Physical chemistry research for engineering and applied sciences principles and technological implications

Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, and Professor at Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology, Russia, as well as Professor at

RESEARCH FOR ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCES

VOLUME 1

Principles and Technological Implications

Edited by

Eli M Pearce, PhD, Bob A Howell, PhD,

Richard A Pethrick, PhD, DSc, and Gennady E Zaikov, DSc

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Eli M Pearce, PhD

Dr Eli M Pearce was the President of the American Chemical Society He served as Dean of the Faculty of Science and Art at Brooklyn Polytechnic University in New York, as well as a Professor of Chemistry and Chemi-cal Engineering He was the Director of the Polymer Research Institute, also

in Brooklyn At present, he consults for the Polymer Research Institute As

a prolific author and researcher, he edited the Journal of Polymer Science

(Chemistry Edition) for 25 years and was an active member of many sional organizations

Richard A Pethrick, PhD, DSc

Professor R A Pethrick, PhD, DSc, is currently a Research Professor and Professor Emeritus in the Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry at the University of Strathclyde, Glasglow, Scotland He was Burmah Professor in Physical Chemistry and has been a member of the staff there since 1969 He has published over 400 papers and edited and written several books Recently,

he has edited several publications concerned with the techniques for the acterization of the molar mass of polymers and also the study of their mor-phology He currently holds a number of EPSRC grants and is involved with Knowledge Transfer Programmes involving three local companies involved

char-in production of articles made out of polymeric materials His current research involves AWE and has acted as a consultant for BAE Systems in the area of explosives and a company involved in the production of anticorrosive coat-ings

vi About the Editors

Dr Pethrick is on the editorial boards of several polymer and adhesion journals and was on the Royal Society of Chemistry Education Board He is

a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Society of Chemistry, and the Institute of Materials, Metal and Mining Previously, he chaired the

‘Review of Science Provision 16-19’ in Scotland and the restructuring of the HND provision in chemistry He was also involved in the creation of the re-vised regulations for accreditation by the Royal Society of Chemistry of the MSc level qualifications in chemistry For a many years, he was the Deputy Chair of the EPSRC IGDS panel and involved in a number of reviews of the courses developed and offered under this program He has been a member of the review panel for polymer science in Denmark and Sweden and the Na-tional Science Foundation in the USA

Gennady E Zaikov, DSc

Gennady E Zaikov, DSc, is the Head of the Polymer Division at the N M Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, and Professor at Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology, Russia, as well as Professor at Kazan National Research Techno-logical University, Kazan, Russia

He is also a prolific author, researcher, and lecturer He has received eral awards for his work, including the Russian Federation Scholarship for Outstanding Scientists He has been a member of many professional organiza-tions and on the editorial boards of many international science journals

sev-Physical Chemistry Research for Engineering and Applied Sciences: Volume 1: Principles and Technological Implications

Editors: Eli M Pearce, PhD, Bob A Howell, PhD,

Richard A Pethrick, PhD, DSc, and Gennady E Zaikov, DSc

Physical Chemistry Research for Engineering and Applied Sciences: Volume 2: Polymeric Materials and Processing

Editors: Eli M Pearce, PhD, Bob A Howell, PhD,

Richard A Pethrick, DSc, PhD, and Gennady E Zaikov, DSc

Physical Chemistry Research for Engineering and Applied Sciences: Volume 3: High Performance Materials and Methods

Editors: Eli M Pearce, PhD, Bob A Howell, PhD,

Richard A Pethrick, DSc, PhD, and Gennady E Zaikov, DSc

Engineering and Applied Sciences

in 3 Volumes

List of Contributors ix

List of Abbreviations xiii

List of Symbols xv

Preface xvii

Introduction—Professor Gennady Efremovich Zaikov: Sixty Years in Science xix

Eli M Pearce, Bob A Howell, Richard A Pethrick, and A K Haghi 1 Bacterial Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) as a Biodegradable Polymer for Biomedicine 1

A L Iordanskii, G A Bonartseva, T A Makhina, E D Sklyanchuk and G E Zaikov 2 The Effect of Antioxidant Drug Mexidol on Bioenergetics Processes and Nitric Oxide Formation in the Animal Tissues 45

Z V Kuropteva, O L Belaya, L M Baider, and T N Bogatyrenko 3 Calcium Soap Lubricants 57

Alaz Izer, Tugce Nefise Kahyaoglu, and Devrim Balkose 4 Radical Scavenging Capacity of N-(2-mercapto-2-methylpropionyl)-l-cysteine—Design and Synthesis of Its Derivative with Enhanced Potential to Scavenge Hypochlorite 71

Maria Banasova, Lukas kerner, Ivo Juranek, Martin Putala, Katarina Valachova, and Ladislav Soltes 5 Magnetic Properties of Organic Paramagnets 93

M D Goldfein, E G Rozantsev, and N V Kozhevnikov 6 Photoelectrochemical Properties of the Films of Extra Coordinated Tetrapyrrole Compounds and Their Relationship with the Quantum Chemical Parameters of the Molecules 125

V A IIatovsky, G V Sinko, G A Ptitsyn, and G G Komissarov 7 Bio-Structural Energy Criteria of Functional States in Normal and Pathological Conditions 157

