Research about job satisfaction at vinamilk

ABSTRACT The purpose of this research is to determine the relationship between variables in the model such as Work-Related Expectancies, Satisfaction with My supervisor, Person-Organizat

aad

ADVISOR’S SIGNATURE

(March 2017)

NGUYEN THE KHAI (DBA)

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

………

ADVISOR’S ASSESSMENT

In my search for knowledge and experience in life, I am reminded more and more just how lucky I have been This paper in particular and my degree in general would not have been possible if not for the reassurance and help I got along the way

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Nguyen The Khai (DBA) for his helpful guidance throughout the course of this thesis He showed me that learning any subject is possible With the attitude he possesses as an instructor, students cannot lose I will always be reminded of that

Besides this, I also send many thanks to the board of managers and all employees of Vinamilk for their precious time and efforts to collect data for this thesis

I also would like to thank my fellow classmates for unselfishly sharing useful information and references to help successfully finish this thesis

Duong Tran Trung Hieu Student

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CONTENTS

5. Two - factor theory (motivator-hygiene theory) 24

PART FIVE: CONCLUSION 48

FIGURE

Figure 01: Ms Mai Kieu Lien – Chairwoman Chief Excutive Officer 01

TABLE

Table 12: Cronbach’s Alpha of Satisfaction with work schedule flexibility 43

FIGURE & TABLE

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research is to determine the relationship between variables in the model such as Work-Related Expectancies, Satisfaction with My supervisor, Person-Organization Fit Scale and Satisfaction with work schedule flexibility with Overall Job Satisfaction The research result was conducted in Vinamilk with 470 employees

And SPSS software version 22 (copyright of IBM) is a tool that is used to analysis data in this

research The collected data were analyzed through factor analysis, Cronbach’s alpha,

descriptive statistics, correlation, and multiple regression analysis The research showed that there are four factors influencing overall job satisfaction are Work-Related Expectancies, Satisfaction with My supervisor, Person-Organization Fit Scale and Satisfaction with work schedule flexibility Moreover, the research provides some recommendations implications for managers to raise the level of satisfaction with work of the employees

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION

I VINAMILK INTRODUCTION

Figure 1: Ms Mai Kieu Lien – Chairwoman Chief Excutive Officer

(Source: Vinamilk Annual Report 2015)

1 History

Subsidy period (from 1976 to 1986)

1976 Vinamilk was founded under the name of Southern Coffee-Dairy Company, a subsidiary of the Food General Directorate and had two factories in operation, namely Thong Nhat Dairy Factory and Truong Tho Dairy Factory

1978 The Company was transferred to the Ministry of Food Industry and the Company was renamed United Enterprises of Milk Coffee Cookies and Candies I The Company had more factories:

+ Bich Chi Powder Factory,

+ Lubico Cake Factory

+ Bien Hoa Coffee Factory

Innovate period (from 1986 to 2003)

1991 The “white revolution” started the development of fresh milk The first time we

launched UHT milk products and yoghurt to the Vietnam market

1992 The United Enterprises of Milk Coffee Cookies and Candies I was formally renamed Vietnam Dairy Company and came under the direct management of the Ministry of Light Industry In the expansion plan to meet the market demand in the North, the Company built the Hanoi Dairy Factory On October 7th 1994, the sales office was opened and responsible for sales activities in the North provinces

1996 Binh Dinh Dairy Joint Venture Enterprise was founded as the result of our Joint Venture with Quy Nhon Frozen Joint Stock Company Ha Noi Dairy Factory came into operation In May 1996, Da Nang sales office was opened and responsible for sales activities

in the Central provinces

1998 Can Tho sales office was opened in order to develop sales activities in the Mekong delta provinces Since 2000, Can Tho Dairy Factory was inaugurated and put into operation in the Mekong Delta

Equitization period (From 2003 to nowaday)

