A comprehensive outline of world history

Geographical Presentation of Central and Northern Asia 84.. Central and Northern Asia: Beginning to 8000 B.C... Geographical Presentation of The Indian Subcontinent 152.. Geographical Pr

Trang 1

A Comprehensive Outline of World History (Organized by Region)

Trang 3

82 Central and Northern Asia

83 Geographical Presentation of Central and Northern Asia

84 Central and Northern Asia: Beginning to 8000 B.C

85 Central and Northern Asia: 8000 to 5000 B.C

Trang 4

89 Central and Northern Asia: 1000 to 700 B.C.

96 Central and Northern Asia: 100 B.C to 0

97 Central and Northern Asia: 0 to A.D 100

98 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 101 to 200

Trang 5

150 The Indian Subcontinent

151 Geographical Presentation of The Indian Subcontinent

152 The Indian Subcontinent: Beginning to 8,000 B.C

153 The Indian Subcontinent: 8000 to 5000 B.C

164 The Indian Subcontinent: 100 B.C to 0

165 The Indian Subcontinent: 0 to A.D 100

166 The Indian Subcontinent: 101 A.D to 200

167 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 201 to 300

Trang 6

184 The Far East

185 Geographical Presentation of The Far East

186 The Far East: Beginning to 8000 B.C

187 The Far East: 8000 to 5000 B.C

198 The Far East: 100 B.C to 0

199 The Far East: 0 to A.D 100

200 The Far East: A.D 101 to 200

218 The Near East

219 Geographical Presentation of The Near East

220 The Near East: Beginning to 8000 B.C

221 The Near East: 8000 to 5000 B.C

Trang 7

224 The Near East: 1500 to 1000 B.C.

232 The Near East: 100 B.C to 0

233 The Near East: 0 to A.D 100

234 The Near East: A.D 101 to 200

252 The Pacific

253 Geographical Presentation of The Pacific

254 The Pacific: Beginning to 8000 B.C

267 The Pacific: 0 to A.D 100

268 The Pacific: A.D 101 to 200

Trang 8

11 The Indian Subcontinent

12 The Far East

13 The Near East

14 The Pacific

15 Bibliography

Trang 9

Maxfield, J (2008, October 30) A Comprehensive Outline of World History (Organized by Region) Retrieved from the

Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/col10597/1.1/

It has been produced as a derivative work under the terms

of the CC-BY-2.0 license and produced using

IGP:Digital Publisher and Formats On Demand

for release as a print PDF, various e-book formats,

Online reuse and remixable content objects.

Trang 12

Central and Northern Asia

Geographical Presentation of Central and Northern AsiaCentral and Northern Asia: Beginning to 8000 B.C.Central and Northern Asia: 8000 to 5000 B.C

Central and Northern Asia: 5000 to 3000 B.C

Trang 13

Central and Northern Asia: 500 to 401 B.C.Central and Northern Asia: 400 to 301 B.C.Central and Northern Asia: 300 to 201 B.C.Central and Northern Asia: 200 to 101 B.C.Central and Northern Asia: 100 B.C to 0Central and Northern Asia: 0 to A.D 100Central and Northern Asia: A.D 101 to 200Central and Northern Asia: A.D 201 to 300Central and Northern Asia: A.D 301 to 400Central and Northern Asia: A.D 401 to 500Central and Northern Asia: A.D 501 to 600Central and Northern Asia: A.D 601 to 700Central and Northern Asia: A.D 701 to 800Central and Northern Asia: A.D 801 to 900Central and Northern Asia: A.D 901 to 1000Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1001 to 1100Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1101 to 1200Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1201 to 1300Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1301 to 1400Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1401 to 1500Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1501 to 1600Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1601 to 1700Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1701 to 1800Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1801 to 1900

Trang 14

Europe: 3000 to 1500 B.C.Europe: 1500 to 1000 B.C.Europe: 1000 to 700 B.C.Europe: 700 to 601 B.C.Europe: 600 to 501 B.C.Europe: 500 to 401 B.C.Europe: 400 to 301 B.C.Europe: 300 to 201 B.C.Europe: 200 to 101 B.C.Europe: 100 B.C to 0Europe: 0 to A.D 100Europe: A.D 101 to 200Europe: A.D 201 to 300Europe: A.D 301 to 400Europe: A.D 401 to 500Europe: A.D 501 to 600Europe: A.D 601 to 700Europe: A.D 701 to 800Europe: A.D 801 to 900Europe: A.D 901 to 1000Europe: A.D 1001 to 1100Europe: A.D 1101 to 1200Europe: A.D 1201 to 1300Europe: A.D 1301 to 1400Europe: A.D 1401 to 1500Europe: A.D 1501 to 1600Europe: A.D 1601 to 1700Europe: A.D 1701 to 1800Europe: A.D 1801 to 1900

Trang 15

The Indian Subcontinent

Geographical Presentation of The Indian SubcontinentThe Indian Subcontinent: Beginning to 8,000 B.C.The Indian Subcontinent: 8000 to 5000 B.C

