Project management theory and practice, second edition by gary l Richardson(PRADYUTVAM2)CPUL

an ideal choice for graduate management students, as well as those seeking project management certification.. Arora, in Computing Reviews, September 2011 Updated to reflect the Project

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Praise for the Bestselling First Edition:

This book expands on PMI’s PMBOK ® Guide, providing readers with a balanced

knowledge of theory, organizational issues, and the associated human behavior needed

to manage real-world projects effectively an ideal choice for graduate management

students, as well as those seeking project management certification.

—C.S Arora, in Computing Reviews, September 2011

Updated to reflect the Project Management Institute’s (PMI’s) Project Management

Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide), Fifth Edition, the new edition of this bestselling

textbook continues to provide a practical and up-to-date overview of project management

theory Project Management Theory and Practice, Second Edition explains project

management theory using language that is easy to understand

The book integrates the organizational environment that surrounds a project to supply

the well-rounded knowledge of theories, organizational issues, and human behavior

needed to manage real-world projects effectively This edition includes a new chapter on

Stakeholder Management, which is a new knowledge area covered in the new PMBOK ®

Guide It also provides updated references and a new streamlined organization of

chapters There are several project-related model frameworks sponsored by PMI®, and

many are covered in this text

For many of the major sections, the PMI Global Accreditation curriculum learning

objectives have been adapted with permission of PMI and used to guide the content

Filled with end-of-chapter questions, scheduling and budgeting problems, and scoping

projects, this text is ideal for classroom use and essential reading for anyone seeking

project management certification The book also includes sample empirically oriented

worksheets that demonstrate various management decision and analysis-oriented tools

Project Management Theory and

Management Theory and

Practice

Second Edition

Project Management Theory and

Practice

Gary L Richardson

Second Edition

Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

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Preface xxiAcknowledgments xxiiiAuthor xxv

2.3 Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management 12

References 22

Chapter 3 Project Management Body of Knowledge 23

Reference 35

4.5 Other Trends Impacting Project Management 40

References 55

7.2.4 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 60

7.3 Key Project Management Artifacts 62

Reference 79

10.3.2 Existence of a Standard Process Infrastructure 104

10.3.5 Availability of Appropriate Skills 10510.3.6 Industry and Organizational Culture 105

10.4 Project Success Trends 10610.5 Forecasting the Success of Technology Projects 106

References 109

References 122

13.7 Establishing the Project Activity Sequence 161

Problems 169References 170

References 189

Discussion Questions 230References 231

17.3.1 Managing Stakeholder Expectations 240

References 265

Chapter 19 Quality Management 267

19.27 Worksheet Exercise: Are You Meeting

References 301

Chapter 20 Risk Management 303

20.5 Qualitative and Quantitative Risk Analysis 314

20.12.1 Mishap Foils Latest Attempt at a 25-Mile Skydive 322

References 325

22.2 Modifying PERT for Commercial Projects 345

References 353

Chapter 23 Project Simulation 355

23.1.4 Correlation between Task

25.6 Conclusion 404

References 405

27.7 Establishing a Baseline and Setting Targets 427

Appendix 449

A Summary Review of EV Metrics and Performance

Parameters 449

C Using a Summary Project Plan Spreadsheet to Calculate

Problems 451References 453

30.4.2 Internal Business Process Perspective 473

30.5.3 Overcoming the Resource Barrier 47530.5.4 Overcoming the Management Barrier 476

31.6 Creating Lessons Learned Documentation 488

References 490

32.11 Best Practices 505

33.4 Improving Visibility of Project Performance 517

33.9.1 Subgoal 1: Strategic Goal Alignment 51933.9.2 Subgoal 2: Resource Investment Focus 51933.9.3 Subgoal 3: Better Project Control/Governance 520

34.5 Performance Metrics 537

34.10 Evaluating and Prioritizing New Projects 549

35.8 Outsourcing Vendor Evaluation Worksheet 562

References 563

37.3 Project Governance Definition 58237.4 Organizational Level Project Governance Principles 583

37.8 Populating the Project Governance Framework 588

37.11 Corporate Governance and Project Teamwork (Halas) 594

References 597

Part 10 Professional Ethics and responsibility

“silver bullet” quick fix advice types Based on that assessment, the vision of correcting that oversight began to take shape After four years of thrashing around with the topic, this text organization is the result You the reader will have to decide how well it matches the goal of a readable overview of project management model theory with a real-world view.

