Cloud computing security foundations challenges 3858 pdf

Other individuals with an inter-est in using cloud computing security to understand specific environments may include undergraduates, graduates, academia, government, and industry; any-o

F O U N D AT I O N S A N D C H A L L E N G E S

Cloud ComputingSECURITY

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F O U N D AT I O N S A N D C H A L L E N G E S

Cloud ComputingSECURITY

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Vacca, John R., 1947- editor.

Title: Cloud computing security : foundations and challenges / editor, John

R Vacca.

Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2017 | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016009645 | ISBN 9781482260946 Subjects: LCSH: Cloud computing Security measures | Computer networks Security measures | Data protection | Computer security.

Classification: LCC QA76.585 C5825 2017 | DDC 005.8 dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016009645

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

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This book is dedicated to my wife, Bee.

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viii ◾ Contents

Section iii Securing the Cloud Infrastructure

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INDEX, 481

Foreword

tele-communications company, if he had secured all of

the thousands of computers that the company had? He

replied: “I will when I find them.” That was over 25 years

ago But it may now equally depict efforts to secure

com-puting assets in the cloud, just as it did back then when

computers were in dozens of buildings spread across the

Midwest states

Cloud computing provides a new level of convenience

and ease of use In many cases, favorable cost structures

can also be realized However, many cloud users have

lost sight of the fundamentals of managing information

technology assets Thus, the out-of-sight, out-of-mind

mentality that an organization can easily fall into when

managing cloud assets can increase vulnerabilities as

asset control becomes more lax

In this book, John R Vacca has called upon a great number of industry experts to address the fundamen-tal issues and challenges of securing IT assets that are living in the cloud The book provides applicable knowledge and actionable recommendations It also offers some very sound axioms about IT asset manage-ment For example, you need to know what you have, what it does, where it is, how it works, what needs to

be done to secure it and make sure it is available when needed

The cloud is not a magic place where all is well

It is just like any other place where there are IT assets

I strongly recommend you read this book

Michael Erbschloe *

Information Security Consultant

* Michael Erbschloe teaches information security courses at Webster University in St Louis, Missouri.

Preface

SCOPE OF COVERAGE

This comprehensive handbook serves as a professional

reference, as well as a practitioner’s guide to today’s

most complete and concise view of cloud computing

security It offers in-depth coverage of cloud computing

security theory, technology, and practice as they relate

to established technologies, as well as to recent

advance-ments It explores practical solutions to a wide range of

cloud computing security issues Individual chapters

are authored by leading experts in the field and address

the immediate and long-term challenges in the authors’

respective areas of expertise

The primary audience for this handbook consists

of engineers/scientists interested in monitoring and

analyzing specific measurable cloud computing

secu-rity environments, which may include transportation

and/or infrastructure systems, mechanical systems,

seismic events, and underwater environments This

book will also be useful for security and related

professionals interested in tactical surveillance and

mobile cloud computing security target

classifica-tion and tracking Other individuals with an

inter-est in using cloud computing security to understand

specific environments may include undergraduates,

graduates, academia, government, and industry;

any-one seeking to exploit the benefits of cloud

comput-ing security technologies, includcomput-ing assesscomput-ing the

architectures, components, operation, and tools of

cloud computing; and anyone involved in the

secu-rity aspects of cloud computing who has knowledge at

the introductory level of cloud computing or

equiva-lent experience This comprehensive reference and

practitioner’s guide will also be of value to students

in upper-division undergraduate and graduate-level

courses in cloud computing security

ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK

This book is organized into seven sections, composed

of 34 contributed chapters by leading experts in their fields, and two appendices, including an extensive glos-sary of cloud security terms and acronyms

Section I: IntroductionSection I discusses cloud computing essentials, such as: cloud computing service models, like software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), infrastruc-ture as a service (IaaS), and desktop as a service (DaaS), including public, private, virtual private, and hybrid clouds The establishment of cyber security fundamen-tals and software, and data segregation security are also discussed

Chapter  1: “Cloud computing essentials” sets the stage for the rest of the book by presenting insight into the main idea of cloud computing This is to outsource the management and delivery of software and hardware resources to third-party companies (cloud providers), which specialize in that particular service and can pro-vide much better quality of service at lower costs in a convenient fashion In addition, the authors also present

an overview of key concepts and enabling technologies

of cloud computing, including virtualization, load ancing, monitoring, scalability, and elasticity

bal-Chapter 2: “Overview of cloud computing” provides

a detailed description of the basic concepts, followed by

a discussion of the principal types of services typically offered by cloud providers The chapter then looks at various deployment models for cloud systems followed

by an examination of two cloud computing reference architectures developed by NIST and ITU-T, respec-tively A consideration of these two different models provides insight into the nature of cloud computing

xiv ◾ Preface

Chapter  3: “Cloud security baselines” presents the

essentials of cloud computing security, one of the main

challenges of the field It starts with an overview of

com-puter security, discussing its three pillars— confidentiality,

integrity, and availability—and other important concepts

such as authenticity and non- repudiation The concepts of

vulnerabilities, threats, and attacks in general, and in the

context of cloud computing, are also discussed Reviews

of  the most common mitigations for cloud computing

threats follow This chapter also considers privacy and

security in cloud storage services and multiclouds and

cloud accountability and concludes with a summary and a

discussion of research challenges

Chapter 4: “Cloud security, privacy, and trust baselines”

introduces an alternate classification that distinguishes

risks into three categories The first category includes the

threats against the infrastructure and the host of a cloud

system The second category is about the threats affecting

the service providers and the third includes various other

generic security threats The aim of the proposed

classifica-tion is to create a very efficient security check list for cloud

systems that will be useful to everyone willing to build or

use a cloud infrastructure/service

Chapter 5: “Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)”