2003 The Company was formally transformed into a Joint Stock Company in November

2003 and renamed as Vietnam Dairy Products Joint Stock Co., to reflect its change in legal

status

2004 Acquired Saigon Milk Joint Stock Company and increased share capital of the

Company to VND1,590 billion

2005 Bought our Joint Venture partner’s remaining equity in Binh Dinh Dairy Products

Company Ltd and inaugurated Nghe An Dairy Factory on 30 June 2005

2006 Vinamilk was listed on Hochiminh Stock Exchange (HOSE) on 19 January 2006

In June, An Khang Clinic was opened in Ho Chi Minh City

2007 Vinamilk acquired a controlling stake of 55% in Lam Son Milk Company Ltd and

changed its name into Lam Son Milk Joint Stock Company

2009 The cow farm in Nghe An was opened This is the most modern farm in Vietnam

with its designed size of 3,000 cows

2010 The Company started its strategy of investment overseas by contributing nearly

USD10 million (equivalent to 19.3% of the project’s share capital) in a powdered milk project

in New Zealand

2013 Vinamilk regarding the acquisition of a controlling stake (70%) of Driftwood

Dairy Holdings Corporation, California, USA

2014 Vinamilk for its contribution of 51% capital with a foreign partner in order to build

the Joint Venture named Angkor Dairy Products Co., Ltd in Cambodia

2 Principal business activities

The principal activities generating revenue and profit for the Company include:

 Processing, producing and trading of fresh milk, packed milk, powdered milk, nutrition powder, yogurt, condensed milk, soy milk, beverages and other dairy products

 Raising cattle: Growing dairy cows Raising cattle is for the main purpose of supplying

fresh milk as raw material to manufacture the Company’s dairy products

 Developing strategic human resource management

 Maintaining and managing activities towards sustainable development

 Planning and implementing Knowledge, Innovation, and Change management

Vinamilk’s strategic priorities are:

Assets investment plan:

 To achieve the target revenue of USD 3 billion in the period of 2012-2017

 To maintain dividend payments to shareholders with an annual dividend rate of at least 30% on par value

Customers:

 To be an enterprise with high customer satisfaction on product quality, affordable prices, and the leading distribution system in Vietnam

Corporate governance:

 To be an enterprise with accredited professional management and structure

 To be an enterprise where the working environment enables employees to make out their best capabilities and contribution to the common goals, thus being one of the best working places for employees

4 Vision, Mission, Core Values, Business Philosophy and Quality Policy:

Vision To become a world grade brand in food and beverage industry, where people put

all their trust in nutrient and health products

Mission To deliver the most valuable nutrition to community with our respect, love and

responsibility

Core value

Integrity: Integrity and transparency in actions and transactions

Respect: To have self-respect, to respect colleagues To respect the Company and

partners To cooperate with respect

Fairness: To be fair with employees, customers, suppliers and other parties Compliance: To comply with legal regulations, the Company’s Code of Conduct and the Company’s procedures and policies

Ethics: To respect the established ethical standards and act accordingly

Business Philosophy

Vinamilk desires to become one of the most favourite brands in every region and territory Therefore, we keep in our mind and our heart that the quality and innovation are

always our most important companions We act with customer-centered approach and commit

to respond to all their needs

Quality Policy

Always satisfy and be responsible for consumers’ needs by diversifying products

and services, assuring quality, food safety with competitive price, respecting the business ethics and complying with laws

5 Corporate Governance

Organization chart

The organization Chart of Vinamilk is shown in a professional manner in which departments are divided systematically and reasonably with specific hierarchy of responsibility for each member and function in the company This structure helps the company to operate in the most effective way and fosters the collaboration among departments, thus making a strong Vinamilk

Figure 3: Vinamilk Organization structure (Source: Vinamilk Annual Report 2015)

Leadership

Vinamilk’s strong and successful development over almost 40 years is the outcome of

devotion and contribution of all members of the company under the outstanding leadership and direction of our key personnel who are not only talented, courageous but also wholehearted for the company’s achievements

Figure 4: Vinamilk Leadership (Source: https://www.vinamilk.com.vn/en/nhan-su-chu-chot)

in Ha Noi, Ho Chi Minh, Da Nang and Can Tho

Supermarkets and convenient stores

Vinamilk products are present in 1,609 small and big supermarkets and more than 575 convenient stores throughout the country

Export

Export sales contribute about 13% of the total consolidated revenue At the end of

2016, the Company has exported to more than 40 nations and regions In 2015, the Company maintains exports to its traditional markets in Middle East and South East Asia and explores to potential markets in Africa and especially high-end markets like Japan, Canada

8 Employees

The Company upholds all its commitments relating to working conditions and healthcare while striving to develop a diverse, discrimination-free environment where everyone has an opportunity to growth, where their differences are respected, their rights protected and

contributions recognized 2015 was the second year Vinamilk ranked among the Top of “The best places to work”

According to the people who took the survey, an ideal place to work is where that offers employees with opportunities career development along with a diversity and equality in the working environment Salaries, bonuses and other financial compensations are also important but not the top criteria for selecting a place to work