The Indian Subcontinent: 5000 to 3000 B.C

The Indian Subcontinent: 100 B.C to 0

The Indian Subcontinent: 0 to A.D 100

The Indian Subcontinent: 101 A.D to 200

The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 201 to 300

Trang 16

The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1401 to 1500The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1501 to 1600The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1601 to 1700The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1701 to 1800The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1801 to 1900

The Far East

Geographical Presentation of The Far EastThe Far East: Beginning to 8000 B.C

The Far East: 8000 to 5000 B.C

The Far East: 100 B.C to 0

The Far East: 0 to A.D 100

The Far East: A.D 101 to 200

Trang 17

The Near East

Geographical Presentation of The Near EastThe Near East: Beginning to 8000 B.C.The Near East: 8000 to 5000 B.C

The Near East: 5000 to 3000 B.C

The Near East: 100 B.C to 0

The Near East: 0 to A.D 100

The Near East: A.D 101 to 200

Trang 18

The Pacific

Geographical Presentation of The PacificThe Pacific: Beginning to 8000 B.C.The Pacific: 8000 to 5000 B.C

Trang 19

The Pacific: 100 B.C to 0The Pacific: 0 to A.D 100The Pacific: A.D 101 to 200The Pacific: A.D 201 to 300The Pacific: A.D 301 to 400The Pacific: A.D 401 to 500The Pacific: A.D 501 to 600The Pacific: A.D 601 to 700The Pacific: A.D 701 to 800The Pacific: A.D 801 to 900The Pacific: A.D 901 to 1000The Pacific: A.D 1001 to 1100The Pacific: A.D 1101 to 1200The Pacific: A.D 1201 to 1300The Pacific: A.D 1301 to 1400The Pacific: A.D 1401 to 1500The Pacific: A.D 1501 to 1600The Pacific: A.D 1601 to 1700The Pacific: A.D 1701 to 1800The Pacific: A.D 1801 to 1900BIBLIOGRAPHY

Trang 20

This modular, linked structure is ideally suited to web-based online implementation, especially tothe Connexions platform I am pleased to make this content available on Connexions for the enjoymentand enlightenment of everyone with an interest in the history of our world

Robert Maxfield October 2008

More Details on the Origin of this Material

My father, Dr Jack Eldred Maxfield, was an orthopedic surgeon with a deep interest in history Heself-published three editions of “A Comprehensive Outline of World History.” The 1959 first editionconsisted of 200 pages with 8 references in the bibliography, and included a unique time-line, hand-drawn and hand-colored by him, showing the rise and fall of civilizations An original and six carboncopies were typed from his hand-written manuscript He put these copies into binders and presentedthem to me and my friends as high-school graduation gifts

The second, hardbound edition, published about 1975, was a single volume of 474 pages, 47bibliographical references, and numerous hand-drawn, hand-colored maps I do not know how manycopies were printed

The third edition, typed by my father on an electronic typewriter and published in 1984, consisted

of three hardbound volumes totaling 1303 pages and 322 bibliographic references Well over onehundred copies, in batches of 20, were eventually published as demand grew The following letterwas included with each set he gave away:

Dear friends:

These three volumes are in no way to be considered a formal publication They simply represent the end result of some 25 years of reading, writing and re-writing historical material arranged in a chronological way to suit my own fancy and for the use of my family

Trang 21

if they so desired I am happy now to include a few friends who have expressed an interest.

Before using this manuscript for reference or even for casual reading, I would suggest that you first peruse the pages numbered with Roman numerals in Volume I They give the general plan of the outline and suggest its purposes as well as defining some of its limitations Please excuse any remaining typographical and/or spelling errors and I am sure there are many.

Trang 22

Foreword to this Derivative Version

by Infogrid Pacific

About this derivative version

Jack E Maxfield's amazing work A Comprehensive Outline of World History , has generously been

made available under a Creative Commons license The topic based nature of this is an ideal contentsource to illustrate multi-format, remixable content from a valuable, well referenced book or contentsource

We had multiple objectives behind deciding to produce this book into multiple digital formats:

1 It is a valuable reference resource and deserves to be widely available for educational purposes

of all types in as many possible formats as possible

2 The topic based nature of the structure makes it ideal for demonstrating content remixing whichactually delivers useful results from a single work

3 It's a large book in terms of word count and structure (number of sections or topics), and has theability to stretch e-book devices to the limit

4 There are sufficient linking references to make the reading navigation experience interesting, andagain, push e-book devices to their limit

5 The maps contain sufficient detail to be valuable

6 The styling is conventional and does not require a lot of treatment or customization

Remixing the book

The book has been comprehensively retagged into IGP:FoundationXHTML using IGP:Digital

Publisher The original HTML pages were imported into IGP:Digital Publisher using the manuscript

import feature This converted the HTML to XHTML automatically Once the XML has been created

and is available in IGP:Digital Publisher the content is ready for action in a number of ways.

The book is available in multiple formats

There you can see this book as a Print PDF, and in various e-book formats All of these are

produced with one click from the IGP:Digital PublisherFormats On Demand processor Most

importantly we have created several variants using different combinations of the content

1 The entire book using the original structure map is available as 6in x 9in academic style, and A4manual style PDFs

Trang 23

2 The same content is available as an e-pub and a mobipocket file Please take note of the file sizesbefore deciding to download it onto your preferred device.

