Database administration the complete guide to DBA practices and procedures

A Unique Vantage Point DBA Salaries Database Technology The Management Discipline of Database Administration A Day in the Life of a DBA Evaluating a DBA Job Offer Database, Data, and Sys

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Database administration : the complete guide to DBA practices and

procedures /

Craig S Mullins.—2 [edition]

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index

ISBN 978-0-321-82294-9 (alk paper)—ISBN 0-321-82294-3 (alk paper)

1 Database management I Title

QA76.9.D3M838 2013

005.74—dc23

2012029466

Copyright © 2013 Craig S Mullins

All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America This publication

is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the

publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system,

or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording, or likewise To obtain permission to use materialfrom this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc.,Permissions Department, 200 Old Tappan Road, Old Tappan, New Jersey

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Accolades for Database Administration

“I’ve forgotten how many times I’ve recommended this book to people.It’s well written, to the point, and covers the topics that you need to know

to become an effective DBA.”

—Scott Ambler, Thought Leader, Agile Data Method

“This is a well-written, well-organized guide to the practice of databaseadministration Unlike other books on general database theory or

relational database theory, this book focuses more directly on the theoryand reality of database administration as practiced by database

professionals today, and does so without catering too much to any specific

product implementation As such, Database Administration is very well

suited to anyone interested in surveying the job of a DBA or those in

similar but more specific roles such as data modeler or database

performance analyst.”

—Sal Ricciardi, Program Manager, Microsoft

“One of Craig’s hallmarks is his ability to write in a clear, easy-to-readfashion The main purpose of any technical book is to transfer informationfrom writer to reader, and Craig has done an excellent job He wants thereader to learn—and it shows.”

—Chris Foot, Manager, Remote DBA Experts and Oracle ACE

“A complete and comprehensive listing of tasks and responsibilities forDBAs, ranging from creating the database environment to data warehouseadministration, and everything in between.”

—Mike Tarrani, Computer Consultant

“I think every business manager and every IT manager should have acopy of this book.”

—Dan Hotka, Independent Consultant and Oracle ACE

“This book by Craig Mullins is wonderfully insightful and truly

important Mullins describes the role and duties of data administrators anddatabase administrators in modern organizations with remarkable insight

and clarity.”

—Michael Tozer, Author and former U.S Navy officer

To my wife, Beth, for her unending love, constant support, and beautiful

smile.

Preface

How to Use This Book

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Chapter 1 What Is a DBA?

Why Learn Database Administration?

A Unique Vantage Point

DBA Salaries

Database Technology

The Management Discipline of Database Administration

A Day in the Life of a DBA

Evaluating a DBA Job Offer

Database, Data, and System Administration

Database Security and Authorization

Governance and Regulatory Compliance

Backup and Recovery

Ensuring Data Integrity

DBMS Release Migration

Jack-of-All-Trades

The Types of DBAs

How Many DBAs?

DBA Reporting Structures

Multiplatform DBA Issues

Production versus Test

The Impact of Newer Technology on DBA

Procedural DBAs: Managing Database Logic The Internet: From DBA to eDBA

The Personal DBA and the Cloud

NoSQL, Big Data, and the DBA

New Technology Impacts on DBA

DBA Certification

The Rest of the Book

Review

Bonus Question

Chapter 2 Creating the Database Environment

Defining the Organization’s DBMS Strategy

Cloud Database Systems

Upgrading DBMS Versions and Releases

Features and Complexity

Complexity of the DBMS Environment

Reputation of the DBMS Vendor

Support Policies of the DBMS

The DBMS Upgrade Strategy

Database Standards and Procedures

Database Naming Conventions

Other Database Standards and Procedures

Chapter 3 Data Modeling and Normalization

Data Modeling Concepts

The Normal Forms

First Normal Form

Second Normal Form

Third Normal Form

A Normalized Data Model

Further Normal Forms

Chapter 4 Database Design

From Logical Model to Physical Database

Transform Entities to Tables

Transform Attributes to Columns

Build Referential Constraints for All Relationships Build Physical Data Structures

Database Performance Design

Data Definition Language

Temporal Data Support

Chapter 5 Application Design

Database Application Development and SQL

SQL

Set-at-a-Time Processing and Relational Closure

Chapter 6 Design Reviews

What Is a Design Review?

