and aggression) and humancommunication These social processes form the basis for interaction in work

organisations and groups

• Cognitive psychology revolves around the theory and research regarding the

so-called “higher mental processes” such as language, intelligence, problem-solving,reasoning, creativity, decision-making, memory and information-processing

• Personality psychology entails the study of the more or less consistent patterns of

behaviour in people across time and situations and how people differ across manyattributes or traits The study of personality also involves the study of factors thatinfluence personality development and motivation, the structure or organisation ofpersonality, personality adjustment and personality assessment

• Physiological/ neurological psychology or biopsychology involves the study of the

relationship between human behaviour, feelings and thoughts on the one hand, andneurological and physiological systems on the other hand These neurological andphysiological systems include elements such as genetic factors, the brain, the

nervous system, the endocrine system and bodily hormones and chemicals

Research in this sub-field is usually undertaken to allow corrective action in cases ofneurological and psychological trauma

• Psychometrics entails the development of psychological measuring instruments

(such as psychological tests to measure ability and personality), and the statisticalanalysis of assessment results to determine the value of psychological assessmentand assessment instruments

• Experimental psychology can be utilised in many psychological disciplines and

applications, although in early psychology it was used to establish patterns of humanbehaviour in controlled situations

• Health psychology utilises psychological knowledge to identify the causes and

symptoms of physical health and illness, and related dysfunctions It also focuses onthe prevention, treatment, maintenance and promotion of health, including

occupational health

• Positive psychology, sometimes considered part of health psychology, is concerned

with the enhancement of optimal human functioning The emphasis is on positiverather than negative aspects of human behaviour and well-being Positive

psychology explores how to enhance human strengths and resiliency so people arehealthy and function optimally in all walks of life

• Forensic psychology involves studying the causes of criminal behaviour in context It

involves obtaining and giving evidence in legal procedures with regard to crime, aswell as in possible law suits in divorce and child-custody cases Forensic psychologyalso involves determining loss with regard to abilities, potential and occupationalfunctioning (for example, owing to neurological damage)

• Community psychology involves using, developing and adapting psychological

knowledge and practices to improve the quality of life in human communities,

especially for deprived and disadvantaged individuals and groups It also involvestraining community workers

• Cross-cultural psychology focuses on diversity management or the consideration of

differences in and between groups of people with regard to psychological

phenomena It emphasises the role of cultural factors and socialisation in the

shaping of human behaviour, and covers topics such as prejudice, discrimination andracism In this sub-field the relevance and validity of psychological theory for specificcultures or groups is explored, and concepts and theories may be “indigenised”

• Consulting psychology is one of the more recent applied fields in psychology and

entails the professional involvement and mentoring of psychologists with individuals,groups and organisations Consultation services cover most aspects of work life, forexample, assessment, training and development, employee and organisational

health, and organisational change Consulting psychology integrates and builds onknowledge and applications from various psychological disciplines, such as I-O

Psychology, clinical psychology and social psychology

• Industrial and Organisational Psychology utilises principles, assumptions and

methods of psychology to study and influence human behaviour in the work context,for example, to assess, utilise, develop and influence individual employees, groupsand related organisational processes (Morris and Mailto, 2010)

Other sub-fields and applications also exist, such as environmental, sports, military,human factors and therapeutic psychology Recently coaching and mentoring has beensuggested as a separate applied field, because it seems as if psychological coachingand mentoring may add unique value to other efforts of development in the workplace

(Lane, 2008).

All these psychological sub-fields utilise relevant psychological theory and methods

in their quest to understand and influence human behaviour

An in-depth discussion of all the academic and applied fields of psychology is outside the scope ofthis book However, I-O psychologists should never forget that many of I-O Psychology’s currenttheories and practices are in the knowledge base of the “mother science” which is psychology Inworkplaces, knowledge and applications from many psychological disciplines are utilised, andpeople qualified in these fields are often used in some capacity In fact, much theory and manyresearch results and methods of other psychological disciplines are integrated into the knowledge andpractices of I-O Psychology (Strümpfer, 2007) For example, psychological assessment, careerpsychology and counselling are used in personnel psychology, and aspects of clinical, health andpositive psychology are used to enhance employee and organisational wellness, motivation and thedevelopment of leadership