At Vinamilk, we not only offer the best policies to our employees but also ensure that the people working for our partners in the supply chain receive the benefits they deserve in a contracted manner

In late 2015, with the success in the implementation of the PAS 99 Integrated Management System, Vinamilk launched for the first time the Internal Occupational Safety - Health - Environment Assessment Program in all factories The focus of the program is to guarantee a

safe environment for Vinamilk’s factory workers and to raise individuals’ awareness of

occupational safety and health and environment protection

Employee development

Many programs performed in 2015 such as Management Skill for High - ranking Managers, Six Styles of Leadership, Self - management, Responsible Life Culture, etc provided the management team of Vinamilk valuable knowledge and skills in constructing a dynamic

corporate culture for sustainable development

II ABOUT RESEARCH

1 Research problem statement

Vinamilk is aggressively developing and growing human resource, especially in the selection

of right people for the company However, recruiting right people is not enough and they are embarrassing to know how to keep talent employees, retain talents, especially how to retain their key staff who plays a key role in the company With the shortage of human capital as today, retention good people are becoming big issue of Vinamilk

Vinamilk has focused on its HRM by providing a lot of activities to strengthen its human resource training and development such as coordinating with universities in HCM city and Hanoi city to recruit potential candidates, conducting variety of internal training programs Besides, Vinamilk also provide many HR management policies to retain and develop its workforce such as salary and reward systems

However, as stated in its annual human resource reports, the number of employees quit jobs gets increasing year over year That may lead the company to critical impact of leaking its skilled and well trained workforce Not only that, it will take huge invisible cost for the company if these well trained and qualified employees run out of the company and come to work for the competitors

With the above real situation and also for the long term strategic human resource management,

it is critical to examine and analyze the diversified relationships of job satisfaction among Vinamilk workforce

Vinamilk realized Job Satisfaction of employees is important factor for Vinamilk develop sustainably their human resource to help organization to operate more efficient, produce

quality of products and services, build brand awareness, customer trust and loyalty… But,

some factors such Satisfaction with my supervisor, Work-Related Expectancies, Person -

Organization Fit Scale and Satisfaction with work scheduele flexibility are problems for

human resource management at Vinamilk

2 Research objective

The purpose of this research is to examine and approach whether items in terms of Satisfaction with my supervisor, Work-Related Expectancies, Person - Organization Fit Scale and Satisfaction with work scheduele flexibility will have any influence on the Job Satisfaction of Vinamilk employees

My research will focus on 3 main factors:

 Fisrtly: Search related information and try to define what meaning Job Satisfaction is

of employees at Vinamilk

 Secondly: Design research model and related factors to check influence between factors to access strong / weak level of each factor in infuence progress

 Thirdly: Discussing and proposing recommendation to improve the effectiveness and forecast the human resources management at Vinamilk in the next time

3 Research question

The groups' interviews were conducted by an experienced moderator using opened-ended structured protocols that lasted an hour The questionnaire forms are arranged and send to them for preceding this survey Also, some interviews were recorded, transcribed into a written format, and coded so that the emerging themes could be identified and summarized

In particular, the people that are interviewed seem to help finding out some results of many issues related to determinants affecting Job Satisfaction of employees in Vinamilk Thus, the

questionnaire is revolved in certain problems as:

 How are the impacts of Satisfaction with my supervisor on Vinamilk employee Job

 How are the impacts of Satisfaction with work schedule flexibility on Vinamilk

employee Job Satisfaction?

4 Research scope

The scope of research is for the entire employees at Vinamilk, includes: leadership team, employees and direct supervisors in different departments include commercial & Marketing, Business Development, Finance accounting and Information Technology, and design

A series of formed questionnaire was distributed to each employee with clear instructions and guidelines for fulfillment The survey scope is within the territory of Vietnam, which includes

470 employees of Vinamilk

Contents of this research are only including factors influencing to Job Satisfaction at Vinamik;

it does not have intention of re-structuring, changing and replacing the employees

5 Significances of Research

This research will help CEO, Directors; managers understand and are more aware of the importance of Job Satisfaction That is the most important factor to show the effectiveness of the policy, the organization operating concept in human matters