The academic program at the University of Houston is heavily based on the Project Management Institute’s (PMI) model concepts and that bias formed the foundation for the text, even though more topics are included in the final scope Overall, the text mate-

rial stays reasonably close to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK®

Guide) model, but there is also an attempt to show how this model fits the real world In

this regard, the material in the text is viewed as a companion to the technical guide and should be of help to someone studying for various project management certifications, but does not duplicate the breath of definition described in the guide

There are several project-related model frameworks sponsored by PMI today, and many of these are covered in various segments of the text Specifically, the following five topics are discussed in some detail:

• Work breakdown structures (WBS)

• Earned value management (EVM)

• Enterprise project management (EPMO)

• Portfolio management (PPM)

• Professional responsibility and ethics

In addition, there are multiple chapters related to various other associated rary topics that are currently emerging in the industry

contempo-Deciding how to define what additional material should be covered was difficult once the basic core topics were listed For many of the major sections, the PMI Global Accreditation curriculum learning objectives were adapted with permission of PMI and used to guide the content Note that each of the 10 text sections has a set of learning objectives stated in the header Learning objectives for those topics not covered by PMI were developed by the author.

Many industry experts have willingly shared their work and thoughts in this effort Their comments have been incorporated, and hopefully the resulting material did not distort their content Based on the logic outlined above we believe that the result repre-sents a good overview of the project management environment today, but also recognize that there is more left to evolve

The writing style used is not meant to be overly formal in the hopes that it will be more readable It is recognized that formal project management technical material can

be similar to a dentist visit for a root canal Also, recognize that frequent references to

the PMBOK® Guide are meant more to provide linkages to that material rather than

to duplicate it This is viewed as a complementary perspective of the common topic areas Also, recognize that there are parts of the text that clearly push beyond the basic model view and extrapolate beyond current reality Please accept these few ventures

as an attempt to broaden the current perspectives and offer a potential future pathway for the overall topic These jumps in faith were carefully taken and directionally seem appropriate At least they should stimulate thinking beyond the pragmatic, since any professional working in this field needs to understand both the current views and be prepared to evolve with these over time One should view the resulting document as both a theoretical model description and sufficient real-world perspective combined

TEXT ORGANIZATION

The initial text structure starts with very basic organizational and project concepts There is no reader background assumed in Parts 1 and 2 other than a very general knowledge of organizations and projects Lack of any real-world exposure will make some of these topics seem abstract, while exposure will make the reader more willing to believe that projects really can be this poorly managed

Each major section of the text focuses on what is considered a key topic goal area Part

1 is intended to level set the reader with background up to a Quick Start project plan Parts

2 through 8 focus on life cycle “domains,” which basically translate to major project stage activities Part 9 covers management areas that are considered to be contemporary, meaning that they exist in the real world, but the topics are in transition Finally, Part 10 deals with the ethical framework that must be understood by the professional project manager One only has to read the daily newspaper to see the rationale for this topic being included Scattered throughout the text are sample empirically oriented worksheets used to demonstrate various management decision or analysis-oriented tools

I hope that you find your journey through this material interesting and worthwhile

Gary L richardson

University of Houston

No effort of this scope and complexity could have been accomplished by one person in any reasonable time frame This book is no exception to that rule During the early incu-bation period several colleagues provided stimulus for this effort First, Walter Viali,

who is a 30-year professional associate, convinced me that the PMBOK® Guide and the

PMI were the right thought leaders to provide the foundation structure for the sity academic program This has proven to be a successful core strategic decision for our university program as well as for this book Rudy Hirschheim, Dennis Adams, and Blake Ives were instrumental in helping me move from industry to academia and then supporting me as I tried to become a professor again Later, Michael Gibson provided the final push and support to allow me time to complete the draft material Ron Smith (PMP and CSPM) provided several of his published worksheets and helped customize these for use as end of chapter examples As a result of this involvement, he became a reviewer of the book and a great supporter Charles Butler, who has been my collabora-tor on so many past ventures, edited much of the text and through that made the content better And thanks to Teri, who taught me about chip theory and a lot of other soft skills.Industry gurus Watts Humphrey, Walt Lipke, Tom Mocal, Max Wideman, Frank Patrick, Lawrence Leach, and Don James contributed ideas, reviews, and material in their respective areas of expertise Other sources such as The Standish Group, QPR, QSM, and the Software Engineering Institute shared their intellectual property

univer-Jerry Evans and Dan Cassler, my University of Houston office mates, continually vided an environment of friendly warmth and fun that may well be the most important support of all Last but not least, Bob Fitzsimmons continued our 55-year friendship with frequent moral support and became the chief graphics artist along the way

pro-Over the past ten years, I have been blessed with over 400 captive project ment graduate students digging through voluminous technical sources to generate a library of raw material from which much of this text is drawn

manage-The resulting text material is a compendium of intellectual thoughts and ideas from all of the sources mentioned above, plus my own experiences I have tried to credit all of the sources that were used, and if any were missed it was unintentional