exam-ines the major components of a cloud infrastructure,

and some concepts to help you think about the security

of that architecture Whether a cloud environment is

private, public, or hybrid, whether it performs

business-critical tasks or supports peripheral activities, whether

it houses the company’s crown jewel data or no data at

all— understanding how security practices and controls

work in a cloud environment will allow you to apply the

right kinds of security to meet your risk tolerance for

any situation

Section II: Risk analysis and division of responsibility

Section II explores how to manage risks in the cloud,

using such practices as dividing operational

respon-sibility and virespon-sibility, retaining information security

accountability, and managing user authentication and

authorization The section also covers negotiating

secu-rity requirements with vendors, which includes

identi-fying needed security measures, establishing a service

level agreement (SLA), and ensuring SLAs meet security

requirements

Chapter 6: “Risk and trust assessment: schemes for

cloud services” provides a survey on cloud risk

assess-ments made by various organizations, as well as risk and

trust models developed for the cloud In the next section, the authors define risk and elaborate on the relations and differences among risk analysis, assessment, and management Then, they introduce recent studies car-ried out for analyzing the threats and vulnerabilities, including the Cloud Security Alliance (CSA) initiative

to analyze the top threats against the cloud and to obtain

a better insight into how well the cloud service ers (CSP) are prepared for them Next, cloud risk assess-ment by two European Agencies, namely the European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) and the French National Commission on Informatics and Liberty (CNIL) are presented, and two models developed by A4Cloud, which is a European Framework Seven project, are introduced The cloud adopted risk assessment model (CARAM) is a qualitative model that adapts ENISA and CNIL frameworks for specific CSP

provid-CC pairs based on controls implemented by CSPs and assets that the CC is planning to process or store in a cloud The second model is called the joint risk and trust model (JRTM), which is a quantitative model based on the CSP performance data

Chapter 7: “Managing risk in the cloud” explores the Tier 3 security risk related to the operation and use of cloud-based information systems To prevent and miti-gate any threats, adverse actions, service disruptions, attacks, or compromises, organizations need to quantify

their residual risk below the threshold of the acceptable

level of risk

Chapter  8: “Cloud security risk management” vides an in-depth presentation of the fundamental aspects of cloud security risk management, starting from the definition of risk and moving to analyze cloud-specific risks With respect to risk management, the authors emphasize the contractual nature of cloud computing, thus focusing specifically on service level agreements (SLAs), an issue that has been the subject of several relevant analyses and proposals in recent years.Chapter 9: “Secure cloud risk management: risk miti-gation methods” explains how with computer systems, there are many risks: hardware failures, software bugs, internal users, physical security, power outages, Internet outages, hackers, viruses, malware, outdated software, lost or forgotten passwords, and out-of-date backups More risks include cost increases, deferred mainte-nance by your provider, and weather-related risks to the hosting site or sites Managing these risks has become important to most businesses, and utilizing technology

pro-Preface    ◾   xv

and third-party partners to decrease your risk and

increase your uptime is a shared goal among all

provid-ers and clients

Section III: Securing the cloud infrastructure

Section III discusses securing the platform, which

includes restricting network access through security

groups, configuring platform-specific user access

con-trol, and integrating cloud authentication/authorization

systems The section also covers compartmentalizing

access to protect data confidentiality and availability,

such as securing data in motion and data at rest, and

identifying your security perimeter Topics like cloud

access control and key management, cloud computing

architecture and security concepts, secure cloud

archi-tecture, and designing resilient cloud architectures are

also included

Chapter 10: “Specification and enforcement of access

policies in emerging scenarios” addresses a scenario in

which different parties (data owners or providers) need

to collaborate and share information for performing a

distributed query computation with selective

disclo-sure of data Next, the authors describe solutions that

are used to both grant access privileges to users and to

enforce them at query evaluation time Then, they

sum-marize approaches that associate a profile with each

relation to keep track of the attributes that should be

provided as input to gain access to the data They also

illustrate a join evaluation strategy that reveals neither

the operands nor the result to the server evaluating the

join Next, the authors describe a solution based on

the definition of pairwise authorizations to selectively

regulate data release In addition, they illustrate a

pro-posal that permits a user to specify preferences about

the providers in charge of the evaluation of his or her

queries Finally, the authors describe an authorization

model regulating the view that each provider can have

on the data and illustrate an approach for composing

authorizations

Chapter  11: “Cryptographic key management for

data protection” describes the foundational concepts

in cryptographic key management, the design choices

for key management systems, and the challenges of key

management in cloud systems and strategies for

imple-menting effective key management within the cloud

Chapter 12: “Cloud security access control:

distrib-uted access control” details how many systems merely

require a simple user-generated password to gain access,

while others are more robust Next, the authors cuss the requirements of your application, what laws concerning data breaches may be applicable to you and what you need to try to mitigate your risk through good security practices Then, the authors cover how SNMP, encryption, firewall, anti-virus, and strong passwords are needed to effectively monitor and protect any cloud platform from attack Finally, the authors focus on how poor password selection, stolen laptops, sharing of the same password among different websites, and leaving computers on and unlocked for easy access to physical use are among the top threats

dis-Chapter 13: “Cloud security key management: cloud user controls” covers a new key-enforced access control mechanism based on over-encryption Next, the authors propose LightCore, a collaborative editing cloud service for sensitive data with key-enforced access control Then, they propose a new key-enforced access control mecha-nism based on over-encryption, which implements the update of access control policy by enforcing two-layer encryption In addition, the authors present a dual-header structure for eliminating the need to re-encrypt related data resources when new authorizations are granted and propose batch revocation for reducing the overhead for re-encryption when revocations happen