3 There are two remixed versions which combine objects horizontally through the content at

5000-8000 B.C and the 19th century These are also available in the same format combinationsabove

4 There is one vertical remixed version covering Africa available in the same formatcombinations

How this version differs from the Connexions online version

The core content remains substantially intact There has been limited editorial changes made asexplained below to make the book relevant for a remixable topic based content approach

Map References

Map references have been editorialized to remove page position indicators For example: Thepositional references "map on the opposite page", has been changed to Map 2.3, or whatever theappropriate numbered references

Internal navigation

Because the purpose was to turn each topic into a self-contained, remixable object, all internalnavigation references such as forward and back have been removed This left the issue of how toresolve internal inter-topic links Because we have tried to create a stand-alone topic based referencework, inter-section links have been left as unlinked references in this edition

For e-book devices with limited processing power and memory it is appropriate to limit, or evenprevent inter-section links as much as possible to improve navigation performance This is even moreimportant where there are a large number of links

Map positioning

Maps have been positioned for Online and e-book presentation in proximity to their reference in textfollowing the rule, "where possible a figure or map must follow its first reference in text" Maps arefloated page-top or page-top-next in the PDF output editions

Additional Notes

Additional notes have been treated as footnotes This allows them to remain in their context, creates

an easy to reference print book, and footnotes are processed to return section end-notes automatically

for e-books Notes and footnotes all have return links processed in automatically by the IGP:Digital

Publisher Formats On Demand processor.

Trang 24

Reference processing was particularly difficult We wanted to create all sections as self-containedobjects, so references for a section were accumulated in a References section at the end of each topic.References have been renumbered linearly within each section which means they loose their originalcontext We felt it was appropriate for the original context to be maintained, so original referencenumbers are included in brackets after the newly generated linear number thus [243] and have a directexternal link to the connexions site These numbers have an XML element on them which allows them

to be hidden for any particular format using CSS selectors

***

Infogrid Pacific is pleased to make all variant formats of this book available for anyone to reuseanywhere for any purpose within the terms of the Creative Commons license

I would like to give a special thank you to our Demonstration Production Editor Milan

Bishwakarma for his tireless efforts in producing this edition It was a labour of love spanning many

months of his spare and own time

Lastly we would like to acknowledge the work of Jack E Maxfield and his family for theirgenerousity in contributing this life-hobby-work to the greater good of mankind

Richard Pipe CEO Infogrid Pacific

May 2010

Trang 25

My friends ask why I should undertake to write a World History Aren't there already enough suchbooks in the English language? Of course There are dozens, perhaps scores of them, each with a

particular purpose, or scope, or bias and each with some limitations The very excellent The Outline

of History by H.G Wells was published some sixty plus years ago and lacks much of the information

gained from recent archeology and other sciences It devotes only about two pages to the Aztec andInca empires and only an occasional sentence about Central and South America, otherwise Sub-Saharan Africa is scarcely mentioned except in regard to the slave trade The Durants' multi-volume

work, The Story of Civilization is a beautifully written narrative which, however, gets bogged down

in its later volumes with tiring details of long ago politics, royal genealogies and religious andphilosophical dialogues Unfortunately, as with other texts, it also has some inaccuracies The more

scholarly A Study of History is a somewhat mystical interpretation of Arnold Toynbee's personal

ideas of history, not in any sense a chronological narration of happenings If the reader is not alreadywell versed in the essential landmarks of the world's factual history, understanding is of ten difficult

The same might be said of the more recent Hugh Thomas' A History of the World , which has no

suggestion of continuity from the standpoint of dates, but discusses one facet of man's endeavors at atime, jumping freely from 1,000 B.C to A.D 1,800 and back again, assuming that the reader alreadyknows the prosaic historical facts to appreciate these rapid changes of scenes Again, inaccuraciesare present, some of which are mentioned later in the text While the usual high school history bookshave been cut of most of the gore, tragedy and even obscenities of the old world, some of the college

and adult texts such as The Columbia History of the World and William McNeill's several texts are excellent, but they still do not reach the far corners of the earth in some of the centuries The An

Encyclopedia of World History , compiled and edited by William L Langer, is an excellent

documentation of world history - ancient, medieval and modern, chronologically arranged and thishas been referred to many times during the writing of this manuscript, particularly for confirmation ofdates, dynasties, clarification of names, etc It is not a book for leisurely reading and enjoyment,however, and is essentially a list of year dates with short, concise material after each, purely for

reference Similar, but less useful, is James Trager's very recent The Peoples Chronology, a series of

completely unrelated and miscellaneous "facts" (some are gross errors) listed by years It is difficult

to see the value of this except perhaps as a parlor game of "What things happened in the world atlarge in some specific year?" This manuscript has one purpose only - to give a panoramic picture ofthe entire globe from the arctic to deepest Africa and the south Pacific in specific time-frames Theemphasis is to give the overall view of the world and its peoples, without dwelling in too much depth

on those features that are easily available in every school and municipal library and in many homes Irefer to such subjects as the details of classical Greece and Rome, the American Colonies and thevarious wars and specific battles For example, in this text less space may be given the AmericanRevolutionary and Civil wars than the pre-Inca civilizations of South America or the life of the

Trang 26

Mongol soldiers in central Asia Information on the former subjects is available everywhere, whilethat on the latter two subjects is limited.