G A Korblev and G E Zaikov

x Contents

8 The Temporal Dependence of Adhesion Joining Strength:

The Diffusive Model 175

Kh Sh Yakh’Yaeva, G V Kozlov, G M Magomedov, R A.Pethrick, and G E Zaikov

9 Ways of Regulation of Release of Medicinal Substances from the Chitosan Films 185

E I Kulish, A S Shurshina, and Eli M Pearce

10 A Research Note on Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Chitosan in

Acetic Acid Solution in the Presence of Amikacin Sulfate 197

E I Kulish, I F Tuktarov, V V Chernova, M I Artsis, and R A Pethrick

11 The Structure of the Interfacial Layer and Ozone Protective Action

of Ethylene-Propylene-Diene Elastomers in Covulcanizates with Butadiene-Nitrile Rubbers 205

N M Livanova, A A Popov, V A Shershnev, M I Artsis, and G E Zaikov

12 A Research Note on Influence of Polysulfonamide Membranes

on the Productivity of Ultrafiltration Processes 225

E M Kuvardina, F F Niyazi, B A Howell, G E Zaikov, and N V Kuvardin

13 A Research Note on Environmental Durability of Powder Poyester Paint Coatings 233

T N Kukhta, N R Prokopchuk, and B A Howell

14 A Research Note on Elastomeric Compositions Based on Butadiene Nitrile Rubber Containing Polytetrafluorethylene Pyrolysis

Products 247

N R Prokopchuk, V D Polonik, Zh S Shashok, and E M Pearce

15 Spectral Fluorescent Study of the Complexation with Anionic

Polyelectroltes on Cis-Trans Equilibrium of Oxacarbocyanine 257

P G Pronkin and A S Tatikolov

16 Ozone Decomposition 273

T Batakliev, V Georgiev, M Anachkov, S Rakovsky, and G E Zaikov

17 A Technical Note Designing, Analysis and Industrial Use of the Dynamic Spray Scrubber 305

R R Usmanova, M I Artsis, and G E Zaikov

18 Engineered Nanoporous Materials: A Comprehensive Review 317

Arezoo Afzali and Shima Maghsoodlou

Index 357

Institute of Catalysis, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bonchev St #11, Sofia 1113, Bulgaria

Shershnev Vladimir Andreevich

N M Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul Kosygina 4, Moscow,

119991 Russia, 499-246-4769, E-mail: shershnev@mitht.ru

xii List of Contributors

B A Howell

Central Michigan University, Chemical Faculty, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA E-mail: bob.a.howell@ cmich.edu

V A Ilatovsky

N.N Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics Russian Academy of Sciences, 4 Kosygin str, Moscow

119991, Russia, E-mail: iva1947@yandex.ru

Tugce Nefise Kahyaoglu

Izmir Institute of Technology Department of Chemical Engineering Gulbahce Urla Izmir Turkey

Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul Kosygina 4, Moscow,

119991 Russia, Livanova Nadezhda Mikhaylovna, 495-939-7193, E-mail: livanova@sky.chph.ras.ru

xiv List of Contributors

Mos-LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BJH Barrett-Joyner-Halenda

DR Dubinin-Radushkevich

EPR Electron Paramagnetic Resonance

IUPAC Union of Pure and Applied Chemists

MOPs Microporous Organic Polymers

PIMs Polymers of Intrinsic Microporosity

SANS Small Angle Neutron Scattering

SAXS Small-Angle X-rays Scattering

TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy

VEGF Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor

Φ angle of contact between liquid and walls

am area of an adsorbate molecule

ap pore surface area

b, c constant

De distribution function for pore diameter

F meniscus shape factor

S total pore surface

SBET specific surface area

T temperature

V volume adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent, pore volume

VL molal liquid volume

Vm volume adsorbed at the complete monolayer point

vp the pore volume

Vtot total pore volume

σ liquid-gas surface tension

φ volume fraction of voids

This three-volume set covers a significant amount of new research and plications on physical chemistry for engineering and applied sciences Physi-cal chemistry for engineering and applied sciences shows how materials can behave and how chemical reactions occur Physical chemistry for engineering and applied sciences can be considered as a knowledge that is relevant in nearly every area of chemistry It covers diverse topics, from biochemistry to materials properties to the development of quantum computers

ap-The aim of this important book is to provide both a rigorous view and

a more practical, understandable view of chemistry and biochemical ics Physical chemistry for engineering and applied sciences is geared toward readers with both direct and lateral interest in the discipline Physical chem-istry for engineering and applied sciences applies physics and math to prob-lems that interest chemists, biologists, and engineers Physical chemists use theoretical constructs and mathematical computations to understand chemical properties and describe the behavior of molecular and condensed matter.Physical chemistry for engineering and applied sciences is structured into different parts devoted to industrial chemistry and biochemical physics and their applications In the first volume of this series, some principles and tech-nological implications of industrial chemistry and biochemical physics are pre-sented This volume discusses new discoveries and realizations of the impor-tance of key concepts and emphases are placed on the underlying fundamentals and on acquisition of a broad and comprehensive grasp of the field as a whole

phys-In the second volume, some fascinating phenomena associated with the markable features of high performance polymers are presented This volume also provides an update on applications of modern polymers This volume of-fers new research on structure–property relationships, synthesis and purifica-tion, and potential applications of high performance polymers The collection

re-of topics in second volume reflects the diversity re-of recent advances in modern polymers with a broad perspective that will be useful for scientists as well as for graduate students and engineers

The various categories of high performance materials and their ites are discussed in the third volume The third volume of Physical Chemistry Research for Engineering and Applied Sciences provides up-to-date synthesis details, properties, characterization, and applications for such systems in or-

compos-xx Preface

der to give readers and users better information to select the required material

Together, these three volumes highlight and present some of the most tant areas of current interest in biochemical physics and chemical processes, filling the gap between theory and application Every section of the book has been expanded, where relevant, to take account of significant new discoveries and realizations of the importance of key concepts Furthermore, emphases are placed on the underlying fundamentals and on acquisition of a broad and comprehensive grasp of the field as a whole

impor-January 7, 2015 will be the 80th birthday of Prof G E Zaikov, and he has more than 60 years scientific activity Zaikov was born in Omsk, Siberia (USSR), where he graduated from their primary, middle, and high schools