Besides significant management, it also improves employee loyalty to the organization and further, employees will be loyal to the shareholders of the company, contributed to the

financial strength of the companies increasingly stronger in the future

PART TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

I Definition of Contructs

1 Job Satisfaction

It was was developed by Taylor and Bowers (1974), it includes 7 items

The measure assesses job satisfaction by combining employee responses to single items that describe the degree ofemployee satisfaction with the work, co-workers, supervision, promotionalopportunities, pay, progress, and the organization to assess overall job satisfaction The assessment of job satisfaction through employee anonymous surveys became commonplace in the 1930s.Although prior to that time there was the beginning of interest in employee attitudes, there were only a handful of studies published Latham and Budworth note that Uhrbrock in 1934 was one of the first psychologists to use the newly developed attitude measurement techniques to assess factory worker attitudes They also note that in

1935 Hoppock conducted a study that focused explicitly on job satisfaction that is affected by both the nature of the job and relationships with coworkers and supervisors

The concept of job satisfaction has been developed in many ways by many different researchers and practitioners One of the most widely used definitions in organizational research is that of Locke (1976), who defines job satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences" Others have defined it as simply how content an individual is with his or her job; whether he or she likes the job or not It is assessed at both the global level (whether or not the individual is satisfied with the job overall), or at the facet level (whether or not the individual is satisfied with different aspects of the job)

A more recent definition of the concept of job satisfaction is from Hulin and Judge (2003), who have noted that job satisfaction includes multidimensional psychological responses to an individual's job, and that these personal responses have cognitive (evaluative), affective (or emotional), and behavioral components Job satisfaction scales vary in the extent to which they assess the affective feelings about the job or the cognitive assessment of the job Affective job satisfaction is a subjective construct representing an emotional feeling individuals have about their job Hence, affective job satisfaction for individuals reflects the degree of pleasure or happiness their job in general induces Cognitive job satisfaction is a more objective and logical evaluation of various facets of a job Cognitive job satisfaction can

be unidimensional if it comprises evaluation of just one facet of a job, such as pay or maternity leave, or multidimensional if two or more facets of a job are simultaneously evaluated Cognitive job satisfaction does not assess the degree of pleasure or happiness that arises from specific job facets, but rather gauges the extent to which those job facets are judged by the job holder to be satisfactory in comparison with objectives they themselves set or with other jobs While cognitive job satisfaction might help to bring about affective job satisfaction, the two constructs are distinct, not necessarily directly related, and have different antecedents and consequences

Job satisfaction can also be seen within the broader context of the range of issues which affect

an individual's experience of work, or their quality of working life Job satisfaction can be understood in terms of its relationships with other key factors, such as general well-being, stress at work, control at work, home-work interface, and working conditions

2 Satisfaction with My Supervisor

This measure, developed by Scarpello and Vandenberg (1987), describes an employee’s

satisfaction with his or her immediate supervisor It includes 8 items

The Satisfaction with My Supervisor is intended to measure the construct of satisfaction as it relates to supervision rather than other conditions or agents in the work situation The definition of supervision used in this research was first proposed by Mann (1965) He suggested that supervision is an organizational role whose effective enactment entails ability

to reconcile and cordinate the needs and goals of the work group’s members with

organizational requirement: Moreover, supervisory ability consists of three distinct but interrelated types of skills:

 Technical: Dealing knowledgeably with task related issues

 Human relations: Getting the work done with and through people

 Administrative: coordinating activities and acting in terms of the system within which one operates

Man (1965) viewed all three skills as necessary for supervisory effectiveness in achieving performance goals and obtainning subordinate satisfaction

3 Work-Related Expectancies

This measure was developedby Eisenberger, Fasolo, and Davis-LaMastro (1990), it includes 9 items

It describes the extent to which employees believe that higher levels of job performance will

be rewarded The measure assesses employee expectancies about the relationship of better performance with increased pay, promotions, and job security It also assesses employee

expectancies that better performance will lead to increased influence, supervisory approval, and recognition

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation is best described as a process theory With research pioneered by Edward C Tolman and continued by Victor H Vroom, Expectancy Theory provides an explanation of why individuals choose one behavioral option over others The idea with this theory is that people are motivated to do something because they think their actions will lead to their desired outcome (Redmond, 2009) "Expectancy theory proposes that work motivation is dependent upon the perceived association between performance and outcomes and individuals modify their behavior based on their calculation of anticipated outcomes" (Chen & Fang, 2008) In other words, it can help explain why a person performs at

a particular level This has a practical and positive potential of improving motivation because

it can, and has, helped leaders create motivational programs in the workplace This theory provides the idea that an individual's motivation comes from believing they will get what they desire in the form of a reward "Although the theory is not "all inclusive"

of individual motivation factors, it provides leaders with a foundation on which to build a better understanding of ways to motivate subordinates" (AETC, 2008) Expectancy theory is classified as a process theory of motivation because it emphasizes individual perceptions of the environment and subsequent interactions arising as a consequence of personal expectations

