Vibration and Shock Handbook 15

Vibration and Shock Handbook 15 Every so often, a reference book appears that stands apart from all others, destined to become the definitive work in its field. The Vibration and Shock Handbook is just such a reference. From its ambitious scope to its impressive list of contributors, this handbook delivers all of the techniques, tools, instrumentation, and data needed to model, analyze, monitor, modify, and control vibration, shock, noise, and acoustics. Providing convenient, thorough, up-to-date, and authoritative coverage, the editor summarizes important and complex concepts and results into “snapshot” windows to make quick access to this critical information even easier. The Handbook’s nine sections encompass: fundamentals and analytical techniques; computer techniques, tools, and signal analysis; shock and vibration methodologies; instrumentation and testing; vibration suppression, damping, and control; monitoring and diagnosis; seismic vibration and related regulatory issues; system design, application, and control implementation; and acoustics and noise suppression. The book also features an extensive glossary and convenient cross-referencing, plus references at the end of each chapter. Brimming with illustrations, equations, examples, and case studies, the Vibration and Shock Handbook is the most extensive, practical, and comprehensive reference in the field. It is a must-have for anyone, beginner or expert, who is serious about investigating and controlling vibration and acoustics.

IV Instrumentation and

Testing

IV-1

15 Vibration Instrumentation

Clarence W de Silva

The University of British Columbia

15.1 Introduction 15-115.2 Vibration Exciters 15-3

Shaker Selection † Dynamics of Electromagnetic Shakers

15.3 Control System 15-15

Components of a Shaker Controller † Signal-Generating Equipment

15.4 Performance Specification 15-21

Parameters for Performance Specification † Linearity †

Instrument Ratings † Accuracy and Precision

15.5 Motion Sensors and Transducers 15-27

Potentiometer † Variable-Inductance Transducers †

Mutual-Induction Proximity Sensor † Selfinduction Transducers † Permanent-Magnet Transducers †

Alternating Current Permanent-Magnet Tachometer †

Alternating Current Induction Tachometer † Eddy Current Transducers † Variable-Capacitance Transducers †

Piezoelectric Transducers

15.6 Torque, Force, and Other Sensors 15-50

Strain Gage Sensors † Miscellaneous Sensors

Appendix 15A Virtual Instrumentation for DataAcquisition, Analysis, and Presentation 15-73

Summary

Devices useful in instrumenting a mechanical vibrating system are presented in this chapter Shakers, whichgenerate vibration excitations, are discussed and compared A variety of sensors, including motion sensors,proximity sensors, force/torque sensors, and other miscellaneous sensors, are considered Performance specification

in the time domain and the frequency domain is addressed Rating parameters of instruments are given

15.1 Introduction

Measurement and associated experimental techniques play a significant role in the practice of vibration.Academic exposure to vibration instrumentation usually arises in laboratories, in the context of learning,training, and research In vibration practice, perhaps the most important task of instrumentation is themeasurement or sensing of vibration Vibration sensing is useful in the following applications:

1 Design and development of a product

2 Testing (screening) of a finished product for quality assurance

3 Qualification of a good-quality product to determine its suitability for a specific application

15-1

4 Mechanical aging of a product prior to carrying out a test program

5 Exploratory testing of a product to determine its dynamic characteristics such as resonances,mode shapes, and even a complete dynamic model

6 Vibration monitoring for performance evaluation

7 Control and suppression of vibration

Figure 15.1 indicates a procedure typical of experimental vibration, highlighting the essentialinstrumentation Vibrations are generated in a device, the test object, in response to some excitation Insome experimental procedures, primarily in vibration testing (see Figure 15.1), the excitation signal has

to be generated in a signal generator in accordance with some requirement (specification), and applied tothe object through an exciter after amplification and conditioning In some other situations, primarily inperformance monitoring and vibration control, the excitations are generated as an integral part of theoperating environment of the vibrating object and may originate either within the object (e.g., engineexcitations in an automobile) or in the environment with which the object interacts during operation(e.g., road disturbances on an automobile) Sensors are needed to measure vibrations in the test object Inparticular, a control sensor is used to check whether the specified excitation is applied to the object,and one or more response sensors may be used to measure the resulting vibrations at key locations ofthe object

The sensor signals have to be properly conditioned, for example by filtering and amplification, andmodified, for example through modulation, demodulation, and analog-to-digital conversion, prior torecording, analyzing, and display The purpose of the controller is to guarantee that the excitation iscorrectly applied to the test object If the signal from the control sensor deviates from the requiredexcitation, the controller modifies the signal to the exciter so as to reduce this deviation Furthermore, thecontroller will stabilize or limit (compress) the vibrations in the object It follows that instruments inexperimental vibration may be generally classified into the following categories:

1 Signal-generating devices

2 Vibration exciters

3 Sensors and transducers

4 Signal conditioning/modifying devices

5 Signal analysis devices

6 Control devices

7 Vibration recording and display devices

Analog/

Digital Interface

Digital Signal Recorder, Analyzer, Display

Power Amplifier

Mounting Fixtures

Test Object

Response Sensor

Control Sensor Exciter

Swivel Base

FIGURE 15.1 Typical instrumentation in experimental vibration.

Note that one instrument may perform the tasks

of more than one category listed here Also, more

than one instrument may be needed to carry out

tasks in a single category In the following sections

we will provide some examples of the types of

vibration instrumentation, giving characteristics,

operating principles, and important practical

considerations Also, we will describe several

experiments which can be found in a typical

vibration laboratory

An experimental vibration system generally

consists of four main subsystems:

1 Test object

2 Excitation system

3 Control system

4 Signal acquisition and modification system

These are schematically shown in Figure 15.2 Note that various components shown inFigure 15.1may

be incorporated into one of these subsystems In particular, component matching hardware and objectmounting fixtures may be considered interfacing devices that are introduced through the interactionbetween the main subsystems, as shown in Figure 15.2 Some important issues of vibration testing andinstrumentation are summarized in Box 15.1

15.2 Vibration Exciters

Vibration experimentation may require an external exciter to generate the necessary vibration This is thecase in controlled experiments such as product testing where a specified level of vibration is applied to thetest object and the resulting response is monitored A variety of vibration exciters are available, withdifferent capabilities and principles of operation

Three basic types of vibration exciters (shakers) are widely used: hydraulic shakers, inertial shakers,and electromagnetic shakers The operation-capability ranges of typical exciters in these three categoriesare summarized inTable 15.1 Stroke, or maximum displacement, is the largest displacement the exciter

is capable of imparting onto a test object whose weight is assumed to be within its design load limit.Maximum velocity and acceleration are similarly defined Maximum force is the largest force that could

be applied by the shaker to a test object of acceptable weight (one within the design load) The valuesgiven in Table 15.1 should be interpreted with caution Maximum displacement is achieved only at verylow frequencies The achievement of maximum velocity corresponds to intermediate frequencies in theoperating frequency range of the shaker Maximum acceleration and force ratings are usually achieved athigh frequencies It is not feasible, for example, to operate a vibration exciter at its maximumdisplacement and its maximum acceleration simultaneously

Consider a loaded exciter that is executing harmonic motion Its displacement is given by

TestObject

ControlSystem

VibrationExciter (Shaker)System

FIGURE 15.2 Interactions between major subsystems

of an experimental vibration system.

If the velocity amplitude is denoted by v and the acceleration amplitude by a, it follows from Equation15.2 and Equation 15.3 that

Vibration Testing Applications for Products:

* Design and Development

* Production Screening and Quality Assessment

* Utilization and Qualification for Special Applications

Testing Instrumentation:

* Exciter (excites the test object)

* Controller (controls the exciter for accurate excitation)

* Sensors and Transducers (measure excitations and responses and provide excitation errorsignals to controller)

* Signal Conditioning (converts signals to appropriate form)

* Recording and Display (perform processing, storage, and documentation)

1 Hammers (impulsive, bump tests)

2 Cable Release (step excitations)

* Motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration)

* Force (strain, torque)

TABLE 15.1 Typical Operation-Capability Ranges for Various Shaker Types

Hydraulic

(electrohydraulic) Low(0.1–500 Hz) High (20 in; 50 cm) Intermediate(50 in/sec;

125 cm/sec)

Intermediate (20 g) High (100,000 lbf;450,000 N) Average flexibility (simpleto complex and random) Inertial

(counter-rotating mass) Intermediate(2–50 Hz) Low (1 in; 2.5 cm) Intermediate(50 in/sec;

125 cm/sec)

Intermediate (20 g) Intermediate(1,000 lbf; 4,500 N) Sinusoidal onlyElectromagnetic

(electrodynamic) High(2–10,000 Hz) Low (1 in; 2.5 cm) Intermediate(50 in/sec;

125 cm/sec)

High (100 g) Low to intermediate

(450 lbf; 2,000 N) High flexibility and accuracy(simple to complex and

An idealized performance curve of a shaker

has a constant displacement–amplitude region, a

constant velocity–amplitude region, and a

con-stant acceleration–amplitude region for low,

intermediate, and high frequencies, respectively,

in the operating frequency range Such an ideal

performance curve is shown in Figure 15.3(a) on a

frequency–velocity plane Logarithmic axes are

used In practice, typical shaker performance

curves would be fairly smooth yet nonlinear,

curves, similar to those shown in Figure 15.3(b)

As the mass increases, the performance curve

compresses Note that the acceleration limit of a

shaker depends on the mass of the test object

(load) Full load corresponds to the heaviest object

that could be tested The “no load” condition

corresponds to a shaker without a test object To

standardize the performance curves, they are

usually defined at the rated load of the shaker A

performance curve in the frequency–velocity

plane may be converted to a curve in the

frequency–acceleration plane simply by increasing

the slope of the curve by a unit magnitude (i.e.,

20 db/decade)

Several general observations can be made from

Equation 15.4 and Equation 15.5 In the

constant-peak displacement region of the performance

curve, the peak velocity increases proportionally

with the excitation frequency, and the peak

acceleration increases with the square of the excitation frequency In the constant-peak velocity region,the peak displacement varies inversely with the excitation frequency, and the peak acceleration increasesproportionately In the constant-peak acceleration region, the peak displacement varies inversely with thesquare of the excitation frequency, and the peak velocity varies inversely with the excitation frequency.This further explains why rated stroke, maximum velocity, and maximum acceleration values are notsimultaneously realized

15.2.1 Shaker Selection

Vibration testing is accomplished by applying a specified excitation to the test package, using a shakerapparatus, and monitoring the response of the test object Test excitation may be represented by itsresponse spectrum The test requires that the response spectrum of the actual excitation, known as thetest response spectrum (TRS), envelops the response spectrum specified for the particular test, known asthe required response spectrum (RRS)

A major step in the planning of any vibration testing program is the selection of a proper shaker(exciter) system for a given test package The three specifications that are of primary importance inselecting a shaker are the force rating, the power rating, and the stroke (maximum displacement) rating.Force and power ratings are particularly useful in moderate to high frequency excitations and the strokerating is the determining factor for low frequency excitations In this section, a procedure is given todetermine conservative estimates for these parameters in a specified test for a given test package.Frequency domain considerations are used here

Strok

e Limit

Max.Acceleration

NoLoad

Frequency (Hz)(a)

NoLoad

Frequency (Hz)(b)

FIGURE 15.3 Performance curve of a vibration exciter

in the frequency–velocity plane (log): (a) ideal; (b) typical.