He also graduated from a musical professional school where he studied lin and pianoforte However, his parents, Efrem and Matrena, decided that

vio-it might be better for their son to continue his education by following in the footsteps of his mother, who was a chemistry teacher in high school and at Omsk’s Medical Institute (his father was a mathematician and land-surveyor) Therefore, in 1952 Gennady moved to Moscow where he entered the Moscow State University (MSU), and he graduated with a chemistry degree in Decem-ber 1957 His bachelor’s degree dealt with the problem of separating Li6 and Li7 isotopes After this he joined the Institute of Chemical Physics (ICP) in Moscow in February 1958 In 1996, this institute was split into two parts: N

N Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics (ICP) and N M Emanuel Institute

of Biochemical Physics At the present time Prof G E Zaikov is working at the N M Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics (IBP) So, G E Zaikov never changed place of his job

Gennady was originally invited to ICP by Professor Nikolai Markovich Emanuel Under his guidance, G E Zaikov defended in 1963 his PhD thesis titled “Comparison of the Kinetics and Mechanism of Oxidation of the Organ-

ic Compounds in Gaseous and Liquid Phases” in 1963 These results were the foundation for industrial application A plant floor was built in Moscow at a petrochemical plant (Kapotnya district) for production of 10,000 tons/year of acetic acid and 5000 tons/year of methylethylketone by oxidation of n-butane

in liquid phase in critical conditions (50 atm, 150°C) The main contributors

of this plant floor were N M Emanuel, E A Blumberg, Z K Maizus, M G Bulygin, E B Chizhov, and G E Zaikov In 1968, Gennady defended a Doc-tor of Science thesis titled “The Role of Media in Radical-Chain Oxidation Reactions” In 1970, he became a full professor

In 1966, Gennady began to become involved with polymer science N M Emanuel charged Zaikov with the organization of work on problems associ-ated with aging and stabilization of polymers, and, later, with the combustion

of polymeric materials In the 1970s, there were about 1000 scientists (about

50 research centers) in the U.S.S.R working on these problems, including 200

xxii Introduction

scientists from ICP under Zaikov’s leadership The research was conducted on all aspects of these polymer problems, thermal degradation, oxidation, ozon-olysis, photodegradation and radiation degradation, hydrolysis, biodegrada-tion, mechanical degradation, pyrolysis, and flammability Scientists from synthetic laboratories of this division (Prof V V Ershov, E G Rozantsev, and K M Dyumaev) prepared several very important and original stabilizers for polymers and organized production of these stabilizers

After “perestroika and degradation” of the U.S.S.R in 1991, the new sian government decreased the financial support of science significantly So,

Rus-G E Zaikov has now with him in the N M Emanuel Institute only 15 workers (instead of 200 as in 1970–1980s)

co-He compensated for the decrease of scientists in his institute by increasing the cooperation with other research centers in Russia and abroad

Now G E Zaikov has scientific cooperation with:

• Prof Victor Manuel de Matos Lobo and Dr Artur Valente (Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal);

• Prof Alfonso Jimenez (Alicante University, Alicante, Spain);

• Dr Nekane Guarrotxena Arlunduaga (Institute of Polymer Science and Technology, Madrid, Spain);

• Prof Alberto D’Amore (Second Naples University, Naples, Italy);

• Dr Antonio Ballada (former Vice-President of Himont Co., Milan, aly);

It-• Prof Goerg Michler (Martin Luther University, Halle-Saale, Germany);

• Dr Frank Pudel (OHMI Consulting Co., Magdeburg, Germany);

• Prof Ryszard Kozlowski (Institute of Natural Fibers, Poznan, Poland);

• Prof Jan Pielichowski (Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, land);

Po-• Dr Daniel Horak (Institute of Macromolecular Science, Prague, Czeck Republic);

• Prof Slavi Kirillov Rakovsky, and Dr Methody Anachkov (Institute of Catalysis, Sofia, Bulgaria);

• Prof Cornelia Vasile (Polymer Research Institute, Iassi, Romania);

• Prof Richard A Pethrick (University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, land, UK);

Scot-• Prof Eli Pearce and Dr Gerald Kirshenbaum (Brooklyn Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York, USA);

• Prof David Schiraldi (Case Western Reserve University, Clevelend, Ohio, USA);

• Prof Bob Howell (Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, igan, USA);

Mich-• Dr James Summers (Former Head of Division of PolyOne Co., land, Ohio, USA);

Cleve-• Dr LinShu Liu (US Department of Agriculture, Windmoor, nia, USA);

Pennsylva-• Prof Walter Focke (Pretoria University, Pretoria, South Africa);

• Prof Hans-Joachim Radusch (Martin Luter University, Halle-Saale, Germany);

• Prof Ryszard M Kozlowski (ESCORENA, United Nationals, Poznan, Poland);

• Prof Roman Jozwik (Military Institute of Chemistry and Radiometry, Warsaw, Poland);

• Dr Raijesh Ananjiwala, Research Textile Institute, Port Elisabeth, South Africa)

He has also cooperation with CIS countries (former republics of the USSR):

• Prof Anatolii A Turovskii, Prof Roman G Makitra, and Prof Yurii G Medvedevskikh (Pisarzhevskii Institute of Physical Chemistry, L’viv Division and Institute of Coal, L’viv, Ukraine);