Finally, my wife Shawn’s tolerance through all of my seemingly endless nights and weekends in the study upstairs must be recognized Without her support this effort could not have been accomplished

Gary L richardson is the PMI endowed professor

of project management at the University of Houston College of Technology graduate project management program This program serves both the internal and external professional community in regard to the the-ory and practice of project management He comes from a broad professional background including indus-try, consulting, government, and academia

During the early phase of his career, he was an cer in the U.S Air Force, followed by industry stints

offi-at Texas Instruments as a manufacturing engineer, and then by consulting assignments at the Defense Communications Agency, Department of Labor, and the U.S Air Force (Pentagon) in Washington, D.C The latter half of his career was spent with Texaco, Star Enterprise (Texaco Aramco joint venture), and Service Corporation International in various IT and CIO level management positions Interspersed through these periods he was a professor at Texas A&M, the University of South Florida, and the University of Houston, and also did other adjunct professor stints at three other universities Gary has previously published five computer and project management related books and numer-ous technical articles

Through his experiences in over 100 significant sized projects of various types, he has observed frequently encountered management issues and has been an active participant

in the evolution of management techniques that have occurred over this time

Gary received a BS in mechanical engineering from Louisiana Tech, an AFIT graduate program in meteorology at the University of Texas, an MS in engineering management from the University of Alaska, and a PhD in business administration from the University of North Texas He currently teaches the PMP Prep course and other graduate-level project management courses at the University of Houston, plus various continuing education courses

1 Definition of a project and its general characteristics

2 Basic history of project management

3 An understanding of the typical challenges faced by project managers (PMs)

4 Benefits of the project management process

5 An introductory overview of the Project Management Institute’s (PMI’s) project model

6 Some of the contemporary trends that are changing the view of project ment Basic project scope, time, and budget mechanics

7 Key project vocabulary that is needed to understand the more detailed sections that follow later in the book

1

INTRODUCTION

The term project occupies the central theme of this book and it is a frequently used

descriptor; however, there are many different perspectives regarding what the term means A collection of keywords from various sources and individuals will typically include the following in their definitions:

A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result (PMI, 2013, p 553)

One key thesis of this book is that all projects fit the same conceptual model with only degrees of variation across the elements That view has now become reasonably accepted as users begin to understand the concept of variability Some projects have very high risk and others less so The same is true for high versus low use of third-party vendors, and so on The common key in all these is that a team of skilled workers is collected to produce a defined outcome, hopefully within a planned schedule and bud-get The management model outlined here fits this description and there is no intent to focus on information technology (IT), construction, manufacturing, or any other area

of endeavor It is important to understand that the model is universal It also fits lawsuits and medial research Thinking the same way, one’s personal life is a project and all of these same variables are at play in that context as well So, let your mind stay open and test the concept In the modern organization, the project model is used to accomplish many of its planning goals, that is, moving the organization from state A to state B (state

transition) For these endeavors, resources are allocated to the target, and through a series of work activities, the project team attempts to produce the defined goal Typical goals for this type of activity involve the creation of a new product, service, process, or any other activity that requires a fixed-time resource focus.

Figure 1.1 is a visual metaphor to illustrate what a project is attempting to accomplish The two fuzzy clouds depict an organization moving from a current state to a future state The arrow represents the project team driving this movement From an abstract point of view, the role of a project is to create that movement, whether that represents an organizational process, new product development, or some other desired deliverables.Projects should be envisioned as formal undertakings, guided by explicit manage-ment charters and focused on enterprise goals Practically speaking, this is not always the case, but given the nature of this book, we need to reject projects that are not focused

on improving the goal status for the organization and those that do not have the explicit support of the management Any other initiatives are not examples of a project, but

rather “ad hoc chaos.”