HðvÞ ¼ {1 þ 2jztv=vn}={1 2 ðv=vnÞ2þ 2jztv=vn} ð15:7Þ

in which j ¼pffiffiffiffi21: This approximation is adequate for most practical purposes The static weight of thetest object is not included in Equation 15.6 Most heavy-duty shakers, which are typically hydraulic,have static load support systems such as pneumatic cushion arrangements that can exactly balance thedead load The exciter provides only the dynamic force In cases where shaker directly supports thegravity load, in the vertical test configuration Equation 15.6 should be modified by adding a term torepresent this weight

A common practice in vibration test applications is to specify the excitation signal by its responsespectrum This is simply the peak response of a simple oscillator expressed as a function of its naturalfrequency when its support location is excited by the specified signal Clearly, the damping of the simpleoscillator is an added parameter in a response spectrum specification Typical damping ratios ðzrÞ used inresponse spectra specifications are less than 0.1 (or 10%) It follows that an approximate relationshipbetween the Fourier spectrum of the support acceleration and its response spectrum is

as¼ 2jzrarðvÞ ð15:8ÞThe magnitude larðvÞl is the response spectrum

Equation 15.8 substituted into Equation 15.6 gives

F ¼ mHðvÞ2jzrarðvÞ ð15:9Þ

In view of Equation 15.7, for test packages having low damping the peak value of H(v) isapproximately 1=ð2jztÞ; this should be used in computing the force rating if the test package has aresonance within the frequency range of testing On the other hand, if the test package is assumed to berigid, then HðvÞ ø 1: A conservative estimate for the force rating is

Fmax¼ mðzr=ztÞlarðvÞlmax ð15:10Þ

It should be noted that larðvÞlmaxis the peak value of the specified (required) response spectrum (RRS)for acceleration

Representative segments of typical acceleration RRS curves have slope n, as given by

It should be clear from Equation 15.13 that the maximum output power is given by

pmax¼ k2v2n21 ð15:15ÞThis is an increasing function for n 1=2 and a decreasing function for n , 1=2: It follows that the powerrating corresponds to the highest point of contact between the acceleration RRS curve and a line of slopeequal to 1/2 A similar relationship may be derived if velocity RRS curves (having slopes n 2 1) are used.15.2.1.3 Stroke Rating

From Equation 15.8, it should be clear that the Fourier spectrum, xs, of the exciter displacement timehistory can be expressed as

xs¼ 2zrarðvÞ=jv2 ð15:16Þ

An estimate for stroke rating is

xmax¼ 2zr½larðvÞl=v2max ð15:17ÞThis is of the form

It follows that the stroke rating corresponds to the highest point of contact between the accelerationRRS curve and a line of slope equal to two

Example 15.1

A test package of overall mass 100 kg is to be

subjected to dynamic excitation represented by the

acceleration RRS (at 5% damping) as shown in

Figure 15.4 The estimated damping of the test

package is 7% The test package is known to have a

resonance within the frequency range of the

specified test Determine the exciter specifications

for the test

Solution

From the development presented in the previous

section, it is clear that the point F (or P) in

Figure 15.4 corresponds to the force and output

power ratings, and the point S corresponds to

the stroke rating The co-ordinates of these

critical points are F; P ¼ ð4:2 Hz; 4:0 gÞ; and S ¼ ð0:8 Hz; 0:75 gÞ: Equation 15.10 gives the forcerating as

Fmax¼ 100 £ ð0:05=0:07Þ £ 4:0 £ 9:81 N ¼ 2803 NEquation 15.13 gives the power rating as

pmax¼ 2 £ 100 £ ð0:052=0:07Þ £ ½ð4:0 £ 9:81Þ2=4:2 £ 2p watts ¼ 417 WEquation 15.17 gives the stroke rating as

Frequency (Hz)

S F,P

0.1

0.1

1.010

FIGURE 15.4 Test excitation specified by an tion RRS (5% damping).

A typical servo-valve consists of a two-stage spool valve, which provides a pressure difference and acontrolled (modulated) flow to the piston, which sets it in motion.

The servo-valve itself is moved by means of a linear torque motor, which is driven by the input signal (electrical) A primary function of the servo-valve is to provide a stabilizing feedback to theram In this respect, the servo-valve complements the main control system of the test setup The ram iscoupled to the shaker table by means of a link with some flexibility The cylinder frame is mounted on thesupport foundation with swivel joints This allows for some angular and lateral misalignment, whichmight be caused primarily by test-object dynamics as the table moves

excitation-Two-degree-of-freedom (Two-DoF) testing requires two independent sets of actuators, and three-DoFtesting requires three independent actuator sets Each independent actuator set can consist of severalactuators operated in parallel, using the same pump and the same excitation-input signal to the torquemotors

If the test table is directly supported on the vertical actuators, they must withstand the total deadweight (i.e., the weight of the test table, the test object, the mounting fixtures, and the instrumentation).This is requirement is usually prevented by providing a pressurized air cushion in the gap between thetest table and the foundation walls Air should be pressurized so as to balance the total dead weightexactly (typical required gage pressure: 3 psi)

Figure 15.5(a) shows the basic components of a typical hydraulic shaker The correspondingoperational block diagram is shown in Figure 15.5(b) It is desirable to locate the actuators in a pit in thetest laboratory so that the test tabletop is flushed with the test laboratory floor under no-load conditions.This minimizes the effort required to place the test object on the test table Otherwise, the test object has

to be lifted onto the test table with a forklift Also, installation of an aircushion to support the systemdead weight is difficult under these circumstances of elevated mounting

Hydraulic actuators are most suitable for heavy load testing and are widely used in industrial and civilengineering applications They can be operated at very low frequencies (almost direct current [DC]), as well

as at intermediate frequencies(see Table 15.1).Large displacements (stroke) are possible at low frequencies.Hydraulic shakers have the advantage of providing high flexibility of operation during the test; theircapabilities include variable-force and constant-force testing and wide-band random-input testing Thevelocity and acceleration capabilities of hydraulic shakers are moderate Although any general excitation-input motion (for example, sine wave, sine beat, wide-band random) can be used in hydraulic shakers,faithful reproduction of these signals is virtually impossible at high frequencies because of distortion andhigher-order harmonics introduced by the high noise levels that are common in hydraulic systems This

is only a minor drawback in heavy-duty, intermediate-frequency applications Dynamic interactions arereduced through feedback control

Figure 15.7shows a sketch of a typical counter-rotating-mass inertial shaker It consists of two identicalrods rotating at the same speed in opposite directions Each rod has a series of slots in which to

place weights In this manner, the magnitude of

the eccentric mass can be varied to achieve various

force capabilities The rods are driven by a

variable-speed electric motor through a gear

mechanism that usually provides several speed

ratios A speed ratio is selected depending on the

required test-frequency range The whole system is

symmetrically supported on a carriage that is

directly connected to the test table The test object

is mounted on the test table The preferred

mounting configuration is horizontal so that the

excitation force is applied to the test object in a

horizontal direction In this configuration, there

are no variable gravity moments (weight £

distance to center of gravity) acting on the drive

mechanism Figure 15.7 shows the vertical

con-figuration In dynamic testing of large structures,

the carriage can be mounted directly on the

structure at a location where the excitation force

should be applied By incorporating two pairs of

counter-rotating masses, it is possible to generate

test moments as well as test forces

FIGURE 15.5 A typical hydraulic shaker arrangement: (a) schematic diagram; (b) operational block diagram.

counter-Reaction-type shakers driven by inertia are widely used for the prototype testing of civil engineeringstructures Their first application dates back to 1935 Inertial shakers are capable of producingintermediate excitation forces The force generated is limited by the strength of the carriage frame Thefrequency range of operation and the maximum velocity and acceleration capabilities are alsointermediate for inertial shakers whereas the maximum displacement capability is typically low A majorlimitation of inertial shakers is that their excitation force is exclusively sinusoidal and that the forceamplitude is directly proportional to the square of the excitation frequency As a result, complex andrandom excitation testing, constant-force testing (for example, transmissibility tests and constant-forcesine-sweep tests), and flexibility to vary the force amplitude or the displacement amplitude during a testare not generally feasible with this type of shakers Excitation frequency and amplitude can be variedduring testing, however, by incorporating a variable-speed drive for the motor The sinusoidal excitationgenerated by inertial shakers is virtually undistorted, which gives them an advantage over the other types

of shakers when used in sine-dwell and sine-sweep tests Small portable shakers with low-force capabilityare available for use in on-site testing

15.2.1.6 Electromagnetic Shakers

In electromagnetic shakers or “electrodynamic exciters,” the motion is generated using the principle ofoperation of an electric motor Specifically, the excitation force is produced when a variable excitationsignal (electrical) is passed through a moving coil placed in a magnetic field

The components of a commercial electromagnetic shaker are shown inFigure 15.8 A steady magneticfield is generated by a stationary electromagnet that consists of field coils wound on a ferromagnetic basethat is rigidly attached to a protective shell structure The shaker head has a coil wound around it Whenthe excitation electrical signal is passed through this drive coil, the shaker head, which is supported onflexure mounts, will be set in motion The shaker head consists of the test table on which the test object

is mounted Shakers with interchangeable heads are available The choice of appropriate shaker head isbased on the geometry and mounting features of the test object The shaker head can be turned todifferent angles by means of a swivel joint In this manner, different directions of excitation (in biaxialand triaxial testing) can be obtained

FIGURE 15.7 Sketch of a counter-rotating-mass inertial shaker.