• Prof Nikolai A Turovskii (Donetsk State University, Donetsk, Ukraine);

• Prof Alexandr I Burya (Dnepropetrovsk State Agriculture University, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine);

• Prof Nodare G Lekishvili and Prof Omari Mukbaniani (I vili Tbilisi State University, Georgia);

Javakhish-• Prof Jimsher N Aneli (Institute of Kibernetic, Tbilisi, Georgia);

• Prof Jenis A Djamanbaev (Institute of Organic Chemistry, Bishkek, Kirgisia);

• Prof Nikolai R Prokopchuk (Belorussian State Technical University, Minsk, Belorussia);

• Prof Norair M Beylerian (Institute of Chemical Physics, Erevan, Armenia)

G.E Zaikov has also cooperation with scientists from many research ters of Russia Here are only some of these:

cen-• Prof A A Berlin, Prof A L Iordanskii, and Dr K Z Gumargalieva (N.N Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Moscow);

• Dr N A Sivov (D I Topchiev Institute of Pethrochemical Synthesis, Moscow);

Mos-• Prof Yu G Yanovsky (Institute of Applied Mathematic, Moscow);

• Dr O A Legon’kova (Moscow State University of Applied nology, Moscow);

Biotech-• Prof A K Mikitaev (L Ya Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute, Moscow);

• Prof A M Egorov (Oncology Center, Moscow);

• Dr E V Kalugina (Plastic Company, Moscow);

• Dr G V Kozlov, Prof M Kh Ligidov, and Prof N I Mashukov (K Kh Berbekov Kabardino-Balkarian State University, Nal’chik, Kabardino-Balkaria);

• Prof Yu B Monakov (Institute of Organic Chemistry, Ufa, tostan);

Bashkor-• Prof M I Abdullin, Prof V P Zakharov, Prof S V Kolesov, and Prof

R Z Biglova (Bashkirian State University, Ufa, Bashkortostan);

• Prof S S Zlotsky (Ufa State Technological Oil University, Ufa, kortostan);

Bash-• Prof F F Niyazi (Kursk State University, Kursk);

• Prof V A Babkin (Volgograd State Technical University, Volgograd);

• Prof A I Rakhimov (Institute of Ecology, Volgograd);

• Prof V F Kablov (Branch of Volgograd State Technical University, Volzhsk, Volgograd district);

• Prof T N Lomova (Research Institute of Solutions, Ivanovo)

• Prof G A Korablev (Scientific-Education Research Center of cal Physics and Mesoscopy, Udmurdian Research Center, Ural Branch

Chemi-of Russian Academy Chemi-of Sciences, Izhevsk)

In all, he has scientific cooperation (publication of original papers, views, books and volumes) with 20 research centers abroad, 8 centers in CIS countries and 20 inside of Russia

re-Zaikov left his position as a head of the laboratory on September, 2007 but he became head of the Polymer Division (PD) in IBP PD included three laboratories (about 50 scientists)

Figure 1 shows the changing of amount of staff members in Dr Zaikov’s laboratory over time, and Fig 2 shows the number of books, he published (mostly in English).

FIGURE 1 Number of staff members in laboratory of chemical resistance of polymers

at different times.

FIGURE 2 Integral number of books published by G E Zaikov.

xxvi Introduction

G E Zaikov is an outstanding scientist with expertise in wide areas of chemistry: chemical and biological kinetics, chemistry and physics of poly-mers, history of chemistry, biochemistry In addition to his position at the N

M Emanuel Institute, he is a lecturer at the Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology, and he is researcher at Volzhsk Branch of Volgograd State Technological University He taught his students from his own books:

Degradation and Stabilization of Polymers, Physical Methods in Chemistry, and Acid Rains and Environmental Problems G E Zaikov has written about

4000 original articles, 400 monographs (100 in Russian and 300 in English), and 350 chapters in 80 volumes His Russian Science Citation Index num-ber of scientific activity (Chirsch) is equal 30 units It is apparent from this work that he has made valuable contributions to the theory and practice of polymers—aging and development of new stabilizers for polymers, organiza-tion of their industrial production, life-time predictions for use and storage, and the mechanisms of oxidation, ozonolysis, hydrolysis, biodegradation, and decreasing of polymer flammability New methods of polymer modification using the processes of degradation were introduced into practice by Zaikov These methods allow for the production of new polymeric materials with im-proved properties Most recently, he is also very active in the field of semi-conductors and electroconductive polymers, polymer blends, and polymer composites including nanocomposites

G E Zaikov is a member of many editorial boards of journals published

in Russia, Poland, Bulgaria, the U.S.A., and England Below is a list of his activity in this field:

• Chemistry International, UK, 1987–1991;

• Russian Journal of High Molecular Compounds, 1970–1984;

• Polymer Degradation and Stability, UK, 1982–2004;

• Polymer News, USA, 1988–2002;

• International Journal of Polymeric Materials, USA, Associate Editor,

1989–2000; Member of Editorial Board: 2001–2002;

• Polymers in Medicine, Poland, 1982–1998;

• Polymer Yearbook, Associate Editor, Gordon and Breach, UK, 1985–

2000;

• Polymer Yearbook, Co-editor, Rapra Technology, UK, 2000–2003;

• Polymer Yearbook, Co-editor, Nova Science Publishers, USA, 2005–to

data;

• Polymer and Polymer Composites, UK, 1994–2000;

• Journal of Chemical and Biochemical Kinetics, USA, Editor-in-Chief,

1992–2000;

• Russian Journal of Textile Chemistry, 1992–to date;