Whilst I-O Psychology is inextricably linked to psychology, in many respects I-O Psychology hasadapted and developed its own identity with unique theories, research areas, applications andacademic and professional training programmes that are particular to it Examples are in job designand selection strategies, as well as assessment methodologies, training and development techniques,career development, organisational development, management and leadership, and employee andorganisational health

I-O Psychology can be viewed as a scientific discipline for three reasons:

• It has, utilises, develops and teaches foundational knowledge

• Its foundational knowledge is supported by effective research

• It uses many types of tested practical applications and methods to achieve the best fit between theemployee and the workplace and to solve work-related problems

I-O Psychology is a branch of psychology that utilises psychological knowledge (principles, theory,

research, methods) in the work context to assess, utilise, develop and influence individual employees,groups and related organisational processes In general it can be said that in comparison topsychology, which primarily emphasises individual behaviour, I-O Psychology involves individualsand groups in an organisational context Kline (1997:206) cites the Canadian PsychologicalAssociation’s definition: “Industrial-Organisational psychologists are able to apply psychologicaltheories to explain and enhance the effectiveness of human behaviour and cognition in theworkplace.” The Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) in South Africa describes the skillsspecialisation of the industrial psychologist as “the application of psychological principles andtechniques to study occupational behaviour, working conditions and organisational structure, andsolve problems of work performance and work design” (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010:6) Barnardand Fourie (2007) identified 37 different roles for the industrial psychologist, which they converted

to six broad roles, namely scientist/researcher, strategic partner, enabler, developer/counsellor,watchdog and leader These roles go beyond the usual HR functions, such as selection, remuneration

and performance management.

Industrial psychology has only recently been referred to as “Industrial and OrganisationalPsychology” The term “organisational psychology” was added to “industrial psychology” only in the1970s (Muchinsky, Kriek and Schreuder, 2005) and the name of this field is still not a generallyagreed-upon issue In South Africa and the United States of America (USA), the field is referred to as

“industrial psychology” only, or as “Industrial and Organisational Psychology” (I-O Psychology) Inthe United Kingdom (UK) the name “occupational psychology” is used, and in Europe the field isreferred to as “work and organisational psychology” Though the names differ, in all these countriesquite similar contents are emphasised in the theory and applications of I-O Psychology In SouthAfrica, OFO uses the title “organisational psychologist” to indicate the occupational unit under OFOCode 272303 and suggests “industrial psychologist” and “occupational psychologist” as alternative

titles However, the Health Professionals Council of South Africa (HPCSA) still utilises the title

“industrial psychologist” to register qualified persons as professional psychologists in this field.Recent publications emphasise concepts such as human and social capital, talent management,psychological capital and positive psychological capital (Luthans, Luthans and Luthans, 2004;Luthans, Youssef and Avolia, 2007), and the term “business psychology” is also used in some circles

We believe that despite efforts to discontinue the term “industrial psychology” or replace it withterms such as organisational psychology, work psychology, occupational psychology or businesspsychology, the terms “industrial psychology” and “Industrial and Organisational Psychology” havebecome “brand names” to include most of the work-related psychological themes in the literature andpractice fields However, the use of various and new terms may also be indicative of thecontemporary and changing roles of industrial or organisational psychologists, which are to:

• develop all resources in workplaces optimally

• develop, in particular, intrinsic human capacities in order to maximise effective employee andorganisational behaviour

• facilitate better coping skills in the face of change, problems and adversity

The advanced, in-depth knowledge and the ability to apply it in work situations is often an importantdifference between I-O psychologists and trained persons in related fields such as human-resources(HR) management (Aamodt, 2004; Muchinsky, 2006; Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010) HR management

often involves only employment management; that is, applying or supervising personnel, business

and administrative processes, whilst the professional I-O psychologist is an expert on humanbehaviour and related processes In many workplaces, however, trained I-O and other psychologistsmay be employed in HR positions, which may well make a difference to how psychologicalknowledge and practices are understood and utilised in people and organisational management TheSouth African OFO Code 2231 allotted a different occupational profile to HR management-qualifiedand practising persons, which also confirms that HR management cannot be equated with I-OPsychology or personnel psychology (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010)