15.2.2 Dynamics of Electromagnetic Shakers

Consider a single axis electromagnetic shaker (Figure 15.8) with a test object having a single naturalfrequency of importance within the test frequency range The dynamic interactions between the shakerand the test object give rise to two significant natural frequencies (and correspondingly, two significantresonances) These appear as peaks in the frequency response curve of the test setup Furthermore, thenatural frequency (resonance) of the test package alone causes a “trough” or depression (antiresonance)

in the frequency response curve of the overall test setup To explain this characteristic, consider thedynamic model shown in Figure 15.9 The following mechanical parameters are defined forFigure 15.9(a): m, k, and b are the mass, stiffness, and equivalent viscous damping constant, respectively,

of the test package, and me, ke, and beare the corresponding parameters of the exciter (shaker) Also, inthe equivalent electrical circuit of the shaker head, as shown in Figure 15.9(b), the following electricalparameters are defined: Re and Le are the resistance and (leakage) inductance and kb is the backelectromotive force (back emf) of the linear motor Assuming that the gravitational forces are supported

FIGURE 15.8 Schematic sectional view of a typical electromagnetic shaker, manufactured by Bruel and Kjaer, Denmark.

by the static deflections of the flexible elements, and that the displacements are measured from the staticequilibrium position, we have the following system equations:

Test object: m€y ¼ 2kðy 2 yeÞ 2 bð_y 2 _yeÞ ð15:19ÞShaker head: me€ye¼ feþ kðy 2 yeÞ þ bð_y 2 _yeÞ 2 key 2 be_ye ð15:20Þ

Electrical: Ledie

dt þ Reieþ kb_ye¼ vðtÞ ð15:21ÞThe electromagnetic force fegenerated in the shaker head is a result of the interaction of the magneticfield generated by the current iewith coil of the moving shaker head and the constant magnetic field(stator) in which the head coil is located Here, we have

Note that v(t) is the voltage signal that is applied by the amplifier to the shaker coil, yeis the displacement

of the shaker head, and y is the displacement response of the test package

It is assumed that kb has consistent electrical and mechanical units (V/m/sec and N/A) Usually,the electrical time constant of the shaker is quite small compared with the primarily mechanicaltime constants of the shaker and the test package In such cases, the Ledie=dt term in Equation 15.21 may

be neglected Consequently, the equations from Equation 15.19 through Equation 15.22 may beexpressed in the Laplace (frequency) domain, with the Laplace variable s taking the place of the derivatived=dt; as

ðms2þ bs þ kÞy ¼ ðbs þ kÞye ð15:23Þ

FIGURE 15.9 Dynamic models of an electromagnetic shaker and a flexible test package: (a) mechanical model; (b) electrical model.

DcðsÞ ¼ mmes4þ ½mðbeþ b þ boÞ þ meb s3þ ½mðkeþ kÞ þ mek þ bðbeþ boÞ s2

þ ½bkeþ ðbeþ boÞk s þ kke ð15:27Þwhere

bo¼ k2

It is clear that under low damping conditions DdðsÞ will produce two resonances as it is fourth order in s,and similarly DðsÞ will produce one antiresonance (trough) corresponding to the resonance of the testobject Note that in the frequency domain, s ¼ jv; and hence the frequency response function given byEquation 15.25, is in fact

In practice, the shaker controller will be able

to compensate for the resonances and

anti-resonances to some degree, depending on its

effectiveness

The main advantages of electromagnetic

shakers are their high frequency range of

operation, their high degree of operating

flexi-bility, and the high level of accuracy of the

generated shaker motion Faithful reproduction

of complex excitations is possible because of the

advanced electronics and control systems used in

this type of shakers Electromagnetic shakers are

not suitable for heavy-duty applications (large test

objects), however High test-input accelerations

are possible at high frequencies when

electromag-netic shakers are used, but their displacement and

velocity capabilities are limited to low or

intermediate values(see Table 15.1)

15.2.2.1 Transient Exciters

Other varieties of exciters are commonly used in

transient-type vibration testing In these tests,

either an impulsive force or an initial excitation is

applied to the test object and the resulting

response is monitored The excitations and the

responses are “transient” in this case Hammer

test, drop tests, and pluck tests fall into this

category For example, a hammer test may be

conducted by hitting the object with an

instru-mented hammer and then measuring the response

of the object The hammer has a force sensor at its

tip, as sketched in Figure 15.11 A piezoelectric or

strain-gage type force sensor may be used More

sophisticated hammers have impedance heads in

place of force sensors An impedance head

measures force and acceleration simultaneously

The results of a hammer test will depend on many

factors; for example, the dynamics of the hammer

body, how firmly the hammer is held during the

impact, how quickly the impact is applied, and

whether there are multiple impacts

15.3 Control System

The two primary functions of the shaker control system in vibration testing are (1) to guarantee that thespecified excitation is applied to the test object and (2) to ensure that the dynamic stability (motionconstraints) of the test setup is preserved An operational block diagram illustrating these controlfunctions is given in Figure 15.12 The reference input to the control system represents the desiredexcitation force that should be applied to the test object In the absence of any control, however, the forcereaching the test object will be distorted, primarily because of: (1) dynamic interactions andnonlinearities of the shaker, the test table, the mounting fixtures, the auxiliary instruments, and the testobject itself; (2) noise and errors in the signal generator, amplifiers, filters, and other equipment; and (3)external loads and disturbances acting on the test object and other components (for example, externalrestraints, aerodynamic forces, friction) To compensate for these distorting factors, responsemeasurements (displacements, velocities, acceleration, and so on) are made at various locations in thetest setup and are used to control the system dynamics In particular, the responses of the shaker, the testtable, and the test object are measured These responses are used to compare the actual excitation felt by

FIGURE 15.11 An instrumented hammer used in bump tests or hammer tests.

Shaker Response Test

Test Object Response

Test Table Response Exciter

(Shaker) (Ram)

Controller and Amplifier

FIGURE 15.12 Operational block diagram illustrating a general shaker control system.

the test object at the shaker interface, with the desired (specified) input The drive signal to the shaker ismodified, depending on the error that is present.

Two types of control are commonly employed in shaker apparatus: simple manual control andcomplex automatic control Manual control normally consists of simple, open-loop, trial-and-errormethods of manual adjustments (or calibration) of the control equipment to obtain a desired dynamicresponse The actual response is usually monitored (on an oscilloscope or frequency analyzer screen, forexample) during manual-control operations The pretest adjustments in manual control can be verytime-consuming; as a result, the test object might be subjected to overtesting, which could producecumulative damage, is undesirable, and could defeat the test purpose Furthermore, the calibrationprocedure for the experimental setup must be repeated for each new test object

The disadvantages of manual control suggest that automatic control is desirable in complex test schemes

in which high accuracy of testing is desired The first step of automatic control involves automaticmeasurement of the system response, using control sensors and transducers The measurement is then fedback into the control system, which instantaneously determines the best drive signal to actuate the shaker

in order to get the desired excitation This may be done by either analog or digital methods

Primitive control systems require an accurate mathematical description of the test object Thisdependency of the control system on the knowledge of test-object dynamics is clearly undesirable.Performance of a good control system should not be considerably affected by the dynamic interactionsand nonlinearities of the test object or by the nature of the excitation Proper selection of feedback signalsand control-system components can reduce such effects and will make the system robust

In the response-spectrum method of vibration testing, it is customary to use displacement control atlow frequencies, velocity control at intermediate frequency, and acceleration control at high frequencies.This necessitates feedback of displacement, velocity, and acceleration responses Generally, however, themost important feedback is the velocity feedback In sine-sweep tests, the shaker velocity must changesteadily over the frequency band of interest In particular, the velocity control must be precise near theresonances of the test object Velocity (speed) feedback has a stabilizing effect on the dynamics, which isdesirable This effect is particularly useful in ensuring stability in motion when testing is done nearresonances of lightly damped test objects On the contrary, displacement (position) feedback can have adestabilizing effect on some systems, particularly when high feedback gains are used

The controller usually consists of various instruments, equipment, and computation hardware andsoftware Often, the functions of the data-acquisition and processing system overlap with those of thecontroller to some extent As an example, consider the digital-controller of vibration testing apparatus.First, the responses are measured through sensors (and transducers), filtered, and amplified(conditioned) These data channels may be passed through a multiplexer, whose purpose is to selectone data channel at a time for processing Most modern data acquisition hardware does not need aseparate multiplexer to handle multiple signals The analog data are converted into digital data usinganalog-to-digital converters (ADCs) The resulting sampled data are stored on a disk or as a block data inthe computer memory The reference input signal (typically, a signal recorded on an FM tape) is alsosampled (if it is not already in the digital form), using an ADC, and fed into the computer Digitalprocessing is done on the reference signal and the response data, with the objective of computing thecommand signal to drive the shaker The digital command signal is converted into an analog signal, using

a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), and amplified (conditioned) before it is used to drive the exciter.The nature of the control components depends to a large extent on the nature and objectives of theparticular test to be conducted Some of the basic components in a shaker controller are described inthe following subsections

15.3.1 Components of a Shaker Controller

15.3.1.1 Compressor

A compressor circuit is incorporated in automatic excitation control devices to control the input level automatically The level of control depends on the feedback signal from a control sensor and

the specified (reference) excitation signal Usually, the compressor circuit is included in the signal generator (for example, in a sine generator) The control by this means may be done on the basis of

excitation-a single-frequency component (e.g., the fundexcitation-amentexcitation-al frequency)

15.3.1.2 Equalizer (Spectrum Shaper)

Random-signal equalizers are used to shape the spectrum of a random signal in a desired manner Inessence, and equalizer consists of a bank of narrow-band filters (for example, 80 filters) in parallel overthe operating frequency range By passing the signal through each filter, the spectral density (or the meansquare value) of the signal in that narrow frequency band (for example, each one-third-octave band) isdetermined This is compared with the desired spectral level, and automatic adjustment is made in thatfilter in case there is an error In some systems, response-spectrum analysis is made in place of powerspectral density analysis In that case, the equalizer consists of a bank of simple oscillators, whoseresonant frequencies are distributed over the operating frequency range of the equalizer The feedbacksignal is passed through each oscillator, and the peak value of its output is determined This value iscompared with the desired response spectrum value at that frequency If there is an error, automatic gainadjustment is made in the appropriate excitation signal components

Random-noise equalizers are used in conjunction with random signal generators They receivefeedback signals from the control sensors In some digital control systems, there are algorithms (software)that are used to iteratively converge the spectrum of the excitation signal felt by the test object into thedesired spectrum

15.3.1.3 Tracking Filter

Many vibration tests are based on single-frequency excitations In such cases, the control functionsshould be performed on the basis of the amplitudes of the fundamental-frequency component of thesignal A tracking filter is simply a frequency-tuned band-pass filter It automatically tunes the centerfrequency of its very narrow-band-pass filter to the frequency of a carrier signal Then, when a noisysignal is passed through the tuned filter, the output of the filter will be the required fundamentalfrequency component in the signal Tracking filters also are useful in obtaining amplitude–frequencyplots using an X –Y plotter In such cases, the frequency value comes from the signal generator (sweeposcillator), which produces the carrier signal to the tracking filter The tracking filter then determines thecorresponding amplitude of a signal that is fed into it Most tracking filters have dual channels so that twosignals can be handled (tracked) simultaneously

15.3.1.4 Excitation Controller (Amplitude Servo-Monitor)

An excitation controller is typically an integral part of the signal generator It can be set so that automaticsweep between two frequency limits can be performed at a selected sweep rate (linear or logarithmic).More advanced excitation controllers have the capability of an automatic switch-over between constant-displacement, constant-velocity and constant-acceleration excitation-input control at specifiedfrequencies over the sweep frequency interval Consequently, integrator circuits should be presentwithin the excitation controller unit to determine velocities and displacements from acceleration signals.Sometimes, integration is performed by a separate unit called a vibration meter This unit also offersthe operator the capability of selecting the desired level of each signal (acceleration, velocity, ordisplacement) There is an automatic cut-off level for large displacement values that could result fromnoise in acceleration signals A compressor is also a subcomponent of the excitation controller Thecomplete unit is sometimes known as an amplitude servo-monitor

15.3.2 Signal-Generating Equipment

Shakers are force-generating devices that are operated using drive (excitation) signals generated from asource The excitation-signal source is known as the signal generator Three major types of signalgenerators are used in vibration testing applications: (1) oscillators, (2) random-signal generators, and(3) storage devices In some units, oscillators and random-signal generators are combined We shall

discuss these two generators separately, however, because of their difference in function It also should benoted that almost any digital signal (deterministic or random) can be generated by a digital computerusing a suitable computer program; the signal eventually can be passed through a DAC to obtainthe corresponding analog signal These ‘digital’ signal generators along with analog sources such asmagnetic tape players (FM) are classified into the category of storage devices.