1.2 ROLE OF THE PM

Essentially, the role of a PM is to “make it happen.” This does not mean that he is the best engineer, programmer, or business-process technician It does mean that he has the necessary skills to acquire, develop, and manage a team of individuals who are capable

of producing the desired product Every project has unique characteristics and therefore the roles required change accordingly The current state of understanding for this role

Figure 1.1 Project state transition process.

has defined the basic knowledge areas involved in this activity, but the operational niques for creating productive project teams are still a fragile art form.

tech-Many project success and failure studies have documented the basic factors leading to these conclusions As projects have become more complex, there is growing recognition that a skilled PM is the glue that brings these elements together This involves the more mechanical management elements, but probably, more important is the use of softer management skills for team motivation, conflict resolution, user communications, and general negotiation We must not forget that project management involves humans and will never be reduced to a mechanical exercise Nevertheless, the mechanical aspects are an important part of the overall management process in identifying what actions are required to influence changes For example, to know that a project schedule is over-running requires a complex set of decision processes, but does not in itself do anything about resolving the issues Conceptualize the mechanical side of the management role

as a meter—if your car’s gas gauge is nearly empty, this will stimulate the driver to seek out a gas station Similarly, if the project schedule is not going according to the plan, the mechanical management processes help identify where and why Recognize that another management action follows the meter readings

1.3 PM SKILLS

We are tempted to say that the ideal PM skills are the ability to “leap tall buildings with a single bound, faster than a speeding bullet, and more powerful than a locomotive” (that comes from the classic Superman comic book hero) but that statement might be a little excessive However, it is accurate to say that this individual needs to understand how

to deal with the various knowledge areas involved, with additional high skills in both personal and organizational areas Project dynamics create an amazing array of daily issues to resolve If one cannot organize this activity into some workable process, the project will stagnate Through all of this, it is the PM’s goal to achieve the plan Industry project failure statistics indicate that this is more difficult than is understood by most

At the highest level, the PM needs to bring structure and organization to his project team One senior PM once described this problem as “putting a lot of mush in a small bucket.” A significant aspect of this is formalizing the roles and relationships of the vari-ous players in regard to their functions in the life cycle

A second PM-level skill view is that he needs to be recognized as a leader of the effort This does not mean that he is out front shouting “follow me,” but he has to ensure that the team continues to move toward the required target During early project phases, the target is not well defined; so, the leadership role at that point is to bring the proper play-ers together and help resolve various conflicts that typically emerge

The third critical skill involves dealing with the various HR issues related to the ect The most noticeable group will be the project team that ultimately will be the “build-ers.” They collectively have the skills to execute the plan, but there are many human relationship issues that can get in the way of that effort Project team members must be managed and nurtured through the life cycle To properly do this, the PM needs to be an operational psychologist who understands individual and group needs Project teams are a cauldron of human emotions Kept at the right temperature, they can produce amazing results When allowed to boil, the conflict can destroy the process Finally, during this process, an additional role of the PM is to improve the skills of the team members and ensure that they are properly relocated at the end of the project

proj-In addition to the internal project team, there will be other human interactions with external groups such as users, management, and organization entities Each of these has

a different perspective regarding the project and all their views must be dealt with In all these cases, the PM is never given enough formal power to edict solutions even if he knew what the solution was These human relationships require a more open commu-nication, and motivational style with the approach being to build partnerships Each of the human interface groups holds a piece of the project success and the PM must extract

that piece from each This aggregation of project participants is called stakeholders.

circum-So, success management requires a series of strategies First, understand where cess (or failure) comes from and mitigate as many of those factors as possible Second, through the course of the project, influence the right set of actions to correct any devia-tions that threaten to become a major problem Third, when a threat surfaces, take quick action using all the management skills at hand Finally, if the boat is in fact sink-ing, you will have told all participants how to handle the situation The management will have been informed along the way and similar warnings would have been given

suc-to others In all these modes, the PM must be both a leader and an honest broker of

information.

If we follow all these prescriptions, will every project be successful? Probably not! There are too many uncontrollable variables to expect that, but proper use of the tools and techniques described here should significantly improve the outcome If

we continue to look at what went wrong with the last project and try to ensure that the previous item does not recur, the next project should progress better Experience from the Japanese quality programs has taught us how continuous improvement actions over a long period can take a country from a crude tool maker to Toyota Lexus manufacturer in 50 years We must realize that project management is not an event; it is a process Organizations must focus on it and individuals must study it to achieve the desired results

1.4 BOOK CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION

This book looks at the project experience from the view of a PM The material covered

in the book has been selected from a personal database of “things I wished that I had known more about” at one point or another along the way Also, in recent years, the PMI has documented a great deal of professional project experience into the published

archives on this topic and the PMI documentation is respected internationally Over the past several years, the author has been heavily involved in teaching this topic after many years in the industry attempting to master it These two experiences lead to the amalga-mation found here The book content is a mixture of the PMI model view and compara-ble views of practitioners Attempts to translate this material to university and industry groups indicated that a proper source document with a reasonable dose of theory and vocabulary would help someone desiring to understand the breadth of this topic This was the initial goal that started this effort.