Rules of Engagement

Design Review Participants

Knowledge and Skills Required

Types of Design Reviews

Conceptual Design Review

Logical Design Review

Physical Design Review

Organizational Design Review

SQL and Application Code Design Review

Pre-Implementation Design Review

Post-Implementation Design Review

Design Review Output

Additional Considerations

Dealing with Remote Staff

Mentorship and Knowledge Transfer

Summary

Review

Suggested Reading

Chapter 7 Database Change Management

Change Management Requirements

The Change Management Perspective of the DBA

Physical Database Structures

Impact of Change on Database Structures

The Limitations of ALTER

Database Change Scenarios

Comparing Database Structures

Requesting Database Changes

Standardized Change Requests

Data Replication and Propagation Failures

Severe Performance Problems

Recovery Issues

DBA Mistakes

Outages: Planned and Unplanned

Ensuring Availability

Perform Routine Maintenance While Systems Remain Operational Automate DBA Functions

Exploit High-Availability Features

Exploit Clustering Technology

Database Architecture and NoSQL

A Basic Database Performance Road Map

Monitoring versus Management

Reactive versus Proactive

Preproduction Performance Estimation

Chapter 10 System Performance

The Larger Environment

Interaction with the Operating System

Allied Agents

Data Cache Details

“Open” Database Objects

Database Logs

Locking and Contention

The System Catalog

Other Configuration Options

Chapter 11 Database Performance

Techniques for Optimizing Databases

File Placement and Allocation

Page Size (Block Size)

Database Reorganization

Determining When to Reorganize

Automation

Summary

Review

Suggested Reading

Chapter 12 Application Performance

Designing Applications for Relational AccessRelational Optimization

CPU and I/O Costs

Database Statistics

Query Analysis

Joins

Access Path Choices

Additional Optimization Considerations

View Access

Query Rewrite

Rule-Based Optimization

Reviewing Access Paths

Forcing Access Paths

SQL Coding and Tuning for Efficiency

A Dozen SQL Rules of Thumb

Additional SQL Tuning Tips

Identifying Poorly Performing SQL

Database Structure Integrity

Types of Structural Problems

Managing Structural Problems

Semantic Data Integrity

Other Database Security Mechanisms

Using Views for Security

Using Stored Procedures for Security

Encryption

Data at Rest Encryption

Data in Transit Encryption

Job Scheduling and Security

Non-DBMS DBA Security

DBMS Fixpacks and Maintenance

Summary

Review

Suggested Reading

Chapter 15 Regulatory Compliance and Database Administration

A Collaborative Approach to Compliance

Why Should DBAs Care about Compliance?

Metadata Management, Data Quality, and Data Governance

Metadata

Data Quality

Data Governance

Database Auditing and Data Access Tracking

Database Auditing Techniques

Privileged User Auditing

Data Masking and Obfuscation

Data Masking Techniques

Database Archiving for Long-Term Data Retention

The Life Cycle of Data

Database Archiving

Components of a Database Archiving Solution

The Impact of e-Discovery on DBA

Closer Tracking of Traditional DBA Tasks

Database Change Management

Database Backup and Recovery

Summary

Review

Suggested Reading

Chapter 16 Database Backup and Recovery

The Importance of Backup and Recovery

Preparing for Problems

Backup

Full versus Incremental Backups

Database Objects and Backups

DBMS Control

Concurrent Access Issues

Backup Consistency

Log Archiving and Backup

Determining Your Backup Schedule

DBMS Instance Backup

Designing the DBMS Environment for Recovery Alternate Approaches to Database Backup Document Your Backup Strategy