Trang 27

The Mechanics of and Some Problems of the

to a description of the status of the common people of an area at any given moment Hopefully most ofthe world's outstanding personalities in all fields have been given some space, but it is admitted thatmany aspects of art, literature, music and architecture may, in some opinions, be slighted, as these arenot the major fields of the author's interests

The textual data is presented in multiple chapters, each representing a definite period of time Theearlier chapters span several millennia each, but beginning with the 7th century B.C each chaptercontains the events of one century only Within each chapter or time-frame in addition to some generalremarks pertinent to the period as a whole, the world situation will discussed under eight mainheadings or sections, representing eight great areas of the globe These areas and their subdivisionshave been somewhat arbitrarily chosen, but seem to lend themselves satisfactorily to an orderlyconsideration of the various societies and civilizations One cannot prevent certain over-lappings andcertain difficulties with such a plan due to the changing political boundary lines from century tocentury As one example it will be remembered that the Great Wall of China ended at Jiayuguan in thewest, marking the border of traditional China, and beyond this on westward lies Central Asia Yettoday much of this land to the west belongs to the present Chinese Peoples Republic, even though theinhabitants are still chiefly Turkish and Mongolian peoples So, in spite of the political shift certainareas currently under the domain of China, such as Sinkiang-Uighur (present spelling Xinjiang Uygur)and Tibet, will be considered in this manuscript under the heading of CENTRAL AND NORTHERNASIA Manchuria is considered an entity in itself, as part of the Far East complex

Another matter which may annoy or confuse the reader as he progresses through the text is thespelling variations One must realize that language is a spoken phenomenon and that what we call

"written language" is really only a notation system that attempts to recall the spoken words to theobserver Thus when anyone attempts to write down a notation that seems to him to record a spokenforeign word his rendition will depend on his own language background and phonetics The resultmay be only a rough approximation at best, and the spelling will vary greatly with the nationality ofthe translator One of the most fascinating examples of this would be in the spelling variations for thegreat Mongol leader whose name has been variously written as "Jenghis Khan", "Chingis Khan",

"Genghis Khan", "Chinggis Khan" and perhaps others The Mongols as a group have been named

Trang 28

"Khalkas", "Tatars", "Tartars", "Cumans", "Kipchaks", or "Poloritse" depending on the writer, hisnationality and the location of the particular Mongol tribe at the moment It is well known that theEnglish often use a "k" where Americans use "c" as in such words as "Keltic"-"Celtic" and "Khosru-

"Chosroes", etc Although this author has attempted to be as consistent as possible there are probablymany exceptions for which apology is asked

There is still another source of confusion concerning names When the first names of the monarchs

of medieval and later Europe are all Anglicized we get an amazing succession of Charles, Henrys,Johns, Williams, etc In one world history index I counted about sixty-five rulers named Charles Inthis manuscript in so far as possible the monarchs’ names will be given in their own language so thatdifferentiation may be aided Thus in the Scandinavian and Germanic countries Charles will be Karland William will be Wilhelm Similarly the French Henrys will be Henris and the Portugese Johnwill be the native Joao while Peter will be rendered as Pedro Other examples will be apparent

But that is not all! The Chinese emperors present special problems in nomenclature, as all Chinesehave traditionally had several kinds of personal names, and special names were often addedaccording to interests or achievements Posthumous names were often given prominent individualsalso to further complicate the situation The old rulers of China were seldom referred to by theirpersonal names but rather by the epithets of ancestral temple ceremonies, including the terms "tsu"(grandfather), "tsung" (clansman or ancestor) or "ti" (emperor) Founders of dynasties are commonlydesignated "Kao-tsu" (exalted grandfather) or "T'ai-tsu" (grand progenitor) In addition the emperors

of the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties commonly coined era names indicating what they hoped the futurewould bring and subsequently they might be called by their era-name One trouble is that somechanged era-names several times during their reigns Hucker gives the example: "Ming T'ai-tsu beganhis reign in traditional fashion with the era-name Hung-wu (swelling military power) 'the Hung-wu'emperor is a technically correct alternative way of referring to Ming T'ai-tsu."1 But one does notcorrectly say that his name was Hung-wu"!

One last warning As this edition is being written almost all the Chinese cities and places are beingspelled anew, in an attempt to come closer to the true phonetic rendition of the Chinese words Since

at the moment this only seems to add to the confusion and since it will be some years before mostmaps and texts will change to the new format, the old system of spelling will be followed in thismanuscript Peking will still be "Peking" and not "Beijing"

This text will occasionally also have special sections on selected subjects or appropriatesummaries of certain eras Terminology with reference to dates will be the traditional "B.C."referring to either years or centuries before the birth of Christ, and "A.D." for a specific year after

Christ The latter abbreviation, of course, is for Anno Domini, meaning "in the year of our Lord" and

is therefore not properly used to refer to a century.