The book material makes a reasonable attempt to stay consistent with the Project

Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) defining a document from PMI, as

well as other supporting project-related standards such as OPM3, WBS, Professional Ethics, and others (each of these will be explained later) The collection of material con-tained here is a compilation of project management models, concepts, vocabulary, and trends Through all these elements, the goal was to make each item fit into the big pic-ture and more importantly keep the discussion on an understandable level If the reader wades through this material to the end, we will even share the secret PM handshake (this is probably the only joke in the book; so, it needs to be tagged)

Another stimulus for this effort has been the emergence of a formal educational riculum accreditation process for PMs (PMI Accreditation, 2001) This initiative is titled Global Accreditation Curriculum (GAC) and it offers more specific guidance regard-ing the role of a PM Prior to this, individuals seeking project management certification studied various reference sources and then pursued the formal certification exam hop-ing that they had been exposed to the right material In an attempt to ensure that the material covered fits the PMI accreditation structure, that document was used to cross-reference the section’s material content The header for each major section will reference the accreditation goals where applicable and these will be defined as learning objectives for that section This is intended to give the book legitimacy in regard to that section’s topic content

cur-1.4.1 Book Structure

The book material is partitioned into 10 major sections that are essentially envisioned

as “peeling the onion” away from the real-world core Each major section represents a layer of that onion and each opens up a new more complex layer related to the topic Each of the sections builds on the previous layer and there is no assumption made to regarding the readers background other than the fact that they have some understand-ing of an organization and have hopefully seen a project in action This material has been tested on university students during the development stage, and graduates from the program have been successful in both their future project endeavors and passing the PMI certification exams On the basis of this experience, there is general confi-dence that the approach helps in the conceptual understanding of project management and the PMI model

The summary below outlines the goal of each major section

Part I Conceptual overview: This section consists of eight chapters that collectively

lay the foundation for the rest of the book Basic vocabulary and concepts are covered here

Part II Projects as state change vehicles: This section is designed to sensitize the

reader to the role of a project in the organization and the general mechanics

required to properly initiate that effort Basically, the project should focus on an organization goal that helps move the organization toward that goal.

Part III Defining the triple constraints: Most projects primarily focus on time, cost,

and scope This set of processes represents only a starting point for the PM, but there is sufficient theoretical material in this area to justify its isolation This topic area is isolated from other more complex concepts to help focus on these mechanics and managing the project’s triple constraints represents a core activ-ity for the PM

Part IV Planning support processes: In addition to the core management

activi-ties, the PM must also understand the role of other knowledge areas—those related to HR, communications, procurement, quality, risk, stakeholders, and integration Each of these topics represents critical management issues for the

PM and they collectively have to be dealt with along with the core items to produce a viable project outcome Upon completion of this section, the reader has been introduced to the full set of knowledge processes recognized in the basic model

Part V Advanced planning models: This section expands the project view by

show-ing three contemporary techniques for management That is, variable time durations, simulation, and the Critical Chain theory Each of these topics adds

a new level of understanding to the management process

Part VI Project execution—Working on the plan: At this point, the book material

has defined processes to produce a viable project plan The management lenge in execution is to produce the planned output as defined in the earlier sec-tions Unfortunately, the process becomes muddier at this stage There is more human conflict emerging as well as more change dynamics A dose of reality enters the scene and the real management complexity is now uncovered If these dynamics are absent, the management role in execution would be that of a “task checker.” The reality metaphor for this stage is to compare it to an airplane pilot

chal-in rough weather with various mechanical and environmental problems to deal with Most of the material used here is still model driven, but an attempt is made to give the model a reality flavor

Part VII Monitoring and control techniques: There are many control-oriented aspects

at this stage of the project life cycle Rather than attempting to bundle them all together, the key techniques have been separated for discussion Each of these represents a control knowledge component that the PM needs to understand

Part VIII Closing the project: The proper shutdown of a project is an important

management activity The rationale for this and the associated mechanics are the theme of this section