Database Object Definition Backups

Recovery

Determining Recovery Options

General Steps for Database Object Recovery Types of Recovery

Index Recovery

Testing Your Recovery Plan

Recovering a Dropped Database Object

Recovering Broken Blocks and Pages

Populating Test Databases

Alternatives to Backup and Recovery

Chapter 17 Disaster Planning

The Need for Planning

Risk and Recovery

General Disaster Recovery Guidelines

The Remote Site

The Written Plan

Chapter 18 Data and Storage Management

Storage Management Basics

Files and Data Sets

File Placement on Disk

Raw Partitions versus File Systems

Temporary Database Files

Space Management

Data Page Layouts

Index Page Layouts

Chapter 19 Data Movement and Distribution

Loading and Unloading Data

The LOAD Utility

The UNLOAD Utility

Maintaining Application Test Beds

EXPORT and IMPORT

Bulk Data Movement

Data Distribution Standards

Accessing Distributed Data

Chapter 20 Data Warehouse Administration

What Is a Data Warehouse?

Analytical versus Transaction Processing

Administering the Data Warehouse

Too Much Focus on Technology?

Data Warehouse Design

Data Movement

Data Cleansing

Data Warehouse Scalability

Data Warehouse Performance

Data Freshness

Data Content

Data Usage

Financial Chargeback

Backup and Recovery

Don’t Operate in a Vacuum!

Summary

Review

Suggested Reading

Chapter 21 Database Connectivity

Multitier, Distributed Computing

A Historical Look

Chapter 23 DBA Tools

Types and Benefits of DBA Tools

Data Modeling and Design

Database Change Management

Miscellaneous Tools

Examine Native DBA Tools

Evaluating DBA Tool Vendors

Homegrown DBA Tools

Summary

Review

Chapter 24 DBA Rules of Thumb

Write Down Everything

Keep Everything

Automate!

Share Your Knowledge

Analyze, Simplify, and Focus

Don’t Panic!

Measure Twice, Cut Once

Understand the Business, Not Just the Technology

Don’t Become a Hermit

Use All of the Resources at Your Disposal

Why Use a DBMS?

Advantages of Using a DBMS

Summary

Appendix B The DBMS Vendors

The Big Three

The Second Tier

Other Significant Players

Appendix C DBA Tool Vendors

The Major Vendors

Other DBA Tool Vendors

Data Modeling Tool Vendors

Repository Vendors

Data Movement and Business Intelligence Vendors

Appendix D DBA Web Resources

Usenet Newsgroups

Mailing Lists

Web Sites, Blogs, and Portals

Vendor Web Sites

Magazine Web Sites

Consultant Web Sites

Blogs

Database Portals

Other Web Sites

Appendix E Sample DBA Job Posting

Job Posting

Database Administrator (DBA)

Bibliography

Database Management and Database Systems

Data Administration, Data Modeling, and Database DesignDatabase Security, Protection, and Compliance

administration), many things change The second edition of this book

incorporates the many changes that impact database administration that haveoccurred in the industry over the past decade What made the book uniqueremains It is still the industry’s only non-product-based description of

database administration techniques and practices The book defines the job ofdatabase administrator and outlines what is required of a database

administrator, or DBA, in clear, easy-to-understand language The book can

be used

• As a text for learning the discipline of database administration

• As the basis for setting up a DBA group

• To augment a DBMS-specific manual or textbook

• To help explain to upper-level management what a DBA is, and whythe position is required

But what is new? One of the significant improvements added to this

edition is coverage of regulatory compliance The number of governmentaland industry regulations has exploded over the course of the past decade, andmany of these regulations dictate changes in the way that data is managed,handled, and processed Although the most visible governmental regulation isundoubtedly the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (aka the U.S Public Company

Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act of 2002), there are manyothers, including HIPAA (the Health Insurance Portability and

Accountability Act) and GLB (the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act) to name a

couple The most visible industry regulation is PCI DSS (Payment CardIndustry Data Security Standard) All of these regulations, and many others,impose an additional administrative burden on data This edition of the bookprovides an entire chapter devoted to this topic, including the impact of

regulatory compliance on data management tasks such as metadata

management, data quality, database auditing, data masking, database

archiving, and more traditional DBA tasks such as database change

management and database recovery

Database security is another rapidly evolving area that required a

significant upgrade from the first edition Fresh coverage is offered on newsecurity functionality and requirements, including label-based access control,encryption, and preventing SQL injection attacks