in order to implement an efficient update of access trol policy in cryptographic cloud storage Next, they describe the system design of LightCore, and finally the authors present the results of the experiments, showing that a high performance of LightCore is achieved and suggesting suitable keystream policies for different use scenarios

con-Chapter  14: “Cloud computing security essentials and architecture” defines the cloud ecosystem as a com-plex system of interdependent components that work together to enable a cloud-based information system The authors discuss the importance of building trust and introduce the concept of trust boundary and then identify and discuss each logical or physical boundary

in the cloud ecosystem Finally, the authors discuss key elements of boundary definition and acceptable risk.Chapter 15: “Cloud computing architecture and secu-rity concepts” focuses on cloud services and resources that can be accessed easily by customers and users through a network such as the Internet The authors also explore on-demand services or resources, where custom-ers can use resources based on their needs and require-ments anywhere and anytime In addition, the authors

xvi ◾ Preface

show how highly scalable resources and service

capa-bilities can be achieved automatically in some cases

Finally, the chapter covers measured services, in which

the usage of the allocated resources and services (such

as storage, processing, and memory) can be controlled,

measured, managed, and reported, so both customers

and providers can have a clear view over the needs and

consumption of the resources

Chapter 16: “Secure cloud architecture” addresses the

scope and the nature of privacy and security within the

public cloud Furthermore, in this chapter, the authors

review aspects of cloud computing security, as this is

a fundamental building block on which cloud services

are constructed Although the primary focus is on

pub-lic cloud, some aspects of security are pertinent to a

pri-vate cloud, or even a hybrid cloud

Section IV: Operating system and network security

Section IV discusses locking down cloud servers:

scan-ning for and patching vulnerabilities, and controlling

and verifying configuration management This section

also covers leveraging provider-specific security options:

defining security groups to control access, filtering

traf-fic by port number, benefiting from the provider’s

built-in security, and protectbuilt-ing archived data

Chapter  17: “Locking down cloud servers” outlines

the basic security measures in an IaaS cloud provider

environment It also explains some of the key security

features that can be used by the cloud server

administra-tor to ensure the deployed virtual machines are “secure

by default.”

Chapter  18: “Third-party providers integrity

assur-ance for data outsourcing” covers the system model, as

well as the threat model, of integrity auditing for cloud

storage followed by a review of existing POR and PDP

schemes proposed for third-party integrity auditing for

cloud storage In conclusion, the authors demonstrate

how to design a third-party integrity auditing that can

simultaneously achieve dynamic data sharing,

multi-user modification, public verifiability, and high

scalabil-ity in terms of data size and number of data files

Section V: Meeting compliance requirements

Section V explores managing cloud governance, which

includes retaining responsibility for the accuracy of

the data, verifying integrity in stored and transmitted

data, and demonstrating due care and due diligence

The section also covers: integrity assurance for data

outsourcing, secure computation outsourcing, integrity and verifiable computation, independent verification and validation, computation over encrypted data, and trusted computing technology In addition, this section focuses on the assurance of compliance with govern-ment certification and accreditation regulations, which includes HIPAA, Sarbanes-Oxley, Data Protection Act, PCI DSS, standards for auditing information systems, and negotiating third-party provider audits

Chapter  19: “Negotiating cloud security ments with vendors” reviews several different orienta-tions toward negotiation and examines the implications

require-of these orientations in the context require-of organizational security requirements for information technology prod-ucts or services purchased from a cloud-based service provider

Chapter 20: “Managing legal compliance risk in the cloud and negotiating personal data protection require-ments with vendors” presents tips and recommenda-tions to be considered in the cloud relationship during the pre-contractual, contractual, and post-contractual phases

Chapter  21: “Integrity assurance for data ing” surveys several RDIC schemes that were proposed over the past few years The authors first present RDIC schemes proposed for a static setting, in which data stored initially by the client does not change over time Then they switch their attention to RDIC schemes that allow data owners to perform updates on the outsourced data

outsourc-Chapter 22: “Secure computation outsourcing” helps

readers understand the challenges of ensuring secure computation outsourcing to clouds and become famil-iar with the existing state-of-the-art solution and open research problems in this area

Chapter  23: “Computation over encrypted data”

introduces several cryptographic methods to perform computation over encrypted data without requiring the users’ secret keys The authors then describe non-interactive methods in which the user no longer needs

to participate in the procedure of computing on the encrypted data once it is uploaded to the cloud In par-ticular, they describe techniques in the following catego-ries: homomorphic encryption, functional encryption, and program obfuscation In the last part of the chapter, the authors look at other variants and some interactive methods in which the user and cloud jointly compute the encrypted data