The dynamic range of equipment is the ratio of the maximum and minimum output levels (expressed

in decibels) at which it is capable of operating without significant error This is an important specificationfor many types of equipment, particularly for signal-generating devices The output level of the signalgenerator should be set to a value within its dynamic range

The early generation of oscillators employed variable inductor-capacitor types of electronic circuits togenerate signals oscillating at a desired frequency The oscillator is tuned to the required frequency byvarying the capacitance or inductance parameters A DC voltage is applied to energize the capacitorand to obtain the desired oscillating voltage signal, which subsequently is amplified and conditioned.Modern oscillators use operational amplifier circuits along with resistor, capacitor, and semiconductor(SC) elements Also common are crystal (quartz) parallel-resonance oscillators, used to generate voltagesignals accurately at a fixed frequency The circuit is activated using a DC-voltage source Otherfrequencies of interest are obtained by passing this high-frequency signal through a frequency converter.The signal is then conditioned (amplified and filtered) Required shaping (for example, rectangularpulse) is obtained using a shape circuit Finally, the required signal level is obtained by passing theresulting signal through a variable-gain amplifier A block diagram of an oscillator, illustrating variousstages in the generation of a periodic signal, is given in Figure 15.13

A typical oscillator offers a choice of several (typically six) linear and logarithmic frequency ranges and

a sizable level of control capability (for example, 80 dB) Upper and lower frequency limits in a sweep can

be preset on the front panel to any of the available frequency ranges Sweep-rate settings are continuously

DC Voltage

Oscillator

Frequency Specification

Frequency Converter AmplifierFilter/ Shaper

Periodic Signal

Frequency Counter

Fixed-Frequency

Signal

Variable-Gain Output Amplifier

Signal Specification SpecificationLevel

FIGURE 15.13 Block diagram of an oscillator-type signal generator.

variable (typically, 0 to 10 octaves/min in the logarithmic range, and 0 to 60 kHz/min in the linear range),but one value must be selected for a given test or part of a test Most oscillators have a repetitive-sweepcapability, which allows the execution of more than one sweep continuously, for example, for mechanicalaging and in product-qualification single-frequency tests Some oscillators also have the capability ofvarying the signal level (amplitude) during each test cycle (sweep or dwell) This is known as levelprogramming Also, automatic switching between acceleration, velocity, and displacement excitations atspecified frequency points in each test cycle can be implemented with some oscillators A frequencycounter, which is capable of recording the fundamental frequency of the output signal, is usually anintegral component of the oscillator.

15.3.2.2 Random Signal Generators

In modern random-signal generators, SC devices (e.g., zener diodes) are used to generate a randomsignal that has a required (e.g., Gaussian) distribution This is accomplished by applying a suitable DCvoltage to a SC circuit The resulting signal is then amplified and passed through a bank of conditioningfilters, which effectively acts as a spectrum shaper In this manner, the bandwidth of the signal can beadjusted in a desired manner Extremely wideband signals (white noise), for example, can be generatedfor random-excitation vibration testing in this manner The block diagram in Figure 15.14 shows theessential steps in a random-signal generation process A typical random-signal generator has several(typically eight) bandwidth selections over a wide frequency range (for example, 1 Hz to 100 kHz) Alevel-control capability (typically 80 dB) is also available

15.3.2.3 Tape Players

Vibration testing for product qualification may be performed using a tape player as the signal source

A tape player is essentially a signal reproducer The test-input signal that has a certain specified responsespectrum is obtained by playing a magnetic tape and mixing the contents in the several tracks of the tape

in a desirable ratio Typically, each track contains a sine-beat signal, with a particular beat frequency,amplitude, and number of cycles per beat, or a random-signal component with a desired spectralcharacteristic)

In frequency modulation (FM) tapes, the signal amplitude is proportional to the frequency of a carriersignal The carrier signal is recorded on the tape When played back, the actual signal is reproduced, based

on detecting the frequency content of the carrier signal in different time points The FM method isusually favorable, particularly for low-frequency testing (below 100 Hz)

Performance of a tape player is determined by several factors, including tape type and quality, signalreproduction and recording circuitry, characteristics of the magnetic heads, and the tape-transportmechanism Some important specifications for tape players are (1) the number of tracks per tape(for example, 14 or 28); (2) the available tape speeds (for example, 3.75, 7.5, 15, or 30 in./sec);(3) reproduction filter-amplifier capabilities (for example, 0.5% third-harmonic distortion in a 1 kHzsignal recorded at 15 in./sec tape speed, peak-to-peak output voltage of 5 Vat 100 V load, signal-to-noiseratio of 45 dB, output impedance of 50 V); and (4) the available control options and their capabilities(for example, stop, play, reverse, fast-forward, record, speed selection, channel selection) Tape playerspecifications for vibration testing are governed by an appropriate regulatory agency, according to a

Amplifier ConditioningFilters Output AmplifierVariable-Gain

Zener Diode Noise Source

DC Voltage SpecificationBand Width SpecificationLevel

Gaussian

FIGURE 15.14 Block diagram of a random signal generator.

specified standard (e.g., the Communication and Telemetry Standard of the Intermediate RangeInstrumentation Group (IRIG Standard 106-66).

A common practice in vibration testing is to generate the test-input signal by repetitively playing aclosed tape loop In this manner, the input signal becomes periodic but has the desired frequency content.Frequency modulation players can be fitted with special loop adaptors for playing tape loops In spectral(Fourier) analysis of such signals, the analyzing-filter bandwidth should be several times more than therepetition frequency (tape speed/loop length) Extraneous noise is caused by discontinuities at the tapejoint This can be suppressed by using suitable filters or gating circuits

A technique that can be employed to generate low-frequency signals with high accuracy is to record thesignal first at a very low tape speed and then play it back at a high tape speed (for example, r timeshigher) This has the effect of multiplying all frequency components in the signal by the speed ratio (r).Consequently, the filter circuits in the tape player will allow some low-frequency components in thesignal that would normally be cut off and will cut off some high-frequency components that wouldnormally be allowed Hence, this process is a way of emphasizing the low-frequency components in asignal

15.3.2.4 Data Processing

A controller generally has some data processing functions, as well A data-acquisition and processingsystem usually consists of response sensors (and transducers), signal conditioners, an input–output(I/O) board including a multiplexer, ADCs, etc., and a digital computer, with associated I/Odevices The functions of a digital data-acquisition and processing system may be quite general, as listedbelow:

1 Measuring, conditioning, sampling, and storing the response signals and operational data of testobject (using input commands, as necessary)

2 Digital processing of the measured data according to the test objectives (and using inputcommands, as necessary)

3 Generating drive signals for the control system

4 Generating and recording test results (responses) in a required format

The capacity and the capabilities of a data-acquisition and processing systems are determined by suchfactors as:

1 The number of response data channels that can be handled simultaneously

2 The data-sampling rate (samples per second) for each data channel

3 Computer memory size

4 Computer processing speed

5 External storage capability (hard disks, floppy disks, and so forth)

6 The nature of the input and output devices

7 Software features

Commercial data-acquisition and processing systems with a wide range of processing capabilities areavailable for use in vibration testing Some of the standard processing capabilities are the following:

1 Response-spectrum analysis

2 FFT analysis (spectral densities, correlations, coherence, Fourier spectra, and so on)

3 Frequency-response function, transmissibility, and mechanical-impedance analysis

4 Natural-frequency and mode-shape analysis

5 System-parameter identification (for example, damping parameters)

Most processing is done in real time, which means that the signals are analyzed as they are beingmeasured The advantage of this is that outputs and command signals are available simultaneously as themonitoring is done, so that any changes can be detected as they occur (for example, degradation in the

test object or deviations in the excitation signal from the desired form) and automatic feedback controlcan be effected For real-time processing to be feasible, the data-acquisition rate (sampling rate) and theprocessing speed of the computer should be sufficiently fast In real-time frequency analysis, the entirefrequency range is analyzed at a given instant, as opposed to analyzing narrow bands separately Resultsare presented as Fourier spectra, power spectral densities, cross-spectral densities, coherence functions,correlation functions, and response-spectra curves Averaging of frequency plots can be done over smallfrequency bands (for example, one-third-octave analysis), or the running average of each instantaneousplot can be determined.

15.4 Performance Specification

Proper selection and integration of sensors and transducers are crucial in “instrumenting” a vibratingsystem The response variable that is being measured (for example, acceleration) is termed themeasurand A measuring device passes through two stages in making a measurement First, themeasurand is sensed Then, the measured signal is transduced (converted) into a form that is particularlysuitable for signal conditioning, processing, or recording Often, the output from the transducer stage is

an electrical signal It is common practice to identify the combined sensor–transducer unit as either asensor or a transducer

The measuring device itself might contain some of the signal-conditioning circuitry and recording (ordisplay) devices or meters These are components of an overall measuring system For our purposes, weshall consider these components separately

In most applications, the following four variables are particularly useful in determining the responseand structural integrity of a vibrating system (in each case the usual measuring devices are indicated inparentheses):

1 Displacement (potentiometer or LVDT)

2 Velocity (tachometer)

3 Acceleration (accelerometer)

4 Stress and strain (strain gage)

It is somewhat common practice to measure acceleration first and then determine velocity anddisplacement by direct integration Any noise and DC components in the measurement, however, couldgive rise to erroneous results in such cases Consequently, it is good practice to measure displacement,velocity, and acceleration by using separate sensors, particularly when the measurements are employed

in feedback control of the vibratory system It is not recommended to differentiate a displacement(or velocity) signal to obtain velocity (or acceleration), because this process would amplify any noisepresent in the measured signal Consider, for example, a sinusoidal signal give by A sinvt: Sinced=dtðA sinvtÞ ¼ Av cos vt; it follows that any high-frequency noise would be amplified by a factorproportional to its frequency Also, any discontinuities in noise components would produce largedeviations in the results Using the same argument, it may be concluded that the accelerationmeasurements are desirable for high-frequency signals and the displacement measurements are desirablefor low-frequency signals It follows that the selection of a particular measurement transducer shoulddepend on the frequency content of the useful portion of the measured signal