• Oxidation Communications, Sofia, Bulgaria, 1994–to date;

• Associate Editor of series “Polymer Science and Engineering,” Gordon and Breach Publ., USA, 1990–2000;

• Editor of series “Polymer Books for the 21st Century,” Nova Science Publ., New York, USA, 1990–2006;

• Editor of series “Chemistry and Biochemistry,” Nova Science ers, New York, USA, 2002–to date;

Publish-• Editor-in-Chief of series “New Concepts in Polymer Science”, VSP ternational Sci Publ., Leiden and Brill Academic Publishers, Amster-dam, the Netherlands, 1990 – 2004;

In-• Editor of series “Chemical and Biochemical Physics on the Edge of XXI Century,” Nova Science Publ., USA 2000–2006;

• Russian Polymer News Journal, Associate Editor, New Jersey, USA,

1996–2003;

• Journal of Balkan Tribological Association, Sofia, Bulgaria, 2001–to

date;

• Polymer Plastic Technology and Engineering, USA, 1997–2001;

• Member of Research Board and Advisers, American Biographical tute, Inc., NC, USA, 2001–to date;

Insti-• Member of Editorial Board of Polymer International, 2004–to data;

• Member of Editorial Board of Journal of Chemical Physics and soscopy, Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhevsk, Russia, 2004–to date;

Me-• Member of Editorial Board of Journal of Natural Fibers, Poznan,

Po-land, 2005–to data;

• Member of Editorial Board of D.I Mendeleev Journal of Russian Chemical Society, Moscow, 2006–to data;

• Member of Editorial Board of Encyclopedia of Engineer-Chemist,

Moscow, 2006–to data;

• Member of Editorial Board of Journal of Coatings, Moscow, 1990–2000

Dr Zaikov is member of Academy of Creation (San Diego, USA – cow, Russia), International Academy of Sciences (Munich, Germany), Ameri-can Chemical Society, Plastic Engineering Society (USA), and Royal Chemi-cal Society (UK)

Mos-A Kazakh national proverb said: “Mos-After 60 years old, the brain is going back (to childhood )” We cannot say that the Kazakh proverb is not true It

is the wisdom of Kazakh nationalit, and it is right We should agree with this The question is: How fast does brain revert to childhood after 60 years old? It

is very desirable that this speed of this movement should be not fast It is a fact that Prof Gennady E Zaikov is as active now as he was 20 years ago when

xxviii Introduction

he was 60 years old Our conclusion is: The speed of movement of Zaikov’s brain probably reverted but at very very small pace

In the former Soviet Union (after academician N M Emanuel’s death),

Dr Zaikov headed the team dealing with the problem of polymer aging in the U.S.S.R and the Eastern European countries in cooperation with the So-viet Academy of Sciences His present position is Head of Division, member

of directorium, and deputy of department of the N M Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences; Professor of Polymer Chemistry in the Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology; Pro-fessor of Polymer Chemistry in Volzhsk Branch of Volgograd State Technical University His fields of interest include chemical physics, chemical kinetics, flammability, degradation and stabilization of polymers, diffusion, polymer materials, kinetics in biology, history of chemistry, jokes

A few words about the personal life of G E Zaikov In addition to his ents (discussed previously), he has a sister, Zinaida E Zaikova, who was also

par-a tepar-acher of mpar-athempar-atics in high school (she ppar-ast par-awpar-ay some yepar-ars par-ago) Two

of his sisters (Klara and Inna) died during the Stalin collectivization period at the end of the 1920s from starvation Zaikov’s wife, Marina Izrailevna Artsis,

is a member of the N M Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics and has a PhD in chemistry His son, Vadim G Zaikov is a Sr Research Chemist of Av-ery Dennison Co (Ohio, USA) He has a PhD in chemistry twice The first one

he received in USSR, the second one he received from the College of William and Mary (Williamsburg, VA) in the laboratory of Prof William H Starnes His granddaughter, Alexandra (23 years old), is a student in Chicago (USA), and his grandson, Denis, (14 years old) is a schoolboy in Perry, Ohio (USA)

On his 80th birthday anniversary, G E Zaikov is in the prime of his life Although support for scientists and research is now at a low point for many

in Russia, he is hopeful that for the sake of his country and its future that this will improve (probably far into the future)

The practice of good science still exists in Russia, and G E Zaikov has been and is a significant contributor We wish him a most happy birthday

FIGURE 3 Professor, G E Zaikov (November, 9 2007) with his new book Chemical and

Biochemical Physics (Nova Science Publishers, New York) Above him (right side) is the

picture of his teacher Professor N M Emanuel (1915–1984) and his grandson’s, Denis, drawing (left side).

FIGURE 4 Staff of the laboratory of chemical resistance of polymers: seated – Alexei A

Borodin (graduated student); first row (from the left to the right) – Lidia A Zimina, Dr Olga V Alexeeva, Marina L Konstantinova, Prof Gennady E Zaikov (Head of Division), Larisa L Madyuskina; second row (from the left to the right) – Dr Sergei M Lomakin (Head of Laboratory), Prof Stanislav D Razumovskii, Prof Vladimir M Gol’dberg, Prof Alexander A Volod’kin, Dr Nikolai N Madyuskin, Dr Marina I Artsis, Vyacheslav V Podmaster’ev November, 9 2007 N.M Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics Russian Academy of Sciences.