The book adds coverage of technology that was not widely adopted tenyears ago, such as XML, and where appropriate it discusses nascent

technology that DBAs should be aware of, including NoSQL and cloud

computing It also covers newer DBMS functionality, such as temporal

database support and INSTEAD-OF triggers

Finally, the entire book was reviewed and revised to ensure that each topicaddressed up-to-date technology and requirements Care was taken to ensurethat the example DBMS features used to highlight specific technologies areaccurate and up-to-date For example, consider the descriptions of DB2

HADR, SQL Server 2012 AlwaysOn, and Oracle Transparent Data

Encryption

With the second edition of this book you now have a timely, accurate, andupdated guide to implementing and maintaining heterogeneous databaseadministration You can use it to learn what is required to be a successfuldatabase administrator And you can use it on the job in conjunction with thevendors’ manuals or product-specific books for your particular DBMS

products

How to Use This Book

This book can be used as both a tutorial and a reference The book is

organized to proceed chronologically through DBA tasks that are likely to beencountered Therefore, if you read the book sequentially from Chapter 1

through Chapter 24, you will get a comprehensive sequential overview of theDBA job Alternatively, you can read any chapter independently because

each chapter deals with a single topic References to other chapters areclearly made if other material in the book would aid the reader’s

understanding

Writing is a rewarding task, but it also requires a lot of time—researching,writing, reviewing, editing, and rewriting over and over again until you get itjust right But no one can write a technical book in a vacuum I had manyknowledgeable and helpful people to assist me along the way

First of all, I’d like to thank the many industry experts who reviewed theoriginal book proposal The following folks provided many useful

suggestions and thoughts on my original outline that helped me to create amuch better book: Michael Blaha, Keith W Hare, Michael J Hernandez,Robert S Seiner, and David L Wells Additionally, I’d like to thank

everyone who took the time to listen to my ideas for this book before I beganwriting This list of folks is too numerous to include, and I’m sure I’d misssomeone—but you know who you are

I would like to thank the many folks who have reviewed and commented

on the text of this book For the second edition of the book, Bill Arledge andKevin Kline provided their expertise to the review process and offered manyhelpful corrections and suggestions that improved the quality of the book.And let’s not forget the reviewers of the first edition: Dan Hotka, Chris Foot,Chuck Kosin, David L Wells, and Anne Marie Smith pored over each

chapter of various incarnations of the manuscript, and this book is muchbetter thanks to their expert contributions Special thanks go to data modelingand administration gurus William J Lewis and Robert S Seiner, who tookextra time to review and make suggestions on Chapter 3 I’d also like to

thank my brother, Scott Mullins, who offered his guidance on applicationdesign and development by reviewing Chapter 5

My appreciation goes to Mary Barnard, who did a wonderful job editingthe first edition of this book; and Greg Doench, who did a similarly fantasticjob with the second edition Kudos to both Mary and Greg for making mybook much more readable

Additionally, thanks to the many understanding and patient folks at

Addison-Wesley who worked with me to make each edition of the book

come to fruition This list includes Michelle Housley, Patrick Peterson, StacieParillo, Barbara Wood, and Mary O’Brien who were particularly helpfulthroughout the process of coordinating the production of the book

Thank you, too, to my wonderful wife, Beth, whose understanding andsupport made it possible for me to write this book Indeed, thanks go out toall my family and friends for being supportive and helpful along the way.And finally, a thank-you to all of the people with whom I have workedprofessionally at SoftwareOnZ, NEON Enterprise Software, EmbarcaderoTechnologies, BMC Software, Gartner Group, PLATINUM Technology,Inc., Duquesne Light Company, Mellon Bank, USX Corporation, andASSET, Inc This book is a better one due to the many outstanding

individuals with whom I have had the honor to work

About the Author

Craig S Mullins is President and Principal Consultant for Mullins

Consulting, Inc., a consulting practice specializing in data management anddatabase management systems Craig has extensive experience in the field ofdatabase management, having worked as an application developer, a DBA,and an instructor with multiple database management systems, includingDB2, Oracle, and SQL Server Craig has worked in multiple industries,

including manufacturing, banking, commercial software development,

education, research, utilities, and consulting Additionally, Craig worked as aResearch Director with Gartner Group, covering the field of database