Preface    ◾   xvii

Chapter  24: “Trusted computing technology” aims

to better define a specific area that encompasses

hard-ware roots of trust and the technologies now available

on the server side The authors address a core area

con-cerning information security in the cloud, ensuring that

low-level compromises to the hardware on the unified

extensible firmware interface (UEFI) and basic input

and output system (BIOS) via low-level root kits become

visible to system administrators

Chapter 25: “Computing technology for trusted cloud

security” specifically delves into trusted execution

tech-nology that has a long history of attempts (and partial

success) to secure the execution of code and access to

premium/pay-per-use data

In particular, the authors survey trusted computing

technologies, highlighting pros and cons of both

estab-lished technologies and innovative proposed solutions

They delve into the state of the art for such

technolo-gies and discuss their usage in the cloud as well as their

impact and benefits in cloud computing scenarios

Chapter 26: “Trusted computing technology and

pro-posals for resolving cloud computing security problems”

shows that verification of the software environment in

a cloud computing system is feasible, both for nodes

executing just one OS and for nodes running multiple

hosted systems as virtual machines

Chapter 27: “Assuring compliance with government

certification and accreditation regulations” reviews key

government regulations related to the certification and

accreditation of cloud-based information systems and

applicable certification and accreditation regimes

Chapter 28: “Government certification, accreditation,

regulations, and compliance risks” describes

govern-ment and country-specific requiregovern-ments in the context

of cloud computing It explains existing international

standards and attestations that can be used as a baseline

for the cloud service, and outlines some of the risks in

this area

Section VI: Preparing for disaster recovery

Section VI discusses the implementation of a plan to

sus-tain availability, which includes distributing data across

the cloud to ensure availability and performance, and

addressing data portability and interoperability for a

change in cloud providers The section also includes

exploitation of the cloud for disaster recovery options:

achieving cost-effective recovery time objectives and

employing a strategy of redundancy to better resist

denial of service (DoS) Finally, this section focuses on secure data management within and across data centers, and availability, recovery, and auditing

Chapter  29: “Simplifying secure cloud computing

environments with cloud data centers” delves into the

particular security and risk aspects of using a cloud data center, and how a cloud customer can evaluate and benchmark the security of the chosen cloud data center provider

Chapter  30: “Availability, recovery, and auditing across data centers” presents RDIC techniques for replication-based, erasure coding–based, and network coding–based distributed storage systems This chapter also describes new directions that were recently pro-posed for the distributed RDIC paradigm

Section VII: Advanced cloud computing securitySection VII focuses on advanced failure detection and prediction, advanced secure mobile cloud, future directions in cloud computing security—risks and challenges, cloud computing with advanced security services, and advanced security architectures for cloud computing

Chapter  31: “Advanced security architectures for

cloud computing” analyzes what is different about the

public cloud and which risks and threats truly merit consideration before migrating services

Chapter  32: “Side-channel attacks and defenses on

cloud traffic” briefly reviews some necessary definitions,

then discusses existing countermeasures Next, the authors describe traffic padding approaches to achieve the optimal tradeoff between privacy protection and communication, and computational cost under differ-ent scenarios and assumptions Finally, the authors dis-cuss some open research challenges

Chapter  33: “Clouds are evil” demonstrates how to

seek out and connect with vendors and services and how those vendors and services connect back to you and others This chapter is designed to serve as a warning

of things to avoid, and things to embrace It also ers which traditions in information security you need to forget, and which traditions you need to embrace, as you move toward the cloud

cov-Chapter 34: “Future directions in cloud computing

security: risks and challenges” discusses how cloud

computing has become the dominant computing digm It also discusses how due to the significant ben-efits in terms of flexibility, performance, and efficiency,

para-xviii ◾ Preface

cloud computing is slowly but steadily being adopted

by almost all sectors This chapter also describes

how, as more sectors migrate to cloud computing,

it becomes very important for cloud computing to

be fully ready not only for performance expectation,

but also for all types of potential security issues, risks,

and challenges In addition, this chapter stresses that

as cloud computing is still a new technology, it is high

time to think critically about the security concerns and

prepare cloud computing for the next generation of

computation Finally, the chapter recommends wider adoption of the cloud in critical areas such as health, banking, and government, and how it is a vital step to identify the major concerns and proactively approach

a trustworthy cloud

John R Vacca

Managing and Consulting Editor

TechWrite Pomeroy, Ohio

Acknowledgments

contributed to successful completion of this

book I owe each a debt of gratitude and want to take

this opportunity to offer my sincere thanks

A very special thanks go to my Executive Editor Rick

Adams, without whose continued interest and support

this book would not have been possible, and to Editorial

Assistant Sherry Thomas, who provided staunch

sup-port and encouragement when it was most needed I am

also grateful to my Project Editor Marsha Hecht; Project

Coordinator Kari A Budyk; and the copyeditors and

proofreaders, whose fine editorial work has been

invalu-able Thanks also to my Marketing Manager Joanna

Knight, whose efforts on promoting this book have been

greatly appreciated Finally, thanks to all of the other

peo-ple at CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group), whose many

talents and skills are essential to a finished book

Thanks to my wife, Bee Vacca, for her love, her help,

and her understanding of my long work hours Also, a

very special thanks to Michael Erbschloe, for writing the foreword Finally, I wish to thank all the following authors who contributed chapters that were necessary for the completion of this book: Anna Squicciarini, Daniela Oliveira, Dan Lin, William Stallings, Sokratis

K Katsikas, Costas Lambrinoudakis, Nikolaos Pitropakis, Mario Santana, Erdal Cayirci, Michaela Iorga, Marco Cremonini, James T Harmening, Sabrina

De Capitani di Vimercati, Sara Foresti, Pierangela Samarati, Sarbari Gupta, Randall DeVitto, Weiyu Jiang, Jingqiang Lin, Zhan Wang, Bo Chen, Kun Sun, Anil Karmel, Pramod Pandya, Riad Rahmo, Thorsten Herre, Jiawei Yuan, Shucheng Yu, Daniel S Soper, Paolo Balboni, Reza Curtmola, Shams Zawoad, Ragib

Hasan, Feng-Hao Liu, Felipe E Medina, Roberto Di

Pietro, Flavio Lombardi, Matteo Signorini, Tao Su, Antonio Lioy, Nicola Barresi, Albert Caballero, Wen Ming Liu, Lingyu Wang, John Strand, Mohammad Kamrul Islam, and Rasib Khan