Veldsman (2005) indicates the importance of both the industrial psychologist and the HRpractitioner, but also points to differences This book contends that psychology and I-O Psychologyare the mother sciences of any hybrid discipline regarding human behaviour, people management anddevelopment

1.4 SUB-FIELDS AND PRACTICE AREAS IN I-O

PSYCHOLOGY

I-O Psychology has many sub-fields (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010) and is related to other disciplines

in its theory, research and applications (for example, ergonomics and consumer/marketingpsychology) Psychologists qualified in the practice areas of I-O Psychology are employed in manytypes of jobs (for example, as specialists, consultants, managers, lecturers and researchers incorporate business, government, private practice, schools, colleges and universities) This sectionbriefly describes some sub-fields and practice areas of I-O Psychology and mentions types of taskand/or career opportunities Most of these sub-fields are applied in organisations and competenciesrelated to these sub-fields would appear in the profile of an experienced I-O psychologist orconsulting psychologist

The descriptions that follow indicate the more typical tasks in the various sub-fields However,some overlapping may occur

The South African OFO equate the term “organisational psychologist” to “industrial and occupationalpsychologists” as being the same, and uses Code 272303 to define the tasks of organisationalpsychologists (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010) Organisational psychology is concerned with workorganisations as systems involving individual employees and work groups, as well as the structureand dynamics of organisations Study fields within it include organisational theory and models,leadership and decision-making, organisational development and design (re-engineering),organisational culture, industrial or employment relations, cross-cultural aspects of I-O Psychologyand, more recently, an interest in organisations’ external environments Organisational psychologyoften includes the field of managerial psychology

The basic aim of consulting in organisations is to facilitate employee satisfaction and productivity,organisational efficiency and employee adjustment In the continuously changing world of work, animportant focus is planned organisational change and transformation in organisational structures,climate and culture The aim of this is improving efficiency by facilitating and consulting inorganisations to enable them to adapt to and stay abreast of changes in labour and business markets,work processes, employees, technology, and goods and services In all these areas of practice animportant instrument for organisational psychologists is assessment of work-related attitudes (forexample, job satisfaction, job engagement, and work and organisational climate, morale andcommitment)

I-O psychologists specialising in organisational psychology can be employed in corporate business,government, private practice and at universities in various types of jobs The following are some oftheir activities:

• assessing/researching employee or work-related attitudes with regard to organisational climate,culture and trust, with a view to improving such attitudes

• being involved in organisational change and transformation, such as in the restructuring of

organisations, and in productivity-enhancement interventions

• suggesting and helping design and implementing various types of programmes, such as the

identification of management potential, training in job competencies, affirmative action, careermanagement and counselling, performance evaluation and employee-health enhancement

Compared to organisational psychology, personnel psychology has a greater emphasis on theindividual employee In books and training courses, personnel psychology sometimes also includesaspects of career psychology and/or employment relations (labour relations)

What is referred to as “work psychology” in Europe and the USA is also sometimes included inpersonnel psychology, and may entail aspects such as task and job analysis, ergonomics and jobdesign, accident avoidance and response, safety and occupational-health issues, and automation inwork processes

Personnel psychology may represent the overlap between HR management (HRM) and psychology

Figure 1.2

Consulting in the work context.

However, personnel psychology is not the same as HRM (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010) HRM isconcerned with the management of human and social resources in context of the employmentrelationship at workplaces It “seeks to achieve competitive advantages through the strategicdevelopment of a highly committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of cultural,structural and sophisticated personnel techniques” (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010:8), the latter forexample in attracting, selecting, training, evaluating, appraising, rewarding and discipliningemployees.