administration He is the author of DB2 Developer’s Guide, the

industry-leading book on DB2 for z/OS, currently in its sixth edition

Craig is a frequent contributor to computer industry publications, havingauthored hundreds of articles in the past several years His articles have

appeared in popular industry magazines and Web sites, including Database Programming & Design, Data Management Review, DBMS, DB2 Update, Oracle Update, SQL Server Update, and many others Craig writes several

regular columns, including a monthly column called “The DBA Corner” for

Database Trends and Applications magazine, a quarterly column called “The Database Report” for The Data Administration Newsletter (www.tdan.com),and a regular column on DB2 and mainframe data management called

“z/Data Perspectives” for zJournal Magazine Craig is also a regular blogger, managing and authoring two popular data-related blogs: The DB2 Portal

(http://db2portal.blogspot.com) focusing on DB2 for z/OS and mainframe

“stuff,” and Data and Technology Today

(http://datatechnologytoday.wordpress.com), which focuses on data anddatabase management issues, DBA news and thoughts, metadata

management, and data architecture, as well as data-related topics in the realm

of IT and software Craig is also the publisher and editor of The Database Site (www.thedatabasesite.com)

Craig regularly presents technical topics at database industry conferencesand events He has spoken to thousands of technicians about database

management and administration issues at such conferences as Database andClient/Server World, SHARE, GUIDE, DAMA Symposium, Enterprise Data

World, IBM Information On Demand Conference, the DB2 Technical

Conference, the International DB2 Users Group (IDUG), and Oracle OpenWorld He has also spoken at regional database user groups across NorthAmerica, Europe, Asia, and Australia

Craig graduated cum laude from the University of Pittsburgh with a doublemajor in computer science and economics and a minor in mathematics Craighas been appointed as an Information Management Champion by IBM for hiswork in the field of DB2 database administration, development, and

management

Readers can obtain information about this book, including corrections,future editions, and additional writings on database administration by theauthor, at the author’s Web site at www.craigsmullins.com The author can

be contacted at craig@craigsmullins.com or in care of the publisher

The need for a database administrator is greater today than

ever before

There is a frequently repeated joke about database administration that helps

to underscore both the necessity for DBA and lack of understanding of theDBA function It goes something like this:

The CIO of Acme Corporation hires a management consulting company tohelp them streamline their IT operations The consultant, determined tounderstand the way Acme works, begins by interviewing the CIO One ofthe questions he asks is “So, I see that you have a DBA on staff; what does

he do?”

The CIO says “Well, we use Oracle and I’m told that we need the

DBA to make sure our Oracle databases stay online I know that some ofour critical business processes like order entry and inventory use Oracle,but I really don’t know what the DBA does,” says the CIO “But pleasedon’t tell me I need another one because we can barely afford to pay theone we have!”

This is a sad, but too often true, commentary on the state of database

administration in many organizations Frequently the DBA is viewed as aguru or magician who uses tricks to make databases and systems operateefficiently DBMS software is so complex these days that very few peopleunderstand more than just the basics (like SQL) But DBAs understand thecomplexities of the DBMS, making them a valuable resource Indeed,

sometimes the only source of database management and development

knowledge within the organization is the DBA.

The role of the DBA is as the guardian of the data as a corporate asset SoDBAs, in trying to protect the data, often are perceived as slow moving andrisk adverse Developers, on the other hand, are charged with building newapplications and are constantly being challenged to build things fast and

move on to the next project Obviously, the difference between these tworoles and expectations—with DBAs saying “change control, change

management” and developers saying “deploy it now, deploy it now”—cancreate friction

Another frequent criticism of the DBA staff is that they can be difficult todeal with Sometimes viewed as prima donnas, DBAs can be curmudgeonswho have vast technical knowledge but limited people skills Just about everydatabase programmer has a favorite DBA story You know, those famousanecdotes that begin with “I have a problem ” and end with “ and then

he told me to stop bothering him and read the manual.” DBAs simply do nothave a “warm and fuzzy” image This probably has more to do with the

nature and scope of the job than anything else The DBMS spans the

enterprise, effectively placing the DBA on call for the applications of theentire organization