The Editor

John R Vacca is an information technology consultant,

professional writer, editor, reviewer, and

internation-ally known best-selling author based in Pomeroy, Ohio

Since 1982, John has authored/edited 77 books Some of

his most recent books include:

• Handbook of sensor networking: Advanced

tech-nologies and applications CRC Press (an imprint

of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC), 2015

• Network and system security, 2nd edition. Syngress

(an imprint of Elsevier Inc.), 2013

• Cyber security and IT infrastructure protection

Syngress (an imprint of Elsevier Inc.), 2013

• Managing information security, 2nd edition

Syngress (an imprint of Elsevier Inc.), 2013

• Computer and information security handbook, 2nd

edition Morgan Kaufmann (an imprint of Elsevier

• Managing information security, 1st edition Syngress

(an imprint of Elsevier Inc.), 2010

• Network and systems security, 1st edition Syngress

(an imprint of Elsevier Inc.), 2010

• Computer and information security handbook, 1st

edition Morgan Kaufmann (an imprint of Elsevier Inc.), 2009

• Biometric technologies and verification systems

Elsevier Science & Technology Books, 2007

• Practical Internet security (hardcover) Springer,

2006

• Optical networking best practices handbook

(hard-cover) Wiley-Interscience, 2006

• Guide to wireless network security Springer, 2006.

• Computer forensics: computer crime scene

investi-gation (with CD-ROM), 2nd edition Charles River

Media, 2005

John has authored more than 600 articles in the areas

of advanced storage, computer security, and aerospace technology (copies of articles and books are available upon request) John was also a configuration manage-ment specialist, computer specialist, and the computer security official (CSO) for NASA’s Space Station Program (Freedom) and the International Space Station Program, from 1988 until his retirement from NASA in 1995

In addition, John is also an independent online book reviewer Finally, John was one of the security consultants

for the MGM movie titled Antitrust, which was released

on January 12, 2001 A detailed copy of his author bio can be viewed at http://www.johnvacca.com John can be reached at john2164@windstream.net

Contributors

Paolo Balboni

ICT Legal Consulting

Balboni, Bolognini and Partners Law Firm

Sabrina De Capitani di Vimercati

Department of Information Technology

Università degli Studi di Milano

Crema (CR), Italy

Bo Chen

Pennsylvania State University

University Park, Pennsylvania

Marco Cremonini

Department of Computer Science

Department of Information Technology

Università degli Studi di Milano

Crema (CR), Italy

Reza Curtmola

Department of Computer Science

New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT)

Newark, New Jersey

Birmingham, Alabama

Thorsten Herre

Security and Compliance OfficeCloud and Infrastructure DeliverySAP SE

xxiv ◾ Contributors

Mohammad Kamrul Islam

Department of Computer and Information Sciences

University of Alabama at Birmingham

Department of Digital Systems

School of Information and Communication

Technologies

University of Piraeus

Piraeus, Greece

Rasib Khan

Department of Computer and Information Sciences

University of Alabama at Birmingham

Birmingham, Alabama

Costas Lambrinoudakis

Department of Digital Systems

School of Information and Communication

Institute of Information Engineering

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Haidian District, Beijing

College Park, Maryland

Wen Ming Liu

Concordia UniversityMontreal, Quebec, Canada

University of PiraeusPiraeus, Greece

Riad Rahmo

IT ConsultantMission Viejo, California

Pierangela Samarati

Department of Information TechnologyUniversità degli Studi di Milano

Crema (CR), Italy

Communication Technologies Department

Universitat Pompeu Fabra

Barcelona, Spain

Anna Squicciarini

Pennsylvania State University

University Park, Pennsylvania

William Stallings

Independent Consultant

Brewster, Massachusetts

John Strand

Black Hills Information Security

Sturgis, South Dakota

Daniel S Soper

Department of Information Systems and Decision

Sciences

Mihaylo College of Business and Economics

California State University

John R Vacca

TechWritePomeroy, Ohio

Lingyu Wang

Concordia UniversityMontreal, Quebec, Canada

Jiawei Yuan

Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of Arkansas at Little RockLittle Rock, Arkansas

Shams Zawoad

University of Alabama at BirminghamBirmingham, Alabama

I

Introduction

C h a p t e r 1

Cloud Computing Essentials

Anna Squicciarini

Pennsylvania State University

University Park, Pennsylvania

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CLOUD COMPUTING

Cloud computing is being acclaimed as the penultimate

solution to the problems of uncertain traffic spikes,

com-puting overloads, and potentially expensive investments

potentially transform the IT industry, making both

software and infrastructure even more attractive as

ser-vices, by reshaping the way hardware is designed and

purchased In practice, cloud computing is a computing

paradigm to supplement the current consumption and

delivery model for IT services based on the Internet, by providing for dynamically scalable and often virtual-ized resources over the Internet

The cloud computing paradigm is not new and can be thought of as an extension of how we use the Internet

In  fact the term cloud is also used to represent the Internet The main idea of cloud computing is to out-source the management and delivery of software and hardware resources to third-party companies (cloud pro-viders), which specialize in that particular service and