In contrast to HRM, personnel psychologists inform the work of HRM experts by a scientific focus

on utilising individual differences in and between employees and predicting the optimal fit betweenthe employee and the work organisation, as well as providing an understanding of forces that impact

on employee and organisational performance I-O psychologists specialising in personnel psychologyare primarily involved in the assessment and appraisal of employees, personnel selection, andplacement and promotion of employees in and for organisations Personnel psychologists may beinvolved in the construction and validation of personnel-assessment procedures, performance-appraisal procedures and personnel-management procedures They are also involved in training anddevelopment, motivation, reward systems and HR assessment Many I-O psychologists are involved

in personnel or HR management as managers or consultants Their jobs may include not only expertpsychological tasks, but also all the well-known managerial functions of planning, organising,leading, delegating, controlling and developing employees They may also perform managerial tasksregarding aspects of personnel administration, such as remuneration, illness and leave arrangements,and reward and disciplinary systems Persons with at least an honours degree and a relevantinternship may register as a counsellor in the HR field

Research involves finding, exploring or verifying psychological knowledge using various methods ofscientific inquiry This research may be of a basic or applied nature with regard to work-relatedhuman behaviour and processes in the various sub-fields of I-O Psychology Though researchpsychologists can be specifically qualified in the field of research, psychologists specialising in any

of the other fields may be involved in employee and organisational research, because research is orshould be a support activity in most psychological disciplines and in organisations It is oftenincluded as a major training area in professional and academic psychology courses

Psychological assessment, including psychometrics, is an area of practice that can be viewed as asupport discipline for all the other applied areas in I-O Psychology, especially personnel psychology,career counselling, organisational psychology and psychological research Psychological assessmentapplied in a work context involves psychometrics, and it entails the validation, development andutilisation of various types of psychological assessment instruments to measure attributes andbehaviours of employees in various applications, for example, in the selection, counselling andtraining of employees

Career (vocational) psychology and counselling is concerned with studying issues of career

development regarding individuals, the nature of employment and unemployment, career-relatedissues in organisations and also non-work influencing factors This field is related to developmentaland counselling psychology.

Specific areas of interest are career/job and organisation choices, withdrawal behaviours, development problems, factors influencing individuals in their careers, and organisational processesand the changing nature of work that may affect careers

career-With regard to research, assessment and intervention, I-O psychologists in this field may beinvolved in the following: assisting individuals to choose jobs, careers and organisations throughassessment and feedback; career planning and development; and helping employees to resolve careerconflicts and to work through conflicts that evolve from individual development, life transitions,personal problems or organisational changes In South Africa qualified persons with at least anhonours degree and relevant internship may be allowed to register as counsellor

Employment relations, sometimes also part of personnel psychology and also referred to as “labourrelations” or “industrial relations”, is concerned with the behavioural dynamics, communication andconflict management between individuals and groups of employees, employers and other parties (such

as the government and labour unions) I-O psychologists involved and interested in this practice arearesolve or restructure conflict and assist in negotiations about employee demands and rightsaccording to expectations and legislation These psychologists may have legal knowledge, especiallywith regard to labour legislation, however they are not legal experts They are concerned with theunderlying dynamics of the employer-employee-labour union relationships, the reasons why labourunions exist and how they function, why employees choose to join or not join unions, and behaviourduring negotiations and labour actions such as strikes and other forms of protest I-O psychologists, asemployment-relations experts, may also be involved in employment or personnel issues such asselection, promotion, remuneration, grievance, retrenchment, dismissal and disciplinary procedures

in organisations

1.4.7 Employee and organisational well-being

Employee and organisational well-being is an applied field that is also referred to as “occupationalmental health” It is an established, but long-neglected field that has recently been re-emphasised andredefined In modern workplaces this is illustrated by health policies and the implementation ofhealth-promotion initiatives such as Employee Assistance Programmes (EAPs)

Some may envisage this area to be a part of career or organisational psychology However,competencies of experts involved in this field suggest that it should be recognised as a separatepractice area, which is the case in South Africa where qualified persons with at least an honoursdegree and a relevant internship can register as counsellor in this practice field

Many other disciplines, for example, health psychology, clinical psychology, abnormalpsychology, and consulting and organisational psychology also influence the theory and practice ofemployee and organisational well-being Recently, the concept of wellness for employees andorganisations has been emphasised from a positive-psychology approach (Snyder, Shane and Lopez,2007) Wellness or health is seen as the presence of well-being and optimal performance This healthparadigm does not concentrate on illness and negative aspects only The aim is to facilitate positivepsychological capital or resources in organisations and employees, promote good work, and keepthem healthy and resilient Health-promoting factors that are encouraged are, for example, an internallocus of control, positive emotions, happiness, hope, optimism, humour, self-efficacy, personalhardiness and a sense of coherence

Figure 1.3

I-O psychologists must understand the reasons for labour actions.