FIGURE 5 Prof Gennady E Zaikov on the Grand Canal in Venicie (2010) after

international conference “Time of Polymers” in Ischia Island, Naples Bay, Naples xxx Introduction

FIGURE 6 Four scientists (1976, Moscow) From the left to the right: Winner Nobel

Prize and Director of the Institute of Chemical Physics (ICP) Academy of Sciences of USSR, academician Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov; Head of Chemical Division, Presidium

of Academy of Sciences of USSR, Head of Department of Kinetics of Chemical and Biochemical Processes ICP, academician Nikolai Markovich Emanuel; Deputy of Head of Department of Kinetics of Chemical and Biochemical Processes ICP, head of laboratory of Chemical Resistance of Polymers Dr of Science, Prof Gennady Efremovich Zaikov and head of laboratory, Dr of Science, Prof Gunter Wagner, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of German Democratic Republic, Adlersdorf, Berlin.

A L IORDANSKII, G A BONARTSEVA, T A MAKHINA,

E D SKLYANCHUK, and G E ZAIKOV

CONTENTS

Abstract 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Hydrolytic and Enzymatic Degradation of PHB 41.3 PHB Applications 191.4 Conclusions 31Acknowledgments 31Keywords 32References 32

Bacterial poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) as member of natural polymer ily of polyalcanoates has been widely used in the innovative biomedical areas owing to relevant combination of biocompatibility, transport characteristics and biodegradation without toxic products formation The review presents a comprehensive description of hydrolysis and enzymatic degradation during long-time period preferably under laboratory condition (in-vitro) and as medi-cal implants (in-vivo) Besides, the focus of review is devoted to the literature comparison of different works in PHB degradation and its biomedical appli-cation including work of authors

fam-1.1 INTRODUCTION

Currently, the intensive development of biodegradable and biocompatible materials for medical implication provokes comprehensive interdisciplinary studies on biopolymer structures and functions The well-known and appli-cable biodegradable polymers are polylactides (PLA), polyglycolides (PGA), and their copolymers, poly ε-caprolactone, poly(orthoesters), poly β-maleic acid, poly(propylene fumarate), polyalkylcyanoacrylates, polyorthoanhy-drides, polyphosphazenes, poly(propylene fumarate), some natural polysac-charides (starch, chitosan, alginates, agarose, dextrane, chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid), and proteins (collagen, silk fibroin, fibrin, gelatin, albumin) Since some of these polymers should be synthesized through chemical stages (e.g., via lactic and glycolic acids) it is not quite correct to define them as the biopolymers

Besides biomedicine applications, the biodegradable biopolymers attract much attention as perspective materials in wide areas of industry, nanotech-nologies, farming and packaging owing to the relevant combination of bio-medical, transport, and physical-chemical properties It is worth to emphasis that only medical area of these biopolymers includes implants and prosthesis, tissue engineering scaffolds, novel drug dosage forms in pharmaceutics, novel materials for dentistry and others

Each potentially applicable biopolymer arranges a wide multidisciplinary network, which usually includes tasks of searching for efficacy ways of bio-synthesis reactions; economical problems associated with large-scale produc-tion; academic studies of mechanical, physicochemical, biochemical proper-ties of the polymer and material of interest; technology of preparation and using this biopolymer; preclinical and clinical trials of these materials and

Bacterial Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) as a Biodegradable Polymer 3

products; a market analysis and perspectives of application of the developed products and many other problems

Poly((R)-3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is an illustrative example for the one

of centers for formation of the above-mentioned scientific-technological work and a basis for the development of various biopolymer systems [1–2] In recent decades an intense development of biomedical application of bacterial PHB in producing of biodegradable polymer implants and controlled drug release systems [3–6] needs for comprehensive understanding of the PHB biodegradation process Examination of PHB degradation process is also nec-essary for development of novel friendly environment polymer packaging [7–9] It is generally accepted that biodegradation of PHB both in living systems and in environment occurs via enzymatic and nonenzymatic processes that take place simultaneously under natural conditions It is, therefore, important

net-to understand both processes [6, 10] Opposite net-to other biodegradable mers (e.g., PGA and PLGA), PHB is considered to be moderately resistant

poly-to degradation in-vitro as well as poly-to biodegradation in biological media The rates of degradation are influenced by the characteristics of the polymer, such

as chemical composition, crystallinity, morphology and molecular weight [11, 12] In spite of that PHB application in-vitro and in-vivo has been intensively investigated, the most of the available data are often incomplete and some-times even contradictory The presence of conflicting data can be partially explained by the fact that biotechnologically produced PHB with standardized properties is relatively rare and is not readily available due to а wide variety of its biosynthesis sources and different manufacturing processes

Above inconsistencies can be explained also by excess applied trend in PHB degradation research At most of the papers observed in this review, PHB degradation process has been investigated in the narrow framework of development of specific medical devices Depending on applied biomedical purposes biodegradation of PHB was investigated under different geometry: films and plates with various thickness [13–16], cylinders [17–19], monofila-ment threads [20–22] and micro and nanospheres [23, 24] At these experi-ments PHB was used from various sources, with different molecular weight and crystallinity Besides, different technologies of PHB devices manufacture affect such important characteristics as polymer porosity and surface structure [14, 15] Reports regarding the complex theoretical research of mechanisms

of hydrolysis, enzymatic degradation and biodegradation in-vivo of PHB cesses are relatively rare [13–15, 16, 25–27] that attaches great value and im-portance to these investigations Nevertheless, the effect of thickness, size and geometry of PHB device, molecular weight and crystallinity of PHB on the mechanism of PHB hydrolysis and biodegradation was not yet well clarified