CONTENTS

4 ◾ Cloud Computing Security

can provide much better quality of service at lower costs

in a convenient fashion For example, now an enterprise

can purchase the access of hardware resources

accord-ing to its actual demands and without upfront costs

If the demand decreases, the enterprise can decrease the

amount of remote hardware resources for which

it is pay-ing If demand increases, the enterprise can easily adjust

the resources to the demand In spite of the enormous

advantages of this distributed computing paradigm new

challenges arise, especially related to data and

computa-tion security Because computacomputa-tional resources are

off-premises, enterprises do not have the same amount of

control over their resources and their data In most cases

they have no guarantees over the level of security and

protection of the resources they manipulate For

exam-ple, an enterprise might purchase access to an operating

system that is compromised by an adversary who can

steal its data or interfere with its computation Company

data might be stored in a different country where laws

governing data ownership might be different from what

the company expects For instance, a European cloud

consumer that decides to store its database with a cloud

provider in the U.S might discover that its data are

sub-ject to inspection because of the U.S Patriot Act Because

the cloud computing market is unregulated and the

ser-vice level agreements (SLAs) between cloud providers

and cloud consumers are vague, it is still very difficult to

hold cloud providers liable for security breaches

The main advantages of cloud computing are

conve-nience and cost reduction Cloud providers specialize in

the service they offer: renting hardware, operating

sys-tems, storage, and software services Thus a company does

not need to hire a variety of IT personnel and can focus

on its primary mission For example, a company does not

need to have personnel specialized in backup, as it can

purchase this service from a company that specializes in

provider will likely provide a much better service than ad

hoc personnel hired to take care of it Related to

conve-nience, this computing outsourcing model also reduces

enterprise upfront and ongoing costs A company does

not need to plan for ups and downs in resource

consump-tion Cloud computing services operate in a pay-as-you-go

model and shield burdensome tasks such as equipment

and software updates and maintenance from the cloud

consumer The cloud consumer can employ the money

saved in future equipment investments and

administra-tion on areas strategic to its mission

The U.S National Institute of Standards and

as  “a  model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, demand network access to a shared pool of configu-rable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.”

on-1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CLOUD COMPUTING

NIST [3] has made efforts to provide a unified way to define cloud computing and its main functionality Despite its complexity and heterogeneous nature, NIST has identified five essential characteristics that represent

a cloud computing platform:

• On-demand self-service: Cloud computing

ven-dors offer provision of cloud resources on demand whenever they are required by adopters On-demand self-service resource sourcing is con-sidered a crucial feature of the cloud computing paradigm, as it allows users to scale the required infrastructure up to a substantial level without dis-rupting the host operations

• Broad network access: Cloud computing resources

can be accessed and provisioned through basic network connection and for multiple device types

• Resource pooling: Resources are pooled for more

efficient and effective use Through multitenancy and virtualization techniques, multiple users may

be served by the same physical hardware

• Rapid elasticity: Cloud computing resources are

elastic, to the extent that they can be “sized” and

“re-sized” as needed, in real time Resource tion can be adjusted as a customer requires more (or less) servers or storage At its core, cloud elasticity entails continual reconfiguration in network and related controls from the cloud Internet NIST dis-tinguishes two types of scaling options: horizontal and vertical, which involve launching additional services and/or resources, and changing the com-puting capacity of assigned resources, respectively

alloca-• Vertical scaling: Vertical scaling involves changing

the computing capacity assigned to resources while keeping the number of physical machines constant

Cloud Computing Essentials    ◾   5

Other characteristics that distinguish the cloud

puting environment from standard on premises

com-puting environments are the virtualization of resources

common attribute of both public and private clouds,

and it applies to all three layers of a cloud It  refers

tothe ability of serving multiple tenants from the same

infrastructure and software application In a way,

mult-itenancy is a byproduct of virtualization Virtualization

enables the creation of virtual machines, software

applications, and instruments that serve multiple

ten-ants at the same time, rendered from the same physical

infrastructure

In the cloud environment, computing resources are

remote and presented to cloud consumers as a virtualized

resource A cloud consumer when purchasing access to a

hardware platform does not have access to actual

dedi-cated hardware, but to a virtual platform Other resources

like cloud software such as Google Docs are also shared

among many cloud consumers Tenants are isolated from

each other, much like processes are isolated from one

another in modern operating systems

Cloud computing services are provided on a pay

per use model and follow a “measured-service” model

The cloud provider measures or monitors the provision

of services for various reasons, including billing, effective

use of resources, or overall predictive planning Various

usage-specific metrics (network I/O, storage space used,

etc.) are used to calculate charges for adopters

1.3 CLOUD COMPUTING MODELS

Cloud computing includes a number of implementations based on the services they provide, from application ser-vice provisioning to grid and utility computing Below

we discuss the most well-known models underlying the cloud paradigm

1.3.1 Service ModelsCloud computing resources are heterogeneous, varying from software services to data storage, to operating systems and hardware infrastructure Depending on the type or granularity of the service, there are three different cloud delivery models: infra-structure-as-a-service (IaaS), platform-as-a-service (PaaS), and software-as-a-service (SaaS) Cloud con-sumers will access cloud resources via cloud client applications that can be installed in a variety of prem-ises (buildings of the organization) and devices (desk-

illustrates these three models, which are described in the following subsections

1.3.1.1 Infrastructure-as-a-Service

In this model raw IT resources such as hardware, age, IP addresses, and firewalls are provided to the cloud consumers over the Internet Hypervisors, such

stor-as Xen, Oracle VirtualBox, KVM, VMware ESX/ESXi,

or Hyper-V, run a set of virtual machines on real IT resources and provide virtualized versions of these

Applications OS Server

Applications OS

Cloud Docs

FIGURE 1.1 Multitenancy and virtualization

FIGURE  1.2 Cloud delivery models: infrastructure-as-a- service (IaaS), platform-as-a-service (PaaS), and software-as-a-service (SaaS)