Thus, for those centuries after the birth of Christ we shall use the designation "C.E.", indicating the

"Christian Era" Footnotes will be indicated by number on each page, as demonstrated on this one.References to the bibliography will be by number in the form (Ref 2, 3) and usually will be grouped

at the end of paragraphs or sections to minimize confusion during the reading of the text Some

"additional notes" will be found at the end of the text, beginning on page 1181 Triple asterisks ***

-in the text proper -indicate that these additional notes are appropriate to that paragraph In someinstances the page number is listed with the asterisks, but otherwise the notes are easily found underthe proper time-frame and then the geographical division, just as in the main outline

Trang 29

1 [101] H China's Imperial Past (Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, 1975).

2 [34] C All the Best in Scandinavia (Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1968).

3 [102] H UM E, I VOR N OEL, "First look at a Lost Virginia Settlement," National Geographic June, 1979, page 735.

1 Hucker (Ref 1), page 288n

Trang 30

Africa

Trang 31

Geographical Presentation of Africa

Africa is a tremendous continent, measuring nearly 5,000 miles from north to south and the same fromthe western edge at 20° north latitude to the eastern "horn" It comprises over 20% of the earth's landsurface Throughout the manuscript we shall discuss Africa under the subdivisions listed below

NORTHEAST AFRICA

This area includes present day Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia It has about 2,000,000 squaremiles and is a region where Hamitic and Semitic Caucasoids have met and merged with Negroidstock Many of the Negroids seem different than other black Africans and some authorities believethem to be a separate race, as for example – the Masai (Ref 1) In ancient times part of Ethiopia(Abyssinia) was known as Axum, while portions of the Sudan have been known as Kush and Nubia.The Nile River runs through all of these countries with the exception of Somalia

NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHWEST

This area includes present day Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and a large part of the SaharaDesert Overall there are nearly 3,000,000 square miles and the majority of the present population isdescendant from the original inhabitants, as no invader ever brought many individuals to the area.Even the great Arab waves of the 7th and 8th centuries probably involved less than 200,000 people.The Berbers are a Caucasoid type, but with much physical variation from tribe to tribe They inhabitmost of the coastal region, much of the mountainous country and the oases The basic population of theSahara proper, particularly its more southern portions, was and is today basically Negroid, somenative and some descended from slaves (Ref 2)

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

This area extends from far west Africa across the Sudanic plain as far east as the Lake Chadenvirons, then down to the equatorial district as well as central, east and south Africa and the majorislands This very large spread of land has many and varied peoples and cultures, but historicalmaterial is still relatively meager for most of it and from the standpoint of manuscript space, it seemsbest to consider it under one section

Trang 32

Map 1.1: Africa

1 [83] H Africa to 1875 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1970).

2 [83] H Africa to 1875 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1970).

Trang 33

Africa: Beginning to 8000 B.C.

AFRICA

Before the Ice Age, in the Pliocene Era, there were ape-like hominoids using weapons to kill prey inAfrica It is in the anthropological digs in Tanganyika's Olduvai Gorge that one finds the possibleorigin of man a million or more years ago Some cutting tools there are dated at 3,000,000 B.C.Human habitation in Egypt goes back at least 200,000 years and there are stone tools in Zambia dating

to 700,000 to 500,000 B.C About 110,000 years ago there was a major change in world climate(probably from eccentricity in the earth's orbit) which gave rise to the Ice Age in northern latitudesand to marked precipitation changes, both of distribution and amount, on the African continent Homoerectus disappeared and Homo sapiens, with middle Stone Age tool technology, appeared Those men

in Africa were similar or identical to Neanderthal man in Europe and Asia

About 20,000 B.C during the Magdalenian period, there was a hunting culture in North Africasimilar to that of Spain and France, and the people left remarkable rock engravings of wild, largeanimals in some areas Later post-ice age (Mesolithic) paintings had lost the naturalism of earlierones and may have been chiefly remembered symbolism within the tribes, after the large animals haddisappeared Ateriaan bow and arrow makers in Maighreb and Stillbay in Magosian settlements insouth and east Africa are dated to 185000 B.C At that time there was a land bridge from near thehorn of Africa to the Arabian Peninsula The large game animals - mastodons and mammoths began todisappear from Africa some 50,000 to 40,000 years ago and the number of human hunters probablydecreased secondarily Rock art has been found dating back to 25,000 B.C in Nambia; to 11,000B.C in southern Morocco; and to 7,000 B.C in Cape Province, South Africa The first known Negroskeleton comes from Iwo Ileru in Nigeria and dates to about 9,000 B.C

Stone artifacts show the same radio-carbon dating Flint blades, adapted from ancient weapons,were used near the Nile for reaping wild wheat by 12,000 B.C (Ref 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10) 1

1 (Ref 11) Emmanuel Anati (Ref 12) dates the Namibia rock art to about the same period as given in the text (26,000 to 28,000 years Before Present) and describes polychrome painted slabs with animal figurines

1 [18.] B, (Personal notes, 1978)

2 [28] Cheilik , Michael, Ancient History (Barnes & Noble Books of Harper & Row New York et al, 1969)

3 [45] D ANIEL, G LYN (Consulting Editor), Encyclopedia of Archeologv (Thomas Y Crowell Co 10 East 53rd St., New York, 1977).