Transducers are divided into two broad categories: active transducers and passive transducers Passivetransducers do not require an external electric source for activation Some examples are electromagnetic,piezoelectric, and photovoltaic transducers Active transducers, however, do not possess selfcontainedenergy sources and thus need external activation A good example is a resistive transducer, such as apotentiometer

In selecting a particular transducer (measuring device) for a specific vibration application, specialattention should be give to its ratings, which usually are provided by the manufacturer, and the requiredperformance specifications as provided by the customer (or developed by the system designer)

15.4.1 Parameters for Performance Specification

A perfect measuring device can be defined as one that possesses the following characteristics:

1 Output instantly reaches the measured value (fast response)

2 Transducer output is sufficiently large (high gain, low output impedance, high sensitivity)

3 Output remains at the measured value (without drifting or being affected by environmental effectsand other undesirable disturbances and noise) unless the measurand itself changes (stability androbustness)

4 The output signal level of the transducer varies in proportion to the signal level of the measurand(static linearity)

5 Connection of a measuring device does not distort the measurand itself (loading effects are absentand impedances are matched)

6 Power consumption is small (high input impedance)

All these properties are based on dynamic characteristics and therefore can be explained in terms

of dynamic behavior of the measuring device In particular, items 1 to 4 can be specified in terms of thedevice (response), either in the time domain or in the frequency domain Items 2, 5, and 6 can be specifiedusing the impedance characteristics of a device First, we shall discuss response characteristics that areimportant in performance specification of a sensor/transducer unit

15.4.1.1 Time-Domain Specifications

Several parameters that are useful for the time-domain performance specification of a device are asfollows:

1 Rise time ðTrÞ: This is the time taken to pass the steady-state value of the response for the first time

In overdamped systems, the response is nonoscillatory; consequently, there is no overshoot Sothat the definition is valid for all systems, rise time is often defined as the time taken to pass 90% ofthe steady-state value for the first time Rise time is often measured from 10% of the steady-statevalue in order to leave out irregularities occurring at start-up and time lags that might be present

in a system Rise time represents the speed of response of a device: a small rise time indicates a fastresponse

2 Delay time (Td): This is usually defined as the time taken to reach 50% of the steady-state value forthe first time This parameter is also a measure of the speed of response

3 Peak time (Tp): This is the time at the first peak This parameter also represents the speed ofresponse of the device

4 Settling time (Ts): This is the time taken for the device response to settle down within a certainpercentage (e.g., ^2%) of the steady-state value This parameter is related to the degree ofdamping present in the device as well as the degree of stability

5 Percentage overshoot (PO): This is defined as

PO ¼ 100ðMp2 1Þ% ð15:30Þusing the normalized-to-unity step response curve, where Mp is the peak value Percentageovershoot is a measure of damping or relative stability in the device

6 Steady-state error: This is the deviation of the actual steady-state value from the desired value.Steady-state error may be expressed as a percentage with respect to the (desired) steady-statevalue In a measuring device, steady-state error manifests itself as an offset This is a systematic(deterministic) error that normally can be corrected by recalibration In servo-controlleddevices, steady-state error can be reduced by increasing the loop gain or by introducing a lagcompensation Steady-state error can be completely eliminated using the integral control (reset)action

For the best performance of a measuring device, we wish to have the values of all the foregoingparameters as small as possible In actual practice, however, it might be difficult to meet all specifications,particularly under conflicting requirements For instance, Trcan be decreased by increasing the dominantnatural frequencyvnof the device This, however, increases the PO and sometimes the Ts On the otherhand, the PO and Tscan be decreased by increasing device damping, but this has the undesirable effect ofincreasing Tr.

15.4.1.2 Frequency-Domain Specifications

Since any time signal can be decomposed into sinusoidal components through Fourier transformation, it

is clear that the response of a system to an arbitrary input excitation also can be determined usingtransfer-function (frequency response-function) information for that system For this reason, one couldargue that it is redundant to use both time-domain specifications and frequency-domain specifications,

as they carry the same information Often, however, both specifications are used simultaneously, becausethis can provide a better understanding of the system performance Frequency-domain parameters aremore suitable in representing some characteristics of a system under some types of excitation.Consider a device with the frequency-response function (transfer function) Gð jvÞ: Some usefulparameters for performance specification of the device in the frequency domain are:

1 Useful frequency range (operating interval): This is given by the flat region of the frequencyresponse magnitude, lGð jvÞl; of the device

2 Bandwidth (speed of response): This may be represented by the primary natural frequency (orresonant frequency) of the device

3 Static gain (steady-state performance): Since static conditions correspond to zero frequencies; this

is given by Gð0Þ:

4 Resonant frequency (speed and critical frequency region) vr: This corresponds to the lowestfrequency at which lGð jvÞl peaks

5 Magnitude at resonance (stability): This is given by lGðjvrÞl:

6 Input impedance (loading, efficiency, interconnectability): This represents the dynamic resistance

as felt at the input terminals of the device This parameter will be discussed in more detail undercomponent interconnection and matching

7 Output impedance (loading, efficiency, interconnectability): This represents the dynamicresistance as felt at the output terminals of the device

8 Gain margin (stability): This is the amount by which the device gain could be increased before thesystem becomes unstable

9 Phase margin (stability): This is the amount by which the device phase lead could be decreased(i.e., phase lag increased) before the system becomes unstable

15.4.2 Linearity

A device is considered linear if it can be modeled by linear differential equations, with time t as theindependent variable Nonlinear devices are often analyzed using linear techniques by considering smallexcursions about an operating point This linearization is accomplished by introducing incrementalvariables for the excitations (inputs) and responses (outputs) If one increment can cover the entireoperating range of a device with sufficient accuracy, it is an indication that the device is linear If theinput/output relations are nonlinear algebraic equations, that represents a static nonlinearity Such asituation can be handled simply by using nonlinear calibration curves, which linearize the device withoutintroducing nonlinearity errors If, on the other hand, the input/output relations are nonlineardifferential equations, analysis usually becomes quite complex This situation represents a dynamicnonlinearity

Transfer-function representation is a “linear” model of an instrument Hence, it implicitly assumeslinearity According to industrial terminology, a linear measuring instrument provides a measured valuethat varies linearly with the value of the measurand This is consistent with the definition of static linearity

All physical devices are nonlinear to some degree This stems from any deviation from the ideal behavior,due to causes such as saturation, deviation from Hooke’s Law in elastic elements, Coulomb friction, creep

at joints, aerodynamic damping, backlash in gears and other loose components, and component wearout.Nonlinearities in devices are often manifested as some peculiar characteristics In particular, the followingproperties are important in detecting nonlinear behavior in dynamic systems:

1 Saturation: The response does not increase when the excitation is increased beyond some level.This may result from such causes as magnetic saturation, which is common in transformer devicessuch as differential transformers, plasticity in mechanical components, or nonlinear deformation

in springs

2 Hysteresis: In this case, the input/output curve changes depending on the direction of motion,resulting in a hysteresis loop This is common in: loose components such as gears, which havebacklash; in components with nonlinear damping, such as Coulomb friction; and in magneticdevices with ferromagnetic media and various dissipative mechanisms (e.g., eddy currentdissipation)

3 The jump phenomenon: Some nonlinear devices exhibit an instability known as the jumpphenomenon (or fold catastrophe) Here, the frequency response (transfer) function curve suddenlyjumps in magnitude at a particular frequency, while the excitation frequency is increased

or decreased A device with this nonlinearity will exhibit a characteristic “tilt” of its resonantpeak either to the left (softening nonlinearity) or to the right (hardening nonlinearity).Furthermore, the transfer function itself may change with the level of input excitation in the case

of nonlinear devices

4 Limit cycles: A limit cycle is a closed trajectory in the state space that corresponds to sustainedoscillations without decay or growth The amplitude of these oscillations is independent of thelocation at which the response began In the case of a stable limit cycle, the response will return to thelimit cycle irrespective of the location near the limit cycle from which the response was initiated Inthe case of an unstable limit cycle, the response will steadily move away from the location with theslightest disturbance

5 Frequency creation: At steady state, nonlinear devices can create frequencies that are not present inthe excitation signals These frequencies might be harmonics (integer multiples of the excitationfrequency), subharmonics (integer fractions of the excitation frequency), or nonharmonics (usuallyrational fractions of the excitation frequency)

Several methods are available to reduce or eliminate nonlinear behavior in vibrating systems Theyinclude calibration (in the static case), use of linearizing elements, such as resistors and amplifiers toneutralize the nonlinear effects, and the use of nonlinear feedback It is also good practice to take thefollowing precautions:

1 Avoid operating the device over a wide range of signal levels

2 Avoid operation over a wide frequency band

3 Use devices that do not generate large mechanical motions

4 Minimize Coulomb friction

5 Avoid loose joints and gear coupling (i.e., use direct-drive mechanisms)

15.4.3 Instrument Ratings

Instrument manufacturers do not usually provide complete dynamic information for their products Inmost cases, it is unrealistic to expect complete dynamic models (in the time or the frequency domain)and associated parameter values for complex instruments Performance characteristics provided bymanufacturers and vendors are primarily static parameters Known as instrument ratings, these areavailable as parameter values, tables, charts, calibration curves, and empirical equations Dynamiccharacteristics such as transfer functions (e.g., transmissibility curves expressed with respect to excitation

frequency) might also be provided for more sophisticated instruments, but the available dynamicinformation is never complete Furthermore, the definitions of rating parameters used by manufacturersand vendors of instruments are in some cases not the same as analytical definitions used in textbooks.This is particularly true in relation to the term linearity Nevertheless, instrument ratings provided bymanufacturers and vendors are very useful in the selection, installation, operation, and maintenance ofinstruments Some of these performance parameters are indicated below.