Part IX Contemporary topics: It is important to emphasize that the art and

sci-ence of project management are not yet matured There are several emerging topic areas that seem destined to enter the project scene and these are bundled for discussion in this section Since there is no recognized standard for these items, there is a certain amount of literary license taken in this section The reader must understand that view and the related model regarding this topic will morph over time Nevertheless, it is important to have a perspective as to where the model will likely evolve toward in the coming years and this section selects topics that fit that category

Part X Professional ethics and responsibility: One only needs to read the daily news

to see why this topic is worthy of inclusion PMI has issued a code of conduct for the PM and the tenets of this code must be understood, as well as some motiva-tional examples to show that it is a real topic

PMI Accreditation, 2001 Accreditation of Degree Programs in Project Management Newtown

Square, PA: Project Management Institute

PMI, 2013 A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 5th edition

Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute

2

EVOLUTION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management is an increasingly important topic of discussion today because all organizations at one time or another, be they small or large, are continually involved

in implementing a new business process, product, service, or other initiative When we examine how organizations pursue changes, invariably it involves organizing a team of people with chosen skills to do the job Management of the activities to complete this class of task is what project management is about

We are indeed living in interesting times as regards to the topic of project ment On the one hand, it is now generally recognized that a disciplined approach to managing projects yields positive value in the resulting cost, schedule, and functional-ity However, there remains great conflict over exactly what discipline is to be used in this process In addition to this philosophical discord, technology itself continues to bring new challenges to the organization such that it is often difficult to repeat one suc-cessful approach multiple times Manipulating the project variables the same way can produce different outcomes based on the subtle relationships inherent in the process Also, new tools, techniques, and products continue to enter the marketplace making even five-year-old project management strategies look very dated So, the challenge in navigating this mine-strewn environment is to explore the subject and distill nuggets

manage-of information that have stood the test manage-of time and then attempt to pave a pathway that can survive the next wave of technical discontinuity To understand how the current sit-uation got to its present state let us take a quick look at some of the not-too-distant evo-lutionary stages that the approach to project management has moved through History offers subtle insights into broad-scale phenomenon such as this The stages outlined below are somewhat arbitrarily grouped, but are designed to highlight the more obvious driving factors that have changed the approach to managing high technology projects

By scanning any library or book store today, you will find shelves stocked with umes of books explaining in varying detail methods useful for successful completion of projects Each author has their own guaranteed project management strategy designed

vol-to ensure a triumphant conclusion; yet real-world statistics still show marginal results for most projects This section does not intend to attempt to trace all the trodden paths related to this topic, but does attempt to look back at the people and concepts in his-tory that have formed the foundations of project management on which modern day approaches are based

2.1 EARLY HISTORY OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The basic principles related to the science of project management have evolved over many decades The evolution of this body of knowledge mostly evolved since the early 1900s and accelerated after the 1950s Some very early projects were quite impressive in their scale, but they did not follow what we would call the modern project management style of design Incubation of the modern thought process can be traced to the industrial age during the latter 1880s, which provided much of the catalyst for the application of

a more scientific approach to the management of project and manufacturing processes Studies and experiments conducted by pioneers in the field during the early part of the twentieth century further paved the way for the understanding of project management

or engineers, generally multiskilled generalists who could deal with many situations (Kozak-Holland, 2007) The manager skill base was most likely the architect/designer

of the project who understood how it needed to be constructed and they were given the authority for allocating sufficient resources to that goal This style of the multiskilled technical generalist overseeing projects was the norm through the nineteenth century

2.2 APPLICATION OF ANALYTICAL SCIENCE

As organizational processes became more complex, many underlying aspects of ting work accomplished began to change Most noticeably, the manufacturing process moved out of the craftsman’s homes into formal factory settings where the products could be mass produced This necessitated a tighter coupling of work processes and more refined versions of them Toward the end of the nineteenth century, new technolo-gies using electricity and internal combustion brought a further expansion of manufac-turing complexity Suddenly, employee (nonowner) managers found themselves faced with the daunting task of organizing the manual labor of thousands of workers and the manufacturing and assembly of unprecedented quantities of raw material (Sisk, n.d.) This phase basically marked the beginning point for the application of analytical science

get-to the workplace If one could point get-to a birth date for modern project management,

it would likely be in the two decades leading up to the twentieth century, however the names summarized in the next section made the subject more visible to the masses

2.3 FREDERICK TAYLOR AND SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Frederick Taylor is called the father of scientific management and his influence can

be traced through much of the early evolution of project management thought Taylor came from what was considered a privileged background, but entered into employment with the Midvale Steel Company of Philadelphia as a common laborer in the late nine-teenth century The prevailing wage system in place at the time was called piece work