The theory states that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they believe that:

- There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance

- Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward

- The reward will satisfy an important need

The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile (Lawler, Porter L., Vroom, 2009)

Figure 6: Strengths and Weaknesses of Expectancy Theory (Source: https://wikispaces.psu.edu/display/PSYCH484/4.+ Expectancy+ Theory)

4 Person - Organization Fit

It developed by Bretz and Judge (1994), it includes 7 items The questions used to assess person-organization fit were developed to reflect fit between an employee’s knowledge, skills,

and abilities and his or her job requirements; congruence between employee needs and

organizational systems and struc¬tures; agreement between an employee’s value orientations

and the per¬ceived values orientation of the organization; and perceived match between an

employee’s personality and the organization’s personality or image (Bretz& Judge 1994)

Person-organization fit is considered as a topic of great interest in the disciplines of organizational behavior and human resource management In simple words Person-organization fit is defined as measure of fit among workers and the organizations

(Silverthorne, 2004) In a broader view, Person-organization fit is defined as matching between distinctive characteristics of the employee and the organization in which that employee is working Person-organization fit is a construct that has multiple conceptualizations (Westerman & Cyr, 2004b) Moreover, Person-organization fit is evaluated

by matching the personality of the individual worker with his or her organization (Cable & Judge, 1996)

Person organization fit is the compatibility of characteristics of the individual and that of organization (Chan, 1996) Individual characteristics include individual’s ideas, principles,

interests and dispositional characteristics while organizational characteristics are made of organizational doctrine, norms, traditions and the overall organizational climate Person-organization fit is the level of compatibility that exists between worker and organizations when at the minimum level one entity holds responsible for providing what the other want and prefers (Kristof, 1996) This compatibility is of two types, one is supplementary fit and the other is complementary fit (Kristof, 1996).Supplementary fit means that personal characteristics of the individual employee are harmonized with that of the organizational characteristics If the workers psychological needs are satisfied by the conditions of the workplace, then complementary fit is achieved If the employee is better fitted in the organization through having supplementary or complementary fit then the employee will become a satisfied employee (Bright, 2007; Kristof, 1996)

5 Satisfaction with work schedule flexibility

Flexible working describes a range of employment option designed to help employees balance work and home life It is because flexible working relates to working arrangements where

there are a variety of options offered to employees in terms of working time, working location and the pattern of working There are good business reasons why businesses are increasingly likely to offer employees one or more flexible working options Most importantly, savings on costs A business can make substantial savings on overheads if it does not have to provide office and other accommodation for so many employees or if staff can work from home rather than commute into work every day As away of helping with recruitment and staff retention There is lots of evidence that flexible working result in better job satisfaction and higher staff morale

II THEORIES

1 Affect theory

Edwin A Locke’s Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction

model The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates

how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/aren’t met When a person

values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one

who doesn’t value that facet To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace

and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that facet

2 Dispositional approach

The dispositional approach suggests that individuals vary in their tendency to be satisfied with their jobs, in other words, job satisfaction is to some extent an individual trait This approach became a notable explanation of job satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends

to be stable over time and across careers and jobs.Research also indicates that identical twins raised apart have similar levels of job satisfaction

A significant model that narrowed the scope of the dispositional approach was the Core evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A Judge, Edwin A Locke, and Cathy C Durham in

Self-1997 Judge et al argued that there are four Core Self-evaluations that determine one’s

disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism This model states that higher levels of self-esteem (the value one places on his/her self) and general self-efficacy (the belief in one’s own competence) lead to higher

work satisfaction Having an internal locus of control (believing one has control over her or his own life, as opposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction Finally, lower levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction

3 Equity theory

Equity Theory shows how a person views fairness in regard to social relationships such as with an employer A person identifies the amount of input (things gained) from a relationship compared to the output (things given) to produce an input/output ratio They then compare this ratio to the ratio of other people in deciding whether or not they have an equitable relationship Equity Theory suggests that if an individual thinks there is an inequality between two social

groups or individuals, the person is likely to be distressed because the ratio between the input and the output are not equal

For example, consider two employees who work the same job and receive the same pay and benefits If one individual gets a pay raise for doing the same work as the other, then the less benefited individual will become distressed in his workplace If, on the other hand, both individuals get pay raises and new responsibilities, then the feeling of equity will be maintained