5 Zero drift and full-scale drift

6 Useful frequency range

7 Bandwidth

8 Input and output impedances

The conventional definitions given by instrument manufacturers and vendors are summarized below.Sensitivity of a transducer is measured by the magnitude (peak, root-mean-square [RMS] value, etc.)

of the output signals corresponding to a unit input of the measurand This may be expressed as the ratio

of (incremental output)/(incremental input) or, analytically, as the corresponding partial derivative Inthe case of vectorial or tensorial signals (e.g., displacement, velocity, acceleration, strain, force), thedirection of sensitivity should be specified

Cross-sensitivity is the sensitivity along directions that are orthogonal to the direction of primarysensitivity; it is expressed as a percentage of the direct sensitivity High sensitivity and low cross-sensitivity are desirable for measuring instruments Sensitivity to parameter changes, disturbances, andnoise has to be small in any device, however; this is an indication of its robustness Often, sensitivityand robustness are conflicting requirements

Dynamic range of an instrument is determined by the allowed lower and upper limits of its input oroutput (response) so as to maintain a required level of measurement accuracy This range is usuallyexpressed as a ratio, in decibels In many situations, the lower limit of the dynamic range is equal tothe resolution of the device Hence, the dynamic range is usually expressed as the ratio (range ofoperation)/(resolution), in decibels

Resolution is the smallest change in a signal that can be detected and accurately indicated by atransducer, a display unit, or other instrument It is usually expressed as a percentage of the maximumrange of the instrument or as the inverse of the dynamic range ratio, as defined above It follows thatdynamic range and resolution are very closely related

Linearity is determined by the calibration curve of an instrument The curve of output amplitude(a peak or rms value) vs input amplitude under static conditions within the dynamic range of aninstrument is known as the static calibration curve Its closeness to a straight line measures the degree oflinearity Manufacturers provide this information either as the maximum deviation of the calibrationcurve from the least squares straight-line fit of the calibration curve or from some other reference straightline If the least squares fit is used as the reference straight line, the maximum deviation is calledindependent linearity (or more correctly, the independent nonlinearity, because the larger the deviation,the greater the nonlinearity) Nonlinearity may be expressed as a percentage of either the actual reading at

an operating point or the full-scale reading

Zero drift is defined as the drift from the null reading of the instrument when the measurand ismaintained steady for a long period Note that in this case, the measurand is kept at zero or any otherlevel that corresponds to null reading of the instrument Similarly, full-scale drift is defined with respect tothe full-scale reading (the measurand is maintained at the full-scale value) Usual causes of drift include

instrument instability (e.g., instability in amplifiers), ambient changes (e.g., changes in temperature,pressure, humidity, and vibration level), changes in power supply (e.g., changes in reference DC voltage

or alternating current [AC] line voltage), and parameter changes in an instrument (due to aging,wearout, nonlinearities, etc.) Drift due to parameter changes that are caused by instrumentnonlinearities is known as parametric drift, sensitivity drift, or scale-factor drift For example, a change

in spring stiffness or electrical resistance due to changes in ambient temperature results in a parametricdrift Note that the parametric drift depends on the measurand level Zero drift, however, is assumed to

be the same at any measurand level if the other conditions are kept constant For example, a change inreading caused by thermal expansion of the readout mechanism due to changes in the ambienttemperature is considered a zero drift In electronic devices, drift can be reduced by using AC circuitryrather than direct current (DC) circuitry For example, AC-coupled amplifiers have fewer drift problemsthan DC amplifiers Intermittent checking for the instrument response level for zero input is a popularway to calibrate for zero drift In digital devices, this can be done automatically and intermittently,between sample points, when the input signal can be bypassed without affecting the system operation.Useful frequency range corresponds to the interval of both flat gain and zero phase in the frequencyresponse characteristics of an instrument The maximum frequency in this band is typically less than half(say, one fifth of) the dominant resonant frequency of the instrument This is a measure of instrumentbandwidth

Bandwidth of an instrument determines the maximum speed or frequency at which the instrument iscapable of operating High bandwidth implies faster speed of response Bandwidth is determined by thedominant natural frequency,vn;or the dominant resonant frequency,vr;of the transducer (Note: Forlow damping, vris approximately equal to vn.) It is inversely proportional to the rise time and thedominant time constant Half-power bandwidth is also a useful parameter Instrument bandwidth must

be several times greater than the maximum frequency of interest in the measured signal The bandwidth

of a measuring device is important, particularly when measuring transient signals Note that thebandwidth is directly related to the useful frequency range

15.4.4 Accuracy and Precision

The instrument ratings mentioned above affect the overall accuracy of an instrument Accuracy can beassigned either to a particular reading or to an instrument Note that instrument accuracy depends notonly on the physical hardware of the instrument but also on the operating conditions (e.g., designconditions that are the normal, steady operating conditions or extreme transient conditions, such

as emergency start-up and shutdown) Measurement accuracy determines the closeness of themeasured value to the true value Instrument accuracy is related to the worst accuracy obtainablewithin the dynamic range of the instrument in a specific operating environment Measurement error isdefined as

Error ¼ ðmeasured valueÞ 2 ðtrue valueÞ ð15:31ÞCorrection, which is the negative of error, is defined as

Correction ¼ ðtrue valueÞ 2 ðmeasured valueÞ ð15:32ÞEach of these can also be expressed as a percentage of the true value The accuracy of an instrument may

be determined by measuring a parameter whose true value is known, and is near the extremes of thedynamic range of the instrument, under certain operating conditions For this purpose, standardparameters or signals that can be generated at very high levels of accuracy would be needed The NationalInstitute for Standards and Testing (NIST) is usually responsible for the generation of these standards.Nevertheless, accuracy and error values cannot be determined to 100% exactness in typical applications,because the true value is not known In a given situation, we can only make estimates for accuracy,

by using ratings provided by the instrument manufacturer or by analyzing data from previousmeasurements and models

Causes of error include instrument instability, external noise (disturbances), poor calibration,inaccurate information (e.g., poor analytical models, inaccurate control), parameter changes (e.g., due

to environmental changes, aging, and wearout), unknown nonlinearities, and improper use of theinstrument

Errors can be classified as deterministic (or systematic) and random (or stochastic) Deterministic errorsare those caused by well-defined factors, including nonlinearities and offsets in readings These usuallycan be removed by applying proper calibration and analytical practices Error ratings and calibrationcharts are used to remove systematic errors from instrument readings Random errors are caused byuncertain factors entering into the instrument response These include device noise, line noise, and theeffects of unknown random variations in the operating environment A statistical analysis usingsufficiently large amounts of data is necessary to estimate random errors The results are usuallyexpressed as a mean error, which is the systematic part of random error, and a standard deviation orconfidence interval for instrument response

Precision is not synonymous with accuracy Reproducibility (or repeatability) of an instrument readingdetermines the precision of an instrument Two or more identical instruments that have the same highoffset error might be able to generate responses at high precision, even though these readings are clearlyinaccurate For example, consider a timing device (clock) that very accurately indicates time increments(say, up to the nearest microsecond) If the reference time (starting time) is set incorrectly, the timereadings will be in error, even though the clock has a very high precision

Instrument error may be represented by a random variable that has a mean value me and astandard deviation se If the standard deviation is zero, the variable is considered deterministic Inthat case, the error is said to be deterministic or repeatable Otherwise, the error is said to be random.The precision of an instrument is determined by the standard deviation of error in the instrumentresponse Readings of an instrument may have a large mean value of error (e.g., large offset), but ifthe standard deviation is small, the instrument has a high precision Hence, a quantitative definitionfor precision is

Precision ¼ ðmeasurement rangeÞ=se ð15:33Þ

Lack of precision originates from random causes and poor construction practices It cannot becompensated for by recalibration, just as the precision of a clock cannot be improved by resetting thetime On the other hand, accuracy can be improved by recalibration Repeatable (deterministic)accuracy is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the mean error me

In selecting instruments for a particular application, in addition to matching instrument ratings withspecifications, several additional features should be considered These include geometric limitations(size, shape, etc.); environmental conditions (e.g., chemical reactions including corrosion, extremetemperatures, light, dirt accumulation, electromagnetic fields, radioactive environments, shock andvibration); power requirements; operational simplicity; availability; the past record and reputation

of the manufacturer and of the particular instrument; and cost-related economic aspects (initial cost,maintenance cost, cost of supplementary components such as signal-conditioning and processingdevices, design life and associated frequency of replacement, and cost of disposal and replacement).Often, these considerations become the ultimate deciding factors in the selection process

15.5 Motion Sensors and Transducers

Motion sensing is considered the most important measurement in vibration applications Othervariables, such as force, torque, stress, strain, and material properties, are also important, either directly

or indirectly, in the study of vibration This section will describe some useful measuring devices ofmotion in the field of mechanical vibration

15.5.1 Potentiometer

The potentiometer, or pot, is a displacement transducer This active transducer consists of a uniform coil

of wire or a film of high-resistive material, such as carbon, platinum, or conductive plastic, whoseresistance is proportional to its length A fixed voltage, vre,fis applied across the coil (or film) using anexternal, constant DC voltage supply The transducer output signal, vo,is the DC voltage between themovable contact (wiper arm) sliding on the coil and one terminal of the coil, as shown schematically inFigure 15.15(a) Slider displacement x is proportional to the output voltage

This relationship assumes that the output terminals are open-circuit, which means that impedance load (or resistance in the present DC case) is present at the output terminal, so that the outputcurrent is zero In actual practice, however, the load (the circuitry into which the pot signal is fed, e.g.,conditioning or processing circuitry) has a finite impedance Consequently, the output current (thecurrent through the load) is nonzero, as shown in Figure 15.15(b) The output voltage thus drops to vo;even if the reference voltage, vref,is assumed to remain constant under load variations (i.e., the voltagesource has zero output impedance) This consequence is known as the loading effect of the transducer.Under these conditions, the linear relationship given by Equation 15.34 is no longer valid This causes anerror in the displacement reading Loading can affect the transducer reading in two ways: by changing thereference voltage (i.e., loading the voltage source) or by loading the transducer To reduce these effects, avoltage source that is not seriously affected by load variations (e.g., a regulated or stabilized power supplythat has low output impedance) and data acquisition circuitry (including signal-conditioning circuitry)that has high input impedance should be used

infinite-The resistance of a potentiometer should be chosen with care On the one hand, an element with highresistance is preferred because this results in reduced power dissipation for a given voltage, which has theadded benefit of reduced thermal effects On the other hand, increased resistance increases the outputimpedance of the potentiometer and results in loading nonlinearity error unless the load resistance is alsoincreased proportionately Low-resistance pots have resistances less than 10 V High-resistance pots canhave resistances on the order of 100 kV Conductive plastics can provide high resistances, typically about

100 V/mm, and are increasingly used in potentiometers Reduced friction (low mechanical loading),reduced wear, reduced weight, and increased resolution are advantages of using conductive plastics inpotentiometers

involves relatively high forces, and the energy is wasted rather than converted into the output signal of thetransducer Furthermore, the electrical energy from the reference source is also dissipated through theresistor coil (or film), resulting in an undesirable temperature rise These are two obvious disadvantages

of this resistively coupled transducer Another disadvantage is the finite resolution in coil-type pots.Coils, instead of straight wire, are used to increase the resistance per unit travel of the slider arm in thecoil-type pot However, the slider contact jumps from one turn to the next in this case Accordingly, theresolution of a coil-type potentiometer is determined by the number of turns in the coil For a coil thathas N turns, the resolution, r, expressed as a percentage of the output range, is given by

r ¼ 100

Resolutions better (smaller) than 0.1% (i.e., 1000 turns) are available with coil potentiometers.Infinitesimal (incorrectly termed infinite) resolutions are now possible with high-quality resistive filmpotentiometers that use conductive plastics, for example In this case, the resolution is limited by otherfactors, such as mechanical limitations and signal-to-noise ratio Nevertheless, resolutions on the order of0.01 mm are possible with good rectilinear potentiometers