The fact that DBAs often must sit down and work things through on theirown can be a mitigating factor in this poor reputation Many database

problems require periods of quiet reflection and analysis to resolve So DBAs

do not generally like to be disturbed But even though many problems willrequire solitude, there are many other problems that require a whole team toresolve And due to the vast knowledge most DBAs possess, their quiet time

is usually less than quiet; constant interruptions to answer questions and solveproblems are a daily fact of life

DBAs should not be encouraged to be antisocial In fact, DBAs should betrained to acquire exceptional communication skills Data is the lifeblood ofcomputerized applications Application programs are developed to read andwrite data, analyze data, move data, perform calculations using data, modifydata, and so on Without data there would be nothing for the programs to do.The DBA is at the center of the development life cycle—ensuring that

application programs have efficient, accurate access to the corporation’s data

As such, DBAs frequently interface with many different types of people:technicians, programmers, end users, customers, and executives However,

many DBAs are so caught up in the minutiae of the inner workings of theDBMS that they never develop the skills required to relate appropriately withtheir coworkers and customers.

DBAs need to acquire exceptional communication skills

But we have not yet answered the question that is the title of this chapter:What is a DBA? The short answer to that question is simple: A DBA is theinformation technician responsible for ensuring the ongoing operationalfunctionality and efficiency of an organization’s databases and the

applications that access those databases

A DBA is the information technician responsible for ensuring

the ongoing operational functionality and efficiency of an

organization’s databases and applications

The long answer to that question requires a book to answer—this book.This text will define the management discipline of database administrationand provide practical guidelines for the proper implementation of the DBAfunction In order to begin to answer the question, though, this chapter willprovide an introductory overview of database administration, covering thereasons to pursue a career as a DBA, high-level summaries of DBA tasks,and a look at the organizational structure of the DBA team

Why Learn Database Administration?

As we have already mentioned, data is at the center of today’s applications,and today’s modern organization simply cannot operate without data In

many ways, business today is data.1 Without data, businesses would not havethe ability to manage finances, to conduct transactions, or to contact theircustomers Databases are created to store and organize this data The betterthe design and utility of the database, the better the organization will be

positioned to compete for business

Indeed, one of the largest problems faced by IT organizations is ensuringquality database administration According to a recent study:2

• Good DBAs are hard to find and costly to acquire—76 percent of

respondents say it takes more than three months to hire a DBA, andtraining a new DBA in a new environment takes months beyond that

• The database infrastructure supporting applications is complex,

chronically fragmented, and cumbersome to manage

Both of these findings clearly indicate that database administration is adifficult job that is in high demand Additionally, according to the Dice32010–11 Tech Salary Survey, Oracle experience is requested in more than15,000 job postings on any given day Demand for Oracle skills is up 57percent year over year, and the national average salary for technology

professionals with experience in Oracle Database is $90,914

A Unique Vantage Point

The DBA is responsible for designing and maintaining an enterprise’s

databases, placing the DBA squarely at the center of the business The DBAhas the opportunity to learn about many facets of business and how theyinterrelate The DBA can explore groundbreaking technologies as they areadopted by the organization Exposure to new technology keeps the job

stimulating—but frustrating if you are trying to figure out how a new

technology works for the first time The DBA is often working alone in theseendeavors; he does not have access to additional expertise to assist whentroubles arise Therefore, a good DBA needs to enjoy challenges and be agood problem solver

A good DBA needs to enjoy challenges and be a good

problem solver

DBA Salaries

As a technician you can find no more challenging job in IT than DBA

Fortunately, the job of DBA also is quite rewarding DBAs are well paid.According to a salary study conducted by Global Knowledge4 and Tech-Republic,5 the average DBA salary is $78,468, while their managers average

$87,261 These average salaries are a little lower than the numbers from theJanco6 salary survey (conducted the previous year)

For full-time employees functioning as DBAs, the mean salary ranges inthe high $80 thousands Refer to Table 1.1 for a breakdown of the meansalary for DBAs between 2006 and 2011 (according to the Dice 2010–11Tech Salary Survey)

Table 1.1 Mean Salary for DBAs between 2006 and 2011