6 ◾ Cloud Computing Security

resources to cloud consumers Cloud consumers have

the freedom to install any environment on such

plat-forms and the software they want, and experience great

freedom in administering these resources and

control-ling their security and reliability Examples of cloud

providers for IaaS include Amazon Web Services (AWS),

Windows Azure, Google Compute Engine, Rackspace

Open Cloud, and IBM SmartCloud Enterprise

1.3.1.2 Platform-as-a-Service

For cloud consumers who want a greater level of

com-puting and administration outsourcing, cloud

pro-viders also offer ready-to-use platforms as a service

In  this model, a complete virtualized environment

with an operating system image installed can be rented

Development platforms, web servers, and databases are

also usually provided Having acquired a specific

plat-form, cloud consumers are free to install and administer

applications running on the virtualized environment

The level of governance and control over the system also

decreases, as the cloud provider installs, administers,

and patches the platform Security at hardware and OS

level is completely dependent on the cloud provider

poli-cies and mechanisms

1.3.1.3 Software-as-a-Service

The most fine-grained delivery model is when cloud

consumers access third-party software via the Internet

Access can be granted free (e.g., Google Docs) or via

sub-scription models (e.g., DropBox for file synchronization

or SmugMug for photo management) The cloud

con-sumer has little control over the way the cloud software

runs and the security of the data it accesses The cloud

software provider takes all the administrative burden

1.3.2 Deployment Models

The way cloud services are deployed might vary

accord-ing to the ownership of the service, the size of the cloud

resources, and the restrictions to client access There are

three main models: public, private, and hybrid cloud

which commercialize cloud resources to the general

public Everything works as if the organization

out-sourced the service of provisioning IT resources,

envi-ronments, and software to an off-premises third party

In this environment several different organizations or

individuals might share a physical resource, like a server,

through multitenancy and virtualization Security is

challenging because cloud clients depend on the cloud provider to guarantee isolation of data and computation among a heterogeneous set of clients Examples of pub-lic cloud providers include Microsoft, Google, Amazon, and AWS

organi-zation, located on the premises, and offers a collection

of IT resources to various departments or parts of the organization It centralizes IT resources within a usu-ally large organization so that its various parts experi-ence all the advantages of cloud computing: elasticity, on-demand self-service, and scaling The organization is

at the same time a cloud provider and a cloud consumer Being a cloud provider, the organization assumes all the costs of capability planning for the IT resources, the bur-den of resource administration, and reliability and secu-rity assurances This increases the level of control and security of organization assets as they can determine and enforce their own security policies and mechanisms

pub-lic and private clouds For example, an organization might have a private cloud to store sensitive intellectual property information but might make use of a public

FIGURE 1.3 A public cloud is accessible to the general public

Department X Branch 1 Department Y FIGURE  1.4 A private cloud is generally owned by an organization

Cloud Computing Essentials    ◾   7

cloud service to rent servers for running performance-

intensive tasks or just because the private cloud is

run-ning at peak capacity The organization needs to employ

some secure protocol for communications between the

two cloud environments For example, there should

be some control of network traffic between the two

clouds and access control for communications of virtual

machines between the two environments

1.4 CLOUD SERVICES AND TECHNOLOGIES

Cloud computing is a relatively new business model for

outsourced services However, the technology behind

cloud computing is not entirely new Virtualization,

data outsourcing, and remote computation have been

developed over the last 40 years, and cloud computing

provides a streamlined way of provisioning and

deliv-ering such services to customers In this regard, cloud

computing has often been criticized as representing just

a new trend, rather than an innovative computing

tech-nology As such, it is often best described as a business

paradigm or computing model rather than any specific

technology In this section, we present an overview of

key concepts and enabling technologies of cloud

com-puting including virtualization, load balancing,

moni-toring, scalability, and elasticity

Intuitively, virtualization is a key enabler for high

server utilization and multitenancy

A cloud consumer, when purchasing access to a

hard-ware platform, does not have access to actual dedicated

hardware, but to a virtual platform Other resources

like cloud software such as Google Docs are also shared

among many cloud consumers Tenants are isolated

from each other, much like processes are isolated from

Isolation techniques aim at ensuring that the virtual environments residing on the same node or hypervisor

do not interfere with one another and protect themselves from possible pollution due to malware or information leakage These techniques are at the heart of cotenancy and are useful for controlling and keeping multitenants isolated and independent Some researchers have noted how isolation of virtual resources is still an open chal-

that may be implicitly shared among VMs, such as the last level cache (LLC) on multicore processors and memory bandwidth, present opportunities for secu-rity or performance interference Some have suggested

a possible solution is for future cloud computing ronments to include security and performance isolation constraints as part of their SLA to improve transparency

Where isolation techniques provide guarantees for multitenancy, load balancing is one of the key ingredi-ents for scalable computing Load balancing involves physical or logical entities in charge of distributing network or computational tasks across a number of servers to meet application and network workloads

In the cloud, these servers are cloud computing nodes,

in charge of high-performance computing tasks Through load balancers, it is possible to increase capac-ity ( concurrent users) and reliability of applications Common forms of load balancing are round-robin, pri-ority-based, low latency, etc Note that load balancing can be implemented both in software, run on standard

Branch 1 Private

Public

FIGURE 1.5 A hybrid cloud combines a set of public and private clouds

8 ◾ Cloud Computing Security

operating systems, and on hardware, implemented in

application-specific integrated circuits

Along with load-balancing methods come

replica-tion techniques Replicareplica-tion techniques provide a way

to maintain multiple copies of the data in the cloud and

may be host-based or network-based In general,

replica-tion techniques are essential for any sensitive data

stor-age techniques to provide guarantees of reliability and

business continuity Cloud-based replication approaches

provide replication of data in multiple locations, in a

load-balanced and dynamic manner In particular, cation is often used as one of the many services offered to cloud consumers, which can replicate their local data for higher business continuity and faster recovery in case of disasters in a cost-effective manner

repli-1.5 RESEARCH CHALLENGES

The inception of cloud computing as a business and computing model has seen an increasing interest from researchers, both in academia and industry [1] There are