Yet employee and organisational well-being is also concerned with maladjustment and impairedwork performance (Lowman, 1993) The focus is on optimal employee and organisational health,factors that may facilitate or hinder effective work performance, medical and psychological illnessthat may impair work behaviour, specific types of employee and organisational dysfunction, andmethods of evaluating, managing and promoting occupational health, including the treatment ofimpaired work behaviours.

Ergonomics, also referred to as “engineering and human-factors psychology” and “human-machinesystems”, is considered by some to be a borderline sub-field of I-O Psychology This may explainwhy ergonomics is not part of the syllabus for training I-O psychologists at many universities

It is concerned with understanding human performance in the interaction between employees andtheir technical work environment The focus is on the design of equipment, workplaces and the workitself to take account of human factors such as physique, intelligence, emotion and patterns of socialinteraction The same principles are involved in the design of many places of human interaction, forexample, in home and building design and in transport design involving vehicles, aeroplanes or ships

and often considered to be a borderline sub-field of I-O Psychology It is concerned with studyingpsychological aspects of consumer or economic behaviour This involves the needs, values, interestsand other personal attributes that facilitate decision-making and motivation in buyers and consumers

as they search for, purchase, use and evaluate goods and services (Cant, Brink and Brijball, 2006)

I-O psychologists in this field may be involved in behaviour and market research to determinemarketing strategies that will elicit certain consumer responses, particularly decisions to buy goods

or to use services (Hofmeyr and Rice, 2000; Du Plessis, 2005)

In a South African book, Du Plessis (2005) indicates how various brain and psychologicalprocesses – such as intelligence, learning, memory, attention, liking behaviours and emotions – can beutilised in advertisements or marketing strategies Another South African book, by Hofmeyr and Rice(2000), explores similar processes, focusing on the concept of commitment in consumer behaviour

Other applications in consumer psychology are the study and facilitation of effective client-servicebehaviours in business enterprises, the creation of positive customer perceptions, and the facilitation

of ongoing support from clients Consider, for example, the fierce competition between car dealers inoffering excellent sales and after-sales service to attract and keep their customers In this regardcustomer-service experts may be involved in making organisations aware of their own internal clientrelationships or customer and service relationships (for example, how interdependent departments in

an organisation use and consume their specific goods and services)

Other applied fields of I-O Psychology are cross-cultural industrial psychology, management andleadership, entrepreneurship and diversity management

In addition, apart from being specialists in work-related human behaviour, I-O psychologists oftenalso have an important function in the strategic positioning of organisations in the marketplace Theymight contribute to an organisation’s mission and vision, assist in determining business goals,contribute to long-term sustainability of the organisation, promote a positive corporate identity, andcontribute to an organisation’s social responsibility (Barnard and Fourie, 2007:49–51)

ETHICAL READER: Diversity management

Diversity management entails considering and managing the many factors that couldinfluence workplaces or could contribute to the structure and composition oforganisations Apart from the many personal differences between individual employeesand groups, their cultural values, habits, norms and preferences also contribute todifferences

Cultural factors can have a decisive influence in the workplace as they may givedirection to certain work behaviours and demands, as well as phenomena such asprejudice, racism and discrimination In workforces, differences between employeescan be intensified both by the values that different cultures uphold with regard to work,and by the impact of changes in the work scene, which could influence them in differentways For example, changing sociopolitical dispensations and labour laws will affectdifferent employees in different ways, as will mergers, acquisitions, personnelreductions and new technology in the workplace

1.5 THE HISTORY OF I-O PSYCHOLOGY

The history, development and origins of I-O Psychology are closely related to the history ofpsychology, though psychology is a much older science, started by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879, when hedefined psychology as the systematic study of conscious experiences, for example in attention,sensation and perception

The origin of I-O Psychology and its various sub-fields was closely related to the Schools ofThought in Psychology (discussed in Chapter 2) as well as to the theory, research and applied science

in psychology It is clear that before I-O Psychology started to function as an applied and professionalscience, much early thinking and many applications of psychology in various areas already existed,but it was also influenced by other disciplines such as philosophy and the biological sciences(Pawlik and Rosenzweig, 2000) This is especially true in the field of psychological assessment (forexample, intelligence and ability measurement), and personnel psychology which was two of theearly applications of I-O Psychology, and still is a central function in the theory and practice of I-