4 [66] F, Saga America (Times Books, New York, 1980)

5 [83] H, Africa to 1875 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1970)

6 [88] H, (Editor), Atlas of Ancient Archaeology (McGraw-Hill Book Co New York, etc 1974)

7 [130] M, The Roots of Civilization (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1972)

Trang 34

8 [140] M C , Plagues and Peoples (Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York 1977)

9 [213] T, A History of the World (Harper & Row, Publ., New York, 1979)

10 [226] W, Prehistoric Man (Octopus Books Limited, London and Mandarin Publishers Limited, Hong Kong, 1977).

11 [313] R "Camel Ancestry and Domestication in Egypt & the Sahara", Archaeology 36, No 3: 21-27, May/June, 1983.

12 [299] A "Saving the World's Rock Art", Archaeology 36, No.2: 24-30, Mar./Apr 1983.

Trang 35

Africa: 8000 to 5000 B.C.

AFRICA

About 7,000 B.C a two-man plough was used in Egypt, one man ahead pulling on a rope and theother pressing down the point (Ref 1) It is assumed that hunters and pastoral peoples lived in greatparts of Africa, particularly the north and east at this time, but there is little or no evidence of theirculture except in the Sahara, itself Some of the Tassili pastoral rock paintings of that area may dateback to 6,000 B.C During the climatic optimum from about 7,000 to 3,000 B.C the Sahara was bushcountry, well stocked with game It well could have been a zone of human interbreeding of races, inthat today there are a number of Saharan and Sudanese tribes which appear to be intermediatebetween Caucasoids and African Negroes Mediterranean dark-white Hamitic Caucasoids appear tohave come from Asia, bringing Cushitic languages about 8,000 B.C and spreading south along theRift Valley of Africa to settle by the lakes in Kenya They were fishermen, using stone instrumentsand making pottery (Ref 2) But to return to the area of the Sahara, certainly before 6,000 B.C thiswas a region of lush valleys, wooded hills and fertile rolling plains, and the rock drawings of thisearly period suggest that the people were like the present day Bushmen, now found only in the SouthAfrican desert But with the disappearance of the big game, particularly the buffalo, these peoplewere apparently replaced by herdsmen from the east, perhaps the ancestors of the present daynomadic Fulani peoples (Ref 3, 4) Elsewhere in Africa from about 6,000 B.C on, some groupsliving near lakes or rivers adopted a more settled way of life, using bone harpoons for fishing.Remains of these have been found near Lake Chad, Lake Edward and Khartoum on the Nile (Ref 5)

1 [213] T, A History of the World (Harper & Row, Publ., New York, 1979)

2 [83] H, Africa to 1875 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1970)

3 [215] T., (Editor) Mysteries of the Past (American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc New York, 1977, distributed by Simon & Schuster, N.Y.)

4 [176] R, The World's Last Mysteries (Readers Digest Assoc., Inc., Pleasantville, New York, 1978)

5 [88] H, (Editor), Atlas of Ancient Archaeology (McGraw-Hill Book Co New York, etc 1974)

Trang 36

Africa: 5000 to 3000 B.C.

In this period there were Cushitic speaking Hamitic people along the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden

on the coastline of the horn of Africa In Egypt, sometime between 4,500 and 3,100 B.C the BadarianCulture existed, with agriculture, irrigation, clearing of jungles and swamps and pictographic writing,which may have been imported from Sumeria These Badarians may have come from south of Egyptvia the Red Sea and Wadi Hammarat, but it is possible that immigrants from Jericho also arrived,bringing food-producing techniques The overall population of the lower Nile was probably less than20,000 at 5,000 B.C (Ref 1) The climate was cold and damp and the people wore kilts or long skirtsmade of linen or skins with the fur inward They lived in some type of tents or perishable wallhomes

Hippopotami and crocodiles were in evidence, and in the area of el Badari there are bodies ofdogs, sheep and oxen wrapped in matting or linen This suggests possible reverence for theseanimals Lower Egypt had domestic grazing animals from the Levant by about 4,500 B.C., but theBadarians lived primarily in middle Egypt and their pottery dates to the second half of the 5thmillennium by thermoluminescence That they had outside contacts is evidenced by ivory spoons,shells from the Red Sea and turquoise beads from the Sinai Recent finds of a vast number of reedships, many with masts and sails have been made in the long dried-up wadi between the Nile and theRed Sea which may well date back to this period The Egyptians are basically Hamitic, but may wellhave added mixtures of Nubian, Ethiopian and Libyan natives, coming from the Sahara as it slowlydried, along with immigrant Semitic or Armenoid tribes Cattle were used as beasts of burdenperhaps by 4,000 B.C The sail was used from about 3,500 B.C on, and pottery dating to 3,100 bearspaintings of sickle-shaped sailing vessels, apparently built with reeds and complete with cabins andcenterboards Egypt was first united as the "Old Kingdom" under Menes1, who, as king of UpperEgypt, subdued Lower Egypt and united the two with a new capital established at what was latercalled Memphis Although Egypt had no copper or tin, it did have gold and there were fabulousgoldsmiths in Memphis (actually a clan of dwarfs) from the early days of the United Kingdom (Ref