1.2 HYDROLYTIC AND ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION OF PHB

1.2.1 NONENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS OF PHB IN-VITRO

Examination of hydrolytic degradation of natural ate) in-vitro is a very important step for understanding of PHB biodegrada-tion There are several very profound and careful examinations of PHB hy-drolysis that was carried out for 10–15 years [25–28] Hydrolytic degradation

poly((R)-3-hydroxybutyr-of PHB was usually examined under standard experimental conditions lating internal body fluid: in buffered solutions with pH=7.4 at 37 °C but at seldom cases the higher temperature (55 °C, 70 °C and more) and other values

simu-of pH (from 2 to 11) were selected

The classical experiment for examination of PHB hydrolysis in son with hydrolysis of other widespread biopolymer, polylactic acid (PLA), was carried out by Koyama and Doi [25] They compared films (10 × 10

compari-mm size, 50 µm thickness, 5 mg initial mass) from PHB (Mn = 300,000, Mw

= 650,000) with polylactic acid (Mn = 9000, Mw = 21,000) prepared by vent casting and aged for 3 weeks to reach equilibrium crystallinity They showed that hydrolytic degradation of natural PHB is the slow process The mass of PHB film remained unchanged at 37 °C in 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH=7.4) over a period of 150 days, while the mass of the PLA film rapidly decreased with time and reached 17% of the initial mass after 140 days The rate of decrease in the Mn of the PHB was also much slower than the rate of decrease in the Mn of PLA The Mn of the PHB decreased approximately to 65% of the initial value after 150 days, while the Mn of the PLA decreased to 20% (Mn = 2000) at the same time As PLA used at this research was with low molecular weight it is worth to compare these data with the data of hydrolysis investigation with the same initial Mn as for PHB In other work the mass loss

sol-of two polymer films (PLA and PHB) with the same thickness (40 µm) and molecular weight (Mw = 450,000) was studied in-vitro It was shown that the mass of PLA film decreased to 87%, whereas the mass of PHB film remained unchanged at 37 °C in 25 mM phosphate buffer (pH=7.4) over a period of

84 days, but after 360 days the mass of PHB film was 64.9% of initial one [29–31]

The cleavage of polyester chains is known to be catalyzed by the carboxyl end groups, and its rate is proportional to the concentrations of water and ester bonds that on the initial stage of hydrolysis are constant owing to the pres-ence of a large excess of water molecules and ester bonds of polymer chains Thus, the kinetics of nonenzymatic hydrolysis can be expressed by a simpli-fied equation [32, 33]:

Bacterial Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) as a Biodegradable Polymer 5

ln Mn = ln Mn0 – kht (1)where Mn and Mn0 are the number-average molecular weights of a polymer component at time t and zero, respectively and kh is effective hydrolysis con-stant

The average number of bond cleavage per original polymer molecule, N,

is given by:

N = (Mn0/Mn) – 1 = kd MmPn0 t, (2)where kd is the effective rate constant of hydrolytic depolymerization, and Pn0

is the initial number-average degree of polymerization at time zero, Mm is stant molecular mass of monomer Thus, if the chain scission is completely random, the value of N is linearly dependent on time

con-The molecular weight decrease with time is the distinguishing feature of mechanism under nonenzymatic hydrolysis condition in contrast to enzymatic hydrolysis condition of PHB when Mn values remained almost unchanged It was supposed also that water-soluble oligomers of PHB with molecular mass about 3 kDa may accelerate the hydrolysis rate of PHB homo polymer [25]

In contrast, Freier et al [14] showed that PHB hydrolysis was not accelerated

by the addition of predegraded PHB: the rate of mass and Mw loss of blends (70/30) from high-molecular PHB (Mw = 641,000) and low-molecular PHB (Mw = 3000) was the same with degradation rate of pure high-molecular PHB Meanwhile, the addition of amorphous atactic PHB (at PHB) (Mw = 10,000)

to blend with high-molecular PHB caused significant acceleration of PHB drolysis: the relative mass loss of PHB/at PHB blends was 7% in comparison with 0% mass loss of pure PHB; the decrease of Mw was 88% in comparison with 48% Mw decrease of pure PHB [14, 34] We have showed that the rate

hy-of hydrolysis hy-of PHB films depends on Mw of PHB The PHB films of high molecular weight (Mw = 450,000 and 1,000,000) degraded slowly as it was described above whereas films from PHB of low molecular weight (Mw = 150,000 and 300,000 kDa) lost weight relatively gradually and more rapidly [29–31]

To enhance the hydrolysis of PHB a higher temperature was selected for degradation experiments: 55 °C, 70 °C and more [25] It was showed by the same research team that the weights of films (12 mm diameter, 65 µm thick) from PHB (Mn = 768 and 22 kDa, Mw = 1460 and 75 kDa) were unchanged

at 55 °C in 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH=7.4) over a period of 58 days The

Mn value decreased from 768 to 245 kDa for 48 days The film thickness increased from 65 to 75 µm for 48 days, suggesting that water permeated

the polymer matrix during the hydrolytic degradation Examination of the surface and cross-section of PHB films before and after hydrolysis showed that surface after 48 days of hydrolysis was apparently unchanged, while the cross-section of the film exhibited a more porous structure (pore size

< 0.5 µm) It was shown also that the rate of hydrolytic degradation is not dependent upon the crystallinity of PHB film The observed data indicates that the nonenzymatic hydrolysis of PHB in the aqueous media proceeds via a random bulk hydrolysis of ester bonds in the polymer chain films and occurs throughout the whole film, since water permeates the polymer ma-trix [25, 26] Moreover, as over the whole degradation time the first-order kinetics was observed and the molecular weight distribution was unimodal,

a random chain scission mechanism is very probable both on the crystalline surfaces and in the amorphous regions of the biopolymer [14, 35, 36] For synthetic amorphous at PHB it was shown that its hydrolysis is the two-step process First, the random chain scission proceeds that accompanying with

a molecular weight decrease Then, at a molecular weight of about 10,000, mass loss begins [28]