Some limitations and disadvantages of potentiometers as displacement measuring devices are asfollows:

1 The force needed to move the slider (against friction and arm inertia) is provided by the vibrationsource This mechanical loading distorts the measured signal itself

2 High-frequency (or highly transient) measurements are not feasible because of such factors asslider bounce, friction and inertia resistance, and induced voltages in the wiper arm and primarycoil

3 Variations in the supply voltage cause error

4 Electrical loading error can be significant when the load resistance is low

5 Resolution is limited by the number of turns in the coil and by the coil uniformity This will limitsmall-displacement measurements such as fine vibrations

6 Wearout and heating up (with associated oxidation) in the coil (film) and slider contact causeaccelerated degradation

There are several advantages associated with potentiometer devices, however, including the following:

1 They are relatively less costly

2 Potentiometers provide high-voltage (low-impedance) output signals, requiring no amplification

in most applications Transducer impedance can be varied simply by changing the coil resistanceand supply voltage

15.5.1.2 Optical Potentiometer

The optical potentiometer, shown schematically in Figure 15.16(a),is a displacement sensor A layer

of photoresistive material is sandwiched between a layer of regular resistive material and a layer ofconductive material The layer of resistive material has a total resistance of Rc, and it is uniform (i.e., ithas a constant resistance per unit length) The photoresistive layer is practically an electrical insulatorwhen no light is projected on it The displacement of the moving object whose displacement is beingmeasured causes a moving light beam to be projected on a rectangular area of the photoresistive layer.This light-projected area attains a resistance of Rp, which links the resistive layer, which is above thephotoresistive layer, and the conductive layer, which is below it The supply voltage to the potentiometer

is vref, and the length of the resistive layer is L The light spot is projected at a distance x from one end ofthe resistive element, as shown in Figure 15.16(a)

An equivalent circuit for the optical potentiometer is shown in Figure 15.16(b) Here, it is assumedthat a load of resistance RLis present at the output of the potentiometer, the voltage across which is vo.Current through the load is vo/RL Hence, the voltage drop across ð1 2aÞRcþ RL; which is also thevoltage across Rp, is given by ½ð1 2aÞRcþ RL vo=RL: Note that a ¼ x=L is the fractional position of

the light spot The current balance at the junction of the three resistors in Figure 15.16(b) is

Rc

Rp 1 2

xL

(Rc) PhotoresistiveLayer

LightSpot

(Rp)

ConductiveLayer

The induced voltage or change in inductance may be used as a measure of the motion inductance transducers are generally electromechanical devices coupled by a magnetic field.

Variable-There are many different types of variable-inductance transducers Three primary types are:

The motion can be measured by using the secondary signal in several ways For example, the AC signal

in the secondary windings may be demodulated by rejecting the carrier frequency (primary-windingexcitation frequency) and directly measuring the resulting signal, which represents the motion Thismethod is particularly suitable for measuring transient motions Alternatively, the amplitude or the rmsvalue of the secondary (induced) voltage may be measured Another method is to measure the change ofinductance in the secondary circuit directly by using a device such as an inductance bridge circuit.15.5.2.2 Linear-Variable Differential Transformer

The LVDT is a displacement (vibration) measuring device, which can overcome most of theshortcomings of the potentiometer It is considered a passive transducer because the measureddisplacement provides energy for “changing” the induced voltage, even though an external power supply

is used to energize the primary coil, which in turn induces a steady carrier voltage in the secondary coil.The LVDT is a variable-reluctance transducer of the mutual induction type In its simplest form, theLVDT consists of an insulating, nonmagnetic cylinder that has a primary coil in the midsegmentand a secondary coil symmetrically wound in the two end segments, as depicted schematically in

Figure 15.17(a).The primary coil is energized by an AC supply of voltage vref This will generate, bymutual induction, an AC of the same frequency in the secondary winding A core made of ferromagneticmaterial is inserted coaxially into the cylindrical form without actually touching it, as shown As the coremoves, the reluctance of the flux path changes

Hence, the degree of flux linkage depends on the axial position of the core The two secondary coils areconnected in series opposition so that the potentials induced in these two coil segments oppose eachother, therefore, the net induced voltage is zero when the core is centered between the two secondarywinding segments This is known as the null position When the core is displaced from this position, anonzero induced voltage will be generated At steady state, the amplitude voof this induced voltage isproportional, in the linear (operating) region, to the core displacement x Consequently, vomay be used

as a measure of the displacement Note that, because of its opposed secondary windings, the LVDT

provides the direction as well as the magnitude of displacement If the output signal is not demodulated,the direction is determined by the phase angle between the primary (reference) voltage and the secondary(output) voltage, including the carrier signal.

For an LVDT to measure transient motions accurately, the frequency of the reference voltage (thecarrier frequency) has to be about ten times larger than the largest significant frequency component inthe measured motion For quasi-dynamic displacements and slow transients on the order of a few hertz, astandard AC supply (at 60 Hz line frequency) is adequate The performance, particularly the sensitivityand accuracy, is known to improve with the excitation frequency, however Since the amplitude ofthe output signal is proportional to the amplitude of the primary signal, the reference voltageshould be regulated to obtain accurate results In particular, the power source should have a low outputimpedance

The output signal from a differential transformer is normally not in phase with the reference voltage.Inductance in the primary windings and the leakage inductance in the secondary windings are mainlyresponsible for this phase shift Since demodulation involves extraction of the modulating signal byrejecting the carrier frequency component from the secondary signal, it is important to understand thesize of this phase shift An error known as null voltage is present in some differential transformers Thismanifests itself as a nonzero reading at the null position (i.e., at zero displacement) This is usually 908out of phase from the main output signal and, hence, is known as quadrature error Nonuniformities inthe windings (unequal impedances in the two segments of the secondary windings) are a major reason forthis error The null voltage may also result from harmonic noise components in the primary signal andnonlinearities in the device Null voltage is usually negligible (typically about 0.1% of the full scale) Thiserror can be eliminated from the measurements by employing appropriate signal-conditioning andcalibration practices

Ferromagnetic Core

CoreDisplacement

x

(Measurand)

vo(Measurement)

vref

PrimaryCoilInsulating

Form

SecondaryCoil Segment

SecondaryCoil Segment

vo

ltage level

LinearRange

Displacement x

(a)

(b)Housing

FIGURE 15.17 (a) Schematic diagram of an LVDT; (b) a typical operating curve.

15.5.2.3 Signal Conditioning

Signal conditioning associated with differential transformers includes filtering and amplification.Filtering is needed to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the output signal Amplification is necessary toincrease the signal strength for data acquisition and processing Since the reference frequency (carrierfrequency) is embedded in the output signal, it is also necessary to interpret the output signal properly,particularly for transient motions Two methods are commonly used to interpret the amplitude-modulated output signal from a differential transformer: (1) rectification; (2) demodulation

In the first method, rectification, the AC output from the differential transformer is rectified to obtain a

DC signal This signal is amplified and then low-pass filtered to eliminate any high-frequency noisecomponents The amplitude of the resulting signal provides the transducer reading In this method,phase shift in the LVDT output must be checked separately to determine the direction of motion In thesecond method, demodulation, the carrier frequency component is rejected from the output signal bycomparing it with a phase-shifted and amplitude-adjusted version of the primary (reference) signal Notethat phase shifting is necessary because the output signal is not in phase with the reference signal Themodulating signal which is extracted in this manner is subsequently amplified and filtered As a result ofadvances in miniature integrated circuit (LSI and VLSI) technology, differential transformers with built-

in microelectronics for signal conditioning are commonly available today DC differential transformershave built-in oscillator circuits to generate the carrier signal powered by a DC supply The supply voltage

is usually on the order of 25 V, and the output voltage is about 5 V Let us illustrate the demodulationapproach to signal conditioning for an LVDT, using an example

Example 15.2

Figure 15.18 shows a schematic diagram of a simplified signal conditioning system for an LVDT Thesystem variables and parameters are as indicated in Figure 15.18 In particular:

u(t) ¼ displacement of the LVDT core (to be measured)

wc ¼ frequency of the carrier voltage

vo¼ output signal of the system (measurement)

The resistances R1, R2, and R, and the capacitance C are as marked In addition, you may introduce atransformer parameter r for the LVDT, as required

1 Explain the functions of the various components of the system shown in Figure 15.18

2 Write equations for the amplifier and filter circuits and, using them, give expressions for thevoltage signals v1, v2, v3, and vo marked in Figure 15.18 Note that the excitation in theprimary coil is vpsinvct:

3 Suppose that the carrier frequency isvc¼ 500 rad=s and the filter resistance is R ¼ 100 k V: If

no more than 5% of the carrier component passes through the filter, estimate the requiredvalue of the filter capacitance, C Also, what is the useful frequency range (measurementbandwidth) of the system in rad/sec, with these parameter values?

Solution

1 The LVDT has a primary coil that is excited by an AC voltage of vpsinvct: The ferromagnetic core isattached to the moving object whose displacement x(t) is to be measured The two secondary coils areconnected in series opposition so that the LVDT output is zero at the null position, and that the direction

of motion can be detected as well The amplifier is a noninverting type It amplifies the output of theLVDT which is an AC (carrier) signal of frequencyvc; which is modulated by the core displacement x(t).The multiplier circuit determines the product of the primary (carrier) signal and the secondary (LVDToutput) signal This is an important step in demodulating the LVDT output

The product signal from the multiplier has a high-frequency (2vc) carrier component, added to themodulating component ðxðtÞÞ: The low-pass filter removes this unnecessary high-frequency component

to obtain the demodulated signal which is proportional to the core displacement x(t)

2 Noninverting Amplifier: Note that the potentials at the positive and negative terminals of theoperational amplifier (opamp) are nearly equal Also, currents through these leads are nearly zero (Theseare the two common assumptions used for an opamp.) Then, the current balance at node A gives

v22 v1

R2 ¼

v1

R1or

v2¼ R1þ R2

R1 v1Then,

with

k ¼ R1þ R2

R1 ¼ amplifier gainLoss-Pass Filter: Since the þ lead of the opamp has approximately a zero potential (ground), the voltage

at point B is also approximately zero The current balance for node B gives

v3

R1 þ

vo

R þ C_vo¼ 0Hence,

v3¼ v2rk uðtÞ sin2vctor

v3¼ v2rk

2 uðtÞ½1 2 cos 2vct ðivÞOwing to the low-pass filter, with an appropriate cut-off frequency, the carrier signal will be filteredout Then,

According to the carrier frequency (500 rad/sec), we should be able to measure displacements u(t) up

to about 50 rad/sec However, the flat region of the filter extends to approximatelyvt ¼ 0:1; which, withthe present value oft ¼ 0.02 sec, gives a bandwidth of only 5 rad/sec

Advantages of the LVDT include the following:

1 It is essentially a noncontacting device with no frictional resistance Its near-ideal mechanical energy conversion and lightweight core will result in very small resistive forces.Hysteresis (both magnetic hysteresis and mechanical backlash) is negligible

electro-2 It has low output impedance, typically on the order of 100 V (signal amplification is usually notneeded)