O Psychology (Riggio, 2009; Schultz and Schultz, 2010)

Early contributions in psychological assessment were made by Gustav Fechner (1860) and otherpsychologists and, in the early 1900s, by Francis Galton, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon Thelatter two constructed an intelligence test, the Binet-Simon test, which influenced cognitivemeasurement around the world for a long time In the early 1930s too, psychologists such as CharlesSpearman and Louis Thurstone extended theories on intelligence and ability structures (whatintelligence is made up of) and, by using tests such as the Binet-Simon test, started to research therelationship between work and intelligence factors (Riggio, 2009; Schultz and Schultz, 2010)

Industrial psychology became an independent field of study and practice in the early 1900s(Muchinsky, Kriek and Schreuder, 2005; Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010) The date could be set at

1903 with Walter Dill Scott’s publication The theory of advertising, or at 1910 when Hugo Műnsterberg wrote his book Psychology and industrial efficiency (Aamodt, 2004) During this

period psychologists and other experts (for example, Scott) recognised that the human factor was aneglected topic in work and business efficiency They started to apply psychological knowledge tosolve work-related problems, and to improve employee and business efficiency (for example, in theanalysis of jobs and the selection of employees, the influencing of people through advertising, and theassessment of the role of supervision in work)

In 1911, Frederick Taylor, in his book The principles of scientific management, proposed what is

arguably one of the first scientific approaches or paradigms to employee and organisationalmanagement, and which has become known as “Taylorism” (Muchinsky, 2006) Taylor advocatedstudying and analysing work processes, and determining standards and the best work methods.According to Taylor, this information should be used when selecting and training the bestemployees.Taylor believed that scientific-management principles would both satisfy employees andhelp a business to meet its goals He thought that by paying employees more money for higherproductivity their need for financial rewards and their “natural laziness” would be solved, whilst thebusiness goal of getting the highest productivity at the lowest cost would also be met

However, Taylorism was criticised for exploiting employees to achieve higher productivity.Critics also asserted that Taylorism neglected employees’ differences and ignored employees’

growth needs This caused employees to become too specialised in certain jobs, thus facilitatingunemployment That said, some of the principles of Taylorism still have value in amended form inmodern work environments.

Some of Münsterberg’s ideas, which were expressed in Psychology and industrial efficiency, were

quite similar to Taylor’s, especially with regard to the analysis and design of jobs However,Münsterberg emphasised the necessity of considering the total employee and all possible influences

in work processes He also contributed to other areas such as fatigue and accidents, psychotherapy,and forensic and aviation psychology Münsterberg (some also include Scott and Taylor), is oftenregarded as the originator of industrial psychology (Muchinsky, 2006) Münsterberg, throughexperimental research, emphasised the importance of work environments and factors such as fatigue,monotony, learning, work satisfaction, as well as personnel selection, work and equipment design andemployee rewards

During these early years too, Lilian Gilbreth was one of several quite influential femalepsychologists who especially emphasised the human factor in employment and utilised specialised

Figure 1.5

Hugo Münsterberg is considered the originator of I-O Psychology.

research to indicate the impact of stress and fatigue on employee performance.

Much of the findings of the Hawthorne experiments are still valid They led to the so-called

“human-relations management” approach, which emphasised that social relations in the workplacemay be more important motivators of work performance than work design and financial rewards (seebox below)

The Hawthorne experiments

The criticism of Taylorism was especially highlighted in the Hawthorne experiments,conducted over a period of more than ten years at the Hawthorne works of theWestern Electric Company in the USA Under the leadership of Elton May,psychologists from Harvard University researched the influence of physical workfactors, such as levels of illumination and lengths of rest periods, on workperformance In these studies it was found that employees’ work performance mayvary between employees even if employees follow specific procedures and standardsunder strict supervision It was further established that certain psychological and socialfactors in people and in workplaces influenced work performances markedly Forexample, employees responded positively if they felt valued and respected, and if theywere allowed to form social groups