Other psychologists have extended the equity theory, suggesting three behavioral response patterns to situations of perceived equity or inequity (Huseman, Hatfield, & Mile, 1987; O'Neil & Mone 1998) These three types are benevolent, equity sensitive, and entitled The level by each type affects motivation, job satisfaction, and job performance

 Benevolent-Satisfied when they are under-rewarded compared with co-workers

 Equity sensitive-Believe everyone should be fairly rewarded

 Entitled-People believe that everything they receive is their just due

4 Discrepancy theory

The concept of discrepancy theory is to explain the ultimate source of anxiety and dejection

An individual who has not fulfilled his responsibility feels the sense of anxiety and regret for not performing well They will also feel dejection due to not being able to achieve their hopes and aspirations According to this theory, all individuals will learn what their obligations and responsibilities are for a particular function, and if they fail to fulfill those obligations then they are punished Over time, these duties and obligations consolidate to form an abstracted set of principles, designated as a self-guide Agitation and anxiety are the main responses

when an individual fails to achieve the obligation or responsibility This theory also explains that if achievement of the obligations is obtained then the reward can be praise, approval, or love These achievements and aspirations also form an abstracted set of principles, referred to

as the ideal self guide When the individual fails to obtain these rewards, they begin to have feelings of dejection, disappointment, or even depression

5 Two - factor theory (motivator-hygiene theory)

Main article: Two-factor theory

Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory (also known as motivator-hygiene theory) attempts to

explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace This theory states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by different factors – motivation and hygiene factors, respectively

An employee’s motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of a subordinate

Motivation can be seen as an inner force that drives individuals to attain personal and organizational goals (Hoskinson, Porter, & Wrench) Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people with satisfaction, for example achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out Hygiene factors include aspects

of the working environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other working conditions

While Herzberg's model has stimulated much research, researchers have been unable to reliably empirically prove the model, with Hackman & Oldham suggesting that Herzberg's original formulation of the model may have been a methodological artifact Furthermore, the theory does not consider individual differences, conversely predicting all employees will react

in an identical manner to changes in motivating/hygiene factors Finally, the model has been criticised in that it does not specify how motivating/hygiene factors are to be measured

6 Job characteristics model

Main article: Job characteristic theory

Hackman & Oldham proposed the job characteristics model, which is widely used as a framework to study how particular job characteristics impact job outcomes, including job satisfaction The five core job characteristics can be combined to form a motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect an employee's attitudes and behaviors Not everyone is equally affected by the MPS of a job People who are high in growth need strength (the desire for autonomy, challenge and development of new skills on the job) are particularly affected by job characteristics A meta-analysis of studies that assess the framework of the model provides some support for the validity of the JCM

III INFLUENCING FACTORS

1 Environmental factors

Communication overload and underload

One of the most important aspects of an individual’s work in a modern organization concerns

the management of communication demands that he or she encounters on the job Demands can be characterized as a communication load, which refers to “the rate and complexity of communication inputs an individual must process in a particular time frame.”Individuals in an organization can experience communication over-load and communication under- load which can affect their level of job satisfaction Communication overload can occur when “an

individual receives too many messages in a short period of time which can result in unprocessed information or when an individual faces more complex messages that are more difficult to process.” Due to this process, “given an individual’s style of work and motivation

to complete a task, when more inputs exist than outputs, the individual perceives a condition

of overload which can be positively or negatively related to job satisfaction In comparison, communication under load can occur when messages or inputs are sent below the individual’s ability to process them.”According to the ideas of communication over-load and under-load, if

an individual does not receive enough input on the job or is unsuccessful in processing these inputs, the individual is more likely to become dissatisfied, aggravated, and unhappy with their work which leads to a low level of job satisfaction

Superior-subordinate communication

Superior-subordinate communication is an important influence on job satisfaction in the workplace The way in which subordinates perceive a supervisor's behavior can positively or negatively influence job satisfaction Communication behavior such as facial expression, eye contact, vocal expression, and body movement is crucial to the superior-subordinate relationship (Teven) Nonverbal messages play a central role in interpersonal interactions with respect to impression formation, deception, attraction, social influence, and emotional Nonverbal immediacy from the supervisor helps to increase interpersonal involvement with their subordinates impacting job satisfaction The manner in which supervisors communicate with their subordinates non-verbally may be more important than the verbal content (Teven) Individuals who dislike and think negatively about their supervisor are less willing to