2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

1 A Hoffman of the University of South Carolina (Ref 9) writes of the factors allowing the development of the "first nation", under Narmer (Menes) At Hierakonopolis, in Upper Egypt, about 3800 B.C., there was slight seasonal rainfall, wooded grasslands, fertile flood plains and easy access to the Nile There were two settlements in the area with mud-brick and wattle-and-daub houses spread over a 100 acre area and having perhaps as many as 10,000 people This is called the Amratian period (also Naqada I) and excavations have produced maceheads, as symbols of central authority A huge pottery industry was present, making Red Ware pottery which was traded up and down the Nile Some was used in the elaborate burials which were part of the Egyptians' religious beliefs Just after 3500 B.C., however, with the area becoming more arid, potteries were abandoned and the Amratian period came

Trang 37

to an end, as people moved into more thickly settled villages along the wetter Nile flood plain, initiating the Gerzean or Naqada II period, which lasted until 3100 B.C An elite class in the new villages built temples, palaces, larger tombs and possibly an irrigation system, rendering the flood plain able to produce bigger and more reliable harvests But the water management and excess grain storage problems demanded more central control Various kings fought for dominance and finally it was Narmer, who succeeded in political unification of the entire Egyptian Nile valley

NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHWEST AFRICA

A Neolithic Hamitic culture was present in Algeria and Morocco with agricultural settlements andpottery by 5,000 B.C The Sahara was quite wet from 7,000 to 2,000 B.C and the many lakes reachedtheir maximum extent about 3,500 B.C when Lake Chad covered some 200,000 square miles It isnow the only remaining lake with 15,000 square miles of water The rivers of the Sahara ran inland

so that alluvial material gradually filled up the inland basins, blocking and slowing the streams In thefierce sun that followed the changing climate, the water evaporated and the marshes dried out Saltdeposits are still worked at such places as Amadror, Teghaza and Taoudenni which are simply oldinland basins The people of the wet Sahara were Negroid and they raised domesticated cattle andleft beautiful works of art on rocks with some figures as high as twenty-six feet Elephants, antelope,water animals and fish were abundant The Negroid people of this era were not the Bushmanoid,round-headed people pictured on the rock drawings before 6,000 B.C (Ref 10, 11)

SUBSAHARAN AFRICA

At 4,000 B.C there were two languages of the western Sudan family - Yoruba and Idoma - but theywere already very different and had apparently been diverging for several thousand years (Ref 12)

In tropical Africa there were probably scattered bands of peoples whose descendants are the pygmies

of the Zaire forests and Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert The first true Negroes probably lived asfishermen along the Nile and the Niger rivers and the savannah north and west of the forest about4,000 B.C (Ref 13, 14)

1 [83] H ALLETT R OBIN , Africa to 1875 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1970).

2 [175] R, The Last Two Million Years (Readers Digest Assoc., Inc., London New York, etc 1973).

3 [94] H, "Tigris sails into the Past, National Geographic 154: 730, Dec 1978.

4 [95] H, Early Man and the Ocean (Doubleday & Co Inc., Garden City, New York, 1979).

5 [45] D (Consulting Editor), Encyclopedia of Archeologv (Thomas Y Crowell Co 10 East 53rd St., New York, 1977).

6 [213] T, A History of the World (Harper & Row, Publ., New York, 1979).

7 [221] T., Change and Habit (Oxford University Press, New York & London, 1966).

8 [68] G and G, (Editors), The Columbia History of the World (Harper & Row, New York, 1972).

9 [316] H, "Where Nations Began", Science 83, Oct 1983, pp.42-51.

10 [8] B (Editor), The Times Atlas of World History, (Hammond, Inc., Maplewood, New Jersey, 1978).

11 [176] R, The World's Last Mysteries (Readers Digest Assoc., Inc., Pleasantville, New York, 1978).

12 [83] H, Africa to 1875 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1970).

13 [175] R, The Last Two Million Years (Readers Digest Assoc., Inc., London New York, etc 1973).

14 [83] H, Africa to 1875 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1970).

1 Menes is now considered to be one and the same with the legendary King Narmer of Hieraconopolis, so eulogized by Professor Toynbee (Ref 7 8)1

Trang 39

Africa: 3000 to 1500 B.C.

Out on the horn of Africa, men in Somalia were producing frank incense and myrrh for sale to Egypt

as early as 3,000 B.C The Cushitic-speaking people continued expansion south of Egypt and intoNubia Due to the change in the Sahara climate, more Negro and Sudanic people settled just west ofthe Cushites (also Kushites), increasing the population there (Ref 1)1

1 Egypt of the Middle Kingdom had to deal with these Nubians and did so with forts at Senna, some 270 kilometers north of Kerma The city itself was an extensive urban development, particularly after 2000 B.C The large tombs of "royalty" contained animal sacrifices and some of them even had up to 400 human sacrificed retainers The Nubian culture spread over central and northern Sudan This particular culture of Kerma almost completely disappeared after colonization of the area by the pharaohs of the XVIII Dynasty of Egypt (Ref 2) After 1,520 the New Kingdom of Egypt used Nubian gold to hire charioteers as a professional force (Ref 3)

A map of Egypt of this period may be found in the early pages of the next chapter The exact dating ofthe various dynasties and eras of ancient Egypt continue to be debated