The analysis of literature data shows a great spread in values of rate

of PHB hydrolytic degradation in-vitro It can be explained by different thickness of PHB films or geometry of PHB devices used for experiment

as well as by different sources, purity degree and molecular weight of PHB (Table 18.1) At 37 °C and pH=7.4 the weight loss of PHB (unknown

Mw) films (500 µm thick) was 3% after 40 days incubation [36–38], 0% ter 52 weeks (364 days) and after 2 years (730 days) incubation (640 kDa PHB, 100 µm films) [14, 15], 0% after 150 days incubation (650 kDa PHB, 50 µm film) [25], 7.5% after 50 days incubation (279 kDa PHB, unknown thickness of films) [37], 0% after 3 months (84 days) incubation (450 kDa PHB, 40 µm films), 12% after 3 months (84 days) incubation (150 kDa PHB, 40 µm films) [29–30], 0% after 180 days incubation of monofilament threads (30 µm in diameter) from PHB (470 kDa) [22, 23] The molecular weight of PHB dropped to 36% of the initial values after

af-2 years (730 days) of storage in buffer solution [15], to 87% of the initial values after 98 days [38], to 58% of the initial values after 84 days [29, 30] (Table 18.1)

Bacterial Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) as a Biodegradable Polymer 7

TABLE 18.1 Nonenzymatic Hydrolysis of PHB In-Vitro*

Conditions Relative

mass loss, %

Relative loss of

M w , %

Time, Days Links

In acidic or alkaline aqueous media PHB degrades more rapidly: 0% radation after 140 days incubation in 0.01 M NaOH (pH=11) (200 kDa, 100

deg-µm film thickness) with visible surface changing [39], 0% degradation after

180 days incubation of PHB threads in phosphate buffer (pH=5.2 and 5.9) [23], complete PHB films biodegradation after 19 days (pH=13) and 28 days (pH=10) [37] It was demonstrated that after 20 weeks of exposure to NaOH solution, the surfaces of PHB samples became rougher due to, along with an increased density in their surface layers From these results, one may surmise that the nonenzymatic degradation of PHAs progresses on their surfaces be-fore noticeable weight loss occurring as illustrated in Ref [39] and by the authors in Fig.1.1

FIGURE 1.1 AFM topographic images of PHB films (170 kDa) with a scan size of

18×18 μm: (a) the rough surface of fresh-prepared sample (exposed to air); (b) the smooth surface of fresh-prepared sample (exposed to glass); (c) the sample exposed to phosphate buffer at 310K for 83 days; (d) the sample exposed to phosphate buffer at 343 K for 83 days General magnificence is 300.

Bacterial Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) as a Biodegradable Polymer 9

It was shown also that treatment of PHB film with 1 M NaOH caused a reduce in pore size on film surface from 1–5 µm to around 1 µm that indicates

a partially surface degradation of PHB in alkaline media [40, 41] At higher temperature no weight loss of PHB films and threads was observed after 98 and 182 days incubation in phosphate buffer (pH=7.2) at 55 °C and 70 °C, respectively [22], 12% and 39% of PHB (450 and 150 kDa, respectively) films after 84 days incubation at 70 °C [35, 40], 50% and 25% after 150 days incubation of microspheres (250–850 µm diameter) from PHB (50 kDa and

600 kDa, respectively) [42]

During degradation of PHB monofilament threads, films and plates the change of mechanical properties was observed under different conditions in-vitro [22, 43] It was shown that a number of mechanical indices of threads became worse: load at break lost 36%, strain at break lost 33%, Young’s modulus didn’t change, tensile strength lost 42% after 182 days incubation in phosphate buffer (pH=7.2) at 70 °C But at 37 °C the changes were more com-plicated: at first load at break increased from 440 g to 510 g (16%) at 90th day and then decreased to the initial value on 182nd day, strain at break increased rapidly from 60 to 70% (in 17%) at 20th day and then gradually increased to 75% (in 25%) at 182nd day, Young’s modulus didn’t change [22] For PHB films it was demonstrated a gradual 32% decrease in Young’s modulus and 77% fall in tensile strength during 120 days incubation in phosphate buffer (pH=7.4) at 37 °C [43] For PHB plates more complicated changes were ob-served: at first tensile strength dropped in 13% for 1st day and then increased

to the initial value at 28th day, Young’s modulus dropped in 32% for 1st day and then remain unchanged up to 28th day, stiffness decreased sharply also in 40% for 1st day and then remain unchanged up to 28th day [44]

1.2.2 ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION OF PHB IN-VITRO

The examination of enzymatic degradation of PHB in-vitro is the following important step for understanding of PHB performance in animal tissues and

in environment The most papers observed degradation of PHB by merases of its own bacterial producers The degradation of PHB in-vitro by depolymerase was thoroughly examined and mechanism of enzymatic PHB degradation was perfectly clarified by Doi Y [25–26] At these early works

depoly-it was shown that 68–85% and 58% mass loss of PHB (Mw = 650–768 and

22 kDa, respectively) films (50–65 µm thick) occurred for 20 h under cubation at 37°C in phosphate solution (pH=7.4) with depolymerase (1.5–3

in-µg/mL) isolated from A fecalis The rate (ke) of enzymatic degradation of films from PHB (Mn=768 and 22 kDa) was 0.17 and 0.15 mg/h, respectively