Number of tenants accessing the cloud

Dedicated hosting accessed by multiple tenants

Community cloud Outsourced

community cloud community cloudVirtual

Dedicated hosting accessed by one tenant accessed by one tenantShared hosting

Number of tenants sharing IT resources hosting the cloud

Shared hosting accessed by multiple tenants

FIGURE 1.6 Whenever companies collaborate, they commonly have access to shared application and data to do business Even though the companies have mutual relationships and agreements in place, the data and application functionality may be sensitive and critical to their business needs

FIGURE 1.7 Hybrid cloud computing environments are device agnostic and all connect to the cloud securely

Cloud Computing Essentials    ◾   9

many avenues for research, fueled by the growing

inter-est in cloud computing as a paradigm, a business model,

To this date, there are dozens of academic conferences

devoted to various aspects of the cloud

We can organize our understanding of research

challenges in cloud computing by looking at cloud

computing as a resource for research and as a research

problem in itself From the first angle, how can the cloud

help in answering difficult research questions? Can

data-intensive applications provide knowledge and answers

that could open new frontiers of our understanding?

While this is a main driver for research and

develop-ment of grid computing architectures, it is still unclear

how to optimally operate a cloud system in scientific

domains, such as physics and engineering, for example

Also, how can large-scale computation be achieved in a

reliable and efficient manner? The body of work devoted

to high-performance computing strives to continuously

improve for efficient and effective computational and

Second, what are the ways to improve cloud services

and architecture? Can cloud computing serve a larger

number of users in a consistently transparent yet reliable

manner?

Most recent work has focused on improved service

provisioning, tackling problems related to

paralleliza-tion, scalability, efficiency, and large-scale processing,

along with monitoring and service control of

there are some important opportunities for research

in cloud computing that require further exploration

These include user-driven research (how to develop

environments that support budget-limited

compu-tation based on a set of user-driven requirements),

and new programming models (what are, if any, the

alternatives to MapReduce?), PaaS environments, and

improved tools to support elasticity and large-scale

debugging

Finally, how can we improve cloud adopters’

services? Some recent statistics have shown users’

reluctance in adopting clouds due to lack of confidence

in the security guarantees offered by cloud

issues reported by users relate to lack of

confidential-ity, poor integrity guarantees, and potentially limited

availability

1.6 SUMMARY

Cloud computing has gained great interest over the last few years, from both industry and academia Though a standardization effort is now in place, much is left to be done to define cloud computing in a coherent and uni-fied manner Interestingly, though initially considered just a buzzword by many skeptical users, over recent years the cloud has shown to be a key enabler for many enterprises and organizations, also due to its flexibility and unique ability to serve cloud adopters in a tailored and cost-effective manner

To this date, there are still several aspects of cloud computing worthy of investigation including technical and less technical issues, such as parallelization or pric-ing schemes In particular, privacy and security issues are still important barriers hindering cloud adoption With technology surrounding cloud moving at a very fast pace, it is challenging to ensure that users’ data and processes are confidential and correct at all times Given

a growing competitive market, most cloud providers focus on making services effective and scalable, often foregoing issues of reliability and resiliency

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Although the general concepts for cloud computing

go back to the 1950s, cloud computing services first

became available in the early 2000s, in particular

tar-geted at large enterprises Since then, cloud

comput-ing has spread to small- and medium-size businesses,

and most recently to consumers Apple’s iCloud was

launched in 2012 and had 20 million users within a

week of launch Evernote, the cloud-based note-taking and archiving service launched in 2008 approached

100  million users in less than 6 years In late 2014, Google announced that Google Drive had almost a quarter of a billion active users

This chapter begins with a more detailed look at the basic concepts of cloud computing followed by a discussion of the principal types of services typically

References 29

14 ◾ Cloud Computing Security

offered by cloud providers (CPs) The chapter then

looks at various deployment models for cloud systems

and an examination of two cloud computing

refer-ence architectures developed by the U.S National

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and

the ITU  Telecommunication Standardization Sector

(ITU)-T, respectively A consideration of these two

different models provides insight into the nature of

cloud computing

2.2 CLOUD COMPUTING ELEMENTS

as follows:

Cloud computing: A model for enabling

ubiq-uitous, convenient, on-demand network access

to a shared pool of configurable computing

resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage,

appli-cations, and services) that can be rapidly

provi-sioned and released with minimal management

effort or service provider interaction This cloud

model promotes availability and is composed of

five essential characteristics, three service

mod-els, and four deployment models

The definition refers to various models and

2.3 ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS

NIST defines the essential characteristics of cloud puting as follows:

com-• Broad network access: Capabilities are available

over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, laptops, and PDAs) as well as other traditional or cloud-based software services

• Rapid elasticity: Cloud computing gives you the

ability to expand and reduce resources ing to your specific service requirement For example, you may need a large number of server resources for the duration of a specific task You can then release these resources upon completion

accord-of the task

• Measured service: Cloud systems automatically

control and optimize resource use by leveraging

a metering capability at some level of tion appropriate to the type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts) Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transpar-ency for both the provider and consumer of the utilized service

abstrac-Broad network access

Resource pooling

Rapid elasticity

Software as a service (SaaS) Platform as a service (PaaS) Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)

FIGURE 2.1 Cloud computing elements