3 Directional measurements (positive/negative) are obtained

4 It is available in small sizes (e.g., 1 cm long with maximum travel of 2 mm)

5 It has a simple and robust construction (inexpensive and durable)

6 Fine resolutions are possible (theoretically, infinitesimal resolution; practically, much finerresolution than that of a coil potentiometer)

The RVDT operates using the same principle as the LVDT, except that in an RVDT, a rotatingferromagnetic core is used The RVDT is used for measuring angular displacements The rotating core isshaped such that a reasonably wide linear operating region is obtained Advantages of the RVDT areessentially the same as those cited for the LVDT The linear range is typically ^408 with a nonlinearityerror less than 1%

In variable-inductance devices, the induced voltage is generated through the rate of change of themagnetic flux linkage Therefore, displacement readings are distorted by velocity, and similarly, velocityreadings are affected by acceleration For the same displacement value, the transducer reading will depend

on the velocity at that displacement This error is known to increase with the ratio: (cyclic velocity of thecore)/(carrier frequency) Hence, these rate errors can be reduced by increasing the carrier frequency Thereason for this is as follows

At high frequencies, the induced voltage due to the transformer effect (frequencies of the primarysignal) is greater than the induced voltage due to the rate (velocity) effect of the moving member Hence,the error will be small To estimate a lower limit for the carrier frequency in order to reduce rate effects,

we may proceed as follows:

1 For LVDT: max speed of operation=stroke of LVDT ¼vo

The excitation frequency of the primary coil should be chosen as at least 5vo:

2 For RVDT: forvouse the maximum angular frequency of operation (of the rotor)

15.5.3 Mutual-Induction Proximity Sensor

This displacement transducer operates on the mutual-induction principle A simplified schematicdiagram of such a device is shown in Figure 15.19(a) The insulated “E core” carries the primary windings

in its middle limb The two end limbs carry secondary windings that are connected in series Unlike theLVDT and the RVDT, the two voltages induced in the secondary winding segments are additive in thiscase The region of the moving surface (target object) that faces the coils has to be made of ferromagneticmaterial so that as it moves, the magnetic reluctance and the flux linkage will change This, in turn,changes the induced voltage in the secondary windings, and this change is a measure of the displacement.Note that, unlike the LVDT, which has an “axial” displacement configuration, the proximity probe has a

“transverse” displacement configuration Hence, it is particularly suitable for measuring transversedisplacements or proximities of moving objects (e.g., transverse vibrations of a beam or whirling of arotating shaft) We can see from the operating curve shown in Figure 15.19(b) that the displacement-voltage relation of a proximity probe is nonlinear Hence, these proximity sensors should be used only formeasuring small displacements, such as linear vibrations (e.g., a linear range of 5.0 mm or 0.2 in.), unlessaccurate nonlinear calibration curves are available Since the proximity sensor is a noncontacting device,mechanical loading is small and the product life is long Because a ferromagnetic object is used to alterthe reluctance of the flux path, the mutual-induction proximity sensor is a variable-reluctance device.The operating frequency limit is about one tenth the excitation frequency of the primary coil (carrierfrequency) As for an LVDT, demodulation of the induced voltage (secondary) would be required toobtain direct (DC) output readings

vo(Measurement)SecondaryCoil

PrimaryCoil

~

vref

SecondaryCoil

x

(Measurand)

FerromagneticTarget Object

15.5.4 Selfinduction Transducers

These transducers are based on the principle of

selfinduction Unlike mutual-induction

transdu-cers, only a single coil is employed This coil is

activated by an AC supply voltage, vref The current

produces a magnetic flux, which is linked with the

coil The level of flux linkage (or selfinductance)

can be varied by moving a ferromagnetic object

within the magnetic field

This changes the reluctance of the flux path and

the inductance in the coil This change is a measure

of the displacement of the ferromagnetic object

The change in inductance is measured using an

inductance measuring circuit (e.g., an inductance

bridge) Note that selfinduction transducers are

usually variable-reluctance devices

A typical selfinduction transducer is a

self-induction proximity sensor A schematic diagram

of this device is shown in Figure 15.20 This device

can be used as a displacement or vibration sensor for transverse displacements For instance, the distancebetween the sensor tip and ferromagnetic surface of a moving object, such as a beam or shaft, can bemeasured Applications are essentially the same as those for mutual-induction proximity sensors High-speed displacement (vibration) measurements can result in velocity error (rate error) when variable-inductance displacement sensors, including selfinduction transducers, are used This effect may bereduced by increasing the carrier frequency, as in other AC-powered variable-inductance sensors

15.5.5 Permanent-Magnet Transducers

In discussing this third type of variable-inductance transducer, we will first consider the magnet DC velocity sensors (DC tachometers) A distinctive feature of permanent-magnet transducers isthat they have a permanent magnet to generate a uniform and steady magnetic field A relative motionbetween the magnetic field and an electrical conductor induces a voltage that is proportional to the speed

permanent-at which the conductor crosses the magnetic field In some designs, a unidirectional magnetic fieldgenerated by a DC supply (i.e., an electromagnet) is used in place of a permanent magnet Nevertheless,this is generally termed a permanent-magnet transducer

The principle of electromagnetic induction between a permanent magnet and a conducting coil is used

in speed measurement by permanent-magnet transducers Depending on the configuration, eitherrectilinear speeds or angular speeds can be measured Schematic diagrams of the two configurations areshown inFigure 15.21.Note that these are passive transducers, because the energy for the output signal vo

is derived from the motion (measured signal) itself The entire device is usually enclosed in a steel casing

to isolate it from ambient magnetic fields

In the rectilinear velocity transducer, as shown in Figure 15.21(a), the conductor coil is wrapped on acore and placed centrally between two magnetic poles, which produce a cross-magnetic field The core isattached to the moving object whose velocity must be measured The velocity v is proportional to theinduced voltage, vo An alternative design, consisting of a moving-magnet and fixed-coil arrangement,may be used as well, thus eliminating the need for any sliding contacts (slip rings and brushes) for theoutput leads, and thereby reducing mechanical loading error, wearout, and related problems Thetachogenerator (or tachometer) is a very common permanent-magnet device The principle of operation

of a DC tachogenerator is shown in Figure 15.21(a) The rotor is directly connected to the rotating object.The output signal that is induced in the rotating coil is picked up as DC voltage, vo, using a suitable

~

ACSupply

vref

x

(Measurand)

FerromagneticTarget Object

InductanceMeasuringCircuit

FIGURE 15.20 Schematic diagram of a selfinduction proximity sensor.

commutator device, which typically consists of a pair of low-resistance carbon brushes, that is stationarybut makes contact with the rotating coil through split slip rings so as to maintain the positive direction ofinduced voltage throughout each revolution The induced voltage is given by

for a coil of height h and width 2r that has n turns, moving at an angular speedvcin a uniform magneticfield of flux densityb: This proportionality between voandvcis used to measure the angular speedvc:When tachometers are used to measure transient velocities, some error will result from the rate(acceleration) effect This error generally increases with the maximum significant frequency that must beretained in the transient velocity signal Output distortion can also result because of reactive (inductiveand capacitive) loading of the tachometer Both types of error can be reduced by increasing the loadimpedance

For an illustration, consider the equivalent

circuit of a tachometer with an impedance load,

as shown in Figure 15.22 The induced voltage kvc

is represented by a voltage source Note that the

constant k depends on the coil geometry, the

number of turns, and the magnetic flux density

(see Equation 15.40) Coil resistance is denoted by

R, and leakage inductance is denoted by L‘: The

load impedance is ZL From straightforward circuit

analysis in the frequency domain, the output

voltage at the load is given by

PermanentMagnet

SN

RotatingCoil

2r h

wc

FIGURE 15.21 Permanent-magnet transducers: (a) rectilinear velocity transducer; (b) DC tachometer-generator.

vo

InducedVoltage

It can be seen that because of the leakage inductance, the output signal attenuates more at higherfrequenciesv of the velocity transient In addition, loading error is present If ZLis much larger than thecoil impedance, however, the ideal proportionality, as given by

is achieved

Some tachometers operate in a different manner For example, digital tachometers generate voltagepulses at a frequency proportional to the angular speed These are considered to be digital transducers

15.5.6 Alternating Current Permanent-Magnet Tachometer

This device has a permanent magnet rotor and two

separate sets of stator windings as schematically

shown in Figure 15.23(a) One set of windings is

energized using an AC reference voltage Induced

voltage in the other set of windings is the

tachometer output When the rotor is stationary

or moving in a quasi-static manner, the output

voltage is a constant-amplitude signal much like

the reference voltage As the rotor moves at a finite

speed, an additional induced voltage that is

proportional to the rotor speed is generated in

the secondary windings This is due to the rate of

change of flux linkage from the magnet in the

secondary coil The net output is an

amplitude-modulated signal whose amplitude is proportional

to the rotor speed For transient velocities, it will

be necessary to demodulate this signal in order to

extract the transient velocity signal (i.e., the modulating signal) from the modulated output Thedirection of velocity is determined from the phase angle of the modulated signal with respect to thecarrier signal Note that in an LVDT, the amplitude of the AC magnetic flux is altered by the position ofthe ferromagnetic core But in an AC permanent-magnet tachometer, the DC magnetic flux generated bythe magnetic rotor is linked with the stator windings, and the associated induced voltage is caused by thespeed of rotation of the rotor

For low-frequency applications (5 Hz or less), a standard AC supply (60 Hz) may be used to power an

AC tachometer For moderate-frequency applications, a 400 Hz supply is widely used Typical sensitivity

of an AC permanent-magnet tachometer is on the order of 50 to 100 mV/rad/sec

15.5.7 Alternating Current Induction Tachometer

These tachometers are similar in construction to the two-phase induction motors The statorarrangement is identical to that of the AC permanent-magnet tachometer The rotor, however, haswindings that are shorted and not energized by an external source, as shown in Figure 15.23(b) One set

of stator windings is energized with an AC supply This induces a voltage in the rotor windings, and it hastwo components One component is due to the direct transformer action of the supply AC The othercomponent is induced by the speed of rotation of the rotor and its magnitude is proportional to the speed

of rotation The nonenergized stator windings provide the output of the tachometer Voltage induced

in the output stator windings is due to both the primary stator windings and the rotor windings As aresult, the tachometer output has a carrier AC component and a modulating component that isproportional to the speed of rotation Demodulation would be needed to extract the output componentthat is proportional to the angular speed of the rotor

Output

vo

ACCarrierSource

vref

ACCarrierSource

vref

SecondaryStator

PrimaryStator

~

MagnetRotor(a)

Permanent-(b)

Output

vo

SecondaryStator

PrimaryStator

~

ShortedRotor Coil

FIGURE 15.23 (a) AC permanent-magnet tachometer; (b) AC induction tachometer.