NOTE: Insert Map taken from Reference 97 (page 61)

The dates used in this manuscript are those given by Professor Easton in The Heritage of the Past(Ref 4) and these are fairly well coordinated with those used in The Columbia History of the World(Ref 5) and other recent publications The first stone constructed sepulchre of pyramidal design wasbuilt at Saqqara, near Memphis, during the reign of Zoser (also Djoser), an early king of the 3rddynasty, between 2,700 and 2,630 B.C This was called the "Step Pyramid" and was actually thecreation of Imhotep, chief minister of the king, a man who was later deified Recent desert studieswould suggest that this step pyramid and the larger ones to follow were actually shaped after nature'sown desert, wind-swept dunes of the western desert Sand-stone and solid rock mountains and dunesall seem to have naturally assumed a conical shape, as the winds spiral about them to exhaust theirenergy at the pointed top It is very possible that the man-made structures were modeled after thesenatural ones, and it is said that a rocky knoll of unknown size underlies the Great Pyramid and thatthere is a natural stone out-cropping at the tomb of Queen Khent-Kawes It is thus suggested that theancients not only simply enlarged and refined already existing natural conical structures, but that thevery nature of these shapes have allowed them to withstand the winds and sand storms of all the agessince they were built1 Still more intriguing is the finding in the desert of forms very much like thesphinx, indicating that where constantly directed winds hit certain geological formations an unusualshape somewhat like that of a reclining dog with raised head, is formed

Can the sphinx simply be a dressed-up natural formation of this type? Similar shapes have been found

in the desert as far back as 1909 (Ref 7, 8) and there are suggestions of the same phenomenon in

Trang 40

parts of Utah today Copper mines were developed in the Sinai by Pharaoh Snefu, a successor ofZoser He also used large ships to increase sea trade (Ref 9)

Bronze was in use in Egypt by 3,000 B.C and the great pyramids were started about 2,600 B.C inthe time of Cheops of the 4th dynasty2 Because of the fertility of the Nile flood basins in this 3rdmillennium, the average peasant produced three times as much food as his family needed and thus hewas capable of feeding the flood control workers and the builders of public buildings and Pharaoh’stombs The first wooden boats were made in exact imitation of the old reed boats An entire suchvessel of Cheops', dating to 2,700 B.C., has recently been excavated from his pyramid It has a length

of 143 feet and appears more graceful than a later Viking ship, but could only have been used forceremonies on the smooth Nile, as it had no internal ribs and could not have survived ocean sailing.Only the papyrus ships from which it was copied could withstand the ocean waves

All subsequent rulers of the Old Kingdom built great pyramids such as that of Cheops and theseedifices had great religious significance There is no doubt that great numbers of slaves were used intheir construction, and they were obtained chiefly from Nubia and some of these were even exported

on to Iraq Toynbee (Ref 11) feels that the 4th dynasty (2,600 to 2,500 B.C.) represents the height ofEgyptian Society culture and growth The population at that time was probably about three million, ormore (Ref 12) Disintegration of the society or "time of troubles", according to Toynbee, began in the6th dynasty (2,300 to 2,200 B.C.) and for four centuries there was no central control but only smallfeudal states ruled by provincial governors, the "nomarcha", who levied taxes and kept small armies.Kings did exist, but in name only About 2,000 B.C Amenemhet I, a Thebian nomarch, marched downthe Nile and established the 12th dynasty as a central ruling government, beginning the "MiddleKingdom" of Egyptian history Toynbee considers this the "Universal State" of the degeneratingEgyptian Society, in which the sins of the pyramid builders were visited on their successors, butProfessor Cheilik (Ref 13) describes this as a period of increasing trade and contacts with othercountries, in spite of some political deterioration When a mummy of Wah, an official of this ThebesDynasty, was unwrapped at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York they estimated that about

365 square meters of linen had been used This craft of mummification had been developed over along period and all the technique is still not known Certainly the first step was removal of theinternal organs of the deceased, sometimes by an abdominal incision, sometimes by a corrosive agentintroduced in an enema The second step was dessication with the use of natron, either dry or insolution Finally the body was anointed with balms and ointments and the extensive bandaging began.All of this was simply to preserve the body as an eternal repository for the soul (Ref 14)

The port of Byblos on the Phoenician coast was a large emporium for Egyptian products andEgyptian wares were wanted in Crete and Mesopotamia With the conquest of Nubia a large supply ofgold was obtained and a high point of prosperity was reached under Senusert (also Sesostris) III(1,878-1,840 B.C.) Egypt had a population at that time of seven to eight million (Ref 15, 16, 17, 18,

19, 20, 21, 22)

The Middle Kingdom ended with about two hundred years of turmoil and disputes for the throne,until 1,680 B.C when the nomad Semitics called "Hyksos" (probably Canaanites) invaded from theArabian area These invaders brought the domesticated horse with chariot warfare and men usingcomposite bows and were thus invincible at that time They made their capital in the Nile delta atAvaris and their overlords called themselves "pharaohs" Previous to the advent of the Hyksos'horses the Egyptians had used only the donkey as a beast of burden but the invaders did not penetrate

Định dạng
Số trang	1.043
Dung lượng	7,16 MB