The human relations approach evolved in related approaches, for example McGregor’s theory Y, andstill has a place in modern organisations (Luthans, 2008), however over time it has evolved intovarious, more complex management approaches Examples are contingency-management approachesand systems thinking These approaches recognise the many factors (in individual employees, workgroups, organisations and the environment) that may influence employee work behaviours andorganisational efficiency

Even before World War I, industrial psychology started to be recognised and to have an impact.Psychologists were employed in business, more applied research was executed, and psychologyshowed that it could be used to improve business efficiency However, development in industrialpsychology was influenced strongly during and by World War I (1914–1918) and World War II(1939–1945)

During these wars the role and importance of individual differences were emphasised In the USA,Robert Yerkes, then president of the American Psychological Association (APA) stimulated evenmore interest in individual differences when the APA suggested psychological assessment andresearch to diagnose possible mental problems amongst army recruits, and to help in the placement ofsoldiers in different types of military-related jobs Not all these suggestions were accepted.However, about 1,7 million military recruits were intelligence-tested, and arguably some of the firstperformance appraisals, job classifications and job descriptions in applied industrial psychologywere executed by Scott (Muchinsky, Kriek and Schreuder, 2005) The end of the war in 1918 haltedfurther contributions that Yerkes and others had hoped psychological assessment and research couldmake

However, the following had been important contributions during these war periods:

• the development and use of psychometric tests, especially ability tests (at that stage the so-called

“Army Alpha” and “Army Beta” intelligence tests)

• personnel psychology developed more in applications such as personnel selection, job

descriptions and employee specifications

• the study of stress under conditions of war and its treatment after war

• the growing recognition of psychologists and the profession of psychology, which after the warcontributed to more psychological research and the establishment of many psychological

consultation companies

• the founding in 1917 of the Journal of Applied Psychology, one of the oldest journals in the

sub-field of industrial psychology (and which is currently still an authoritative publication)

These trends continued in the USA from 1919 into the 1940s, when many psychological researchinstitutions were established, some of which still exist These institutions aimed to furtherpsychological knowledge through basic and applied research to solve work-related problems, such asthe more effective selection of employees across jobs and job levels The afore-mentionedHawthorne studies, which identified important psychological and social factors as importantdeterminants or motivators of employee performance and business success, were also executed in thisperiod (1924–1936) and influenced later research in I-O Psychology immensely, for example intopics such as attitudes, motivation, leadership and group processes A further important finding ofthe Hawthorne studies was the “Hawthorne effect”, which indicates that after new experiences orinterventions (such as training), employees may improve their work performances, but that thisenhanced work behaviour may return to the original state once the novelty of the event has passed.This principle is still considered in contemporary research and HR management For example, initialresearch findings are checked to ensure that initial findings are consistent, such as that learning duringtraining is transferred to and sustained in the actual workplace

World War II developed industrial psychology into a more acceptable, sophisticated anddiversified science, academic study field and applied field (Muchinsky, 2006) During this war,about 12 million soldiers were assessed, especially using the Army General Classification Test(AGCT), and placed in various job categories This intensive testing was a benchmark in thedevelopment of group-testing procedures Other contributions at this time were officer selection fortraining purposes, and the development of more aptitude tests and trade-proficiency tests Stressresearch was furthered by the development and application of situational tests in experimentalsituations to assess the emotional and interpersonal reactions of participants under stressfulconditions The selection of pilots was improved by the assessment of recruits’ reactions anddifficulties whilst flying a real plane This assessment facilitated the beginnings of engineeringpsychology (currently referred to as ergonomics), a sub-field of applied I-O Psychology Thesedevelopments also served a wider purpose: the psychological knowledge and methods used in themilitary effort were transferred to civilian work life Examples are the use of tests for employeeselection, the assessment of employee attitudes and morale, and the study of the dynamics ofemployee absenteeism

Since World War II, industrial psychology has become a recognised science and has a diversifiedbody of literature, institutions and professional bodies It has a specific professional identity, and (asdiscussed in section 1.4) it also offers many specialised practice areas through its various sub-fields

During the 1950s into the 1970s a range of civil-rights laws were implemented in the USA There