The harbrace guide to writing concise edition

This is a useful guide for practice full problems of english, you can easy to learn and understand all of issues of related english full problems.The more you study, the more you like it for sure because if its values.

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The Harbrace Guide to Writing,

Concise Second Edition

Cheryl Glenn

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Too often, the word rhetoric refers to empty words, implying

manipulation, deception, or persuasion at any cost But as

you’ll learn in this book, rhetoric and rhetorical situations are

not negative and not manipulative They are everywhere—as

pervasive as the air we breathe—and play an essential role

in our daily lives as we work to get things done efficiently and

ethically The following two chapters define rhetoric and the

rhetorical situation and show you how such situations shape

the writing process You’ll begin to develop your rhetorical

skills as you work through these chapters, but you’ll continue

to sharpen them all through your college career and into the

workplace The important point to remember is this: you’re

probably already pretty good at using rhetoric So let’s build

on what you know—and go from there

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Connect the opportunity to make change with your purpose Ask

Take into account whatever else has already been said on the subject:

c

Who has been speaking or writing, and what do they say?

Whatever the form of its delivery (spoken, written, or electronic), you’ll

c

want your response to be fitting (or appropriate) By calibrating the tone

of your response, you can control the attitude you project to your intended audience When shaping a fitting response, you need to be fully aware that you can come only as close to persuasion as the rhetorical situation allows

A responsible speaker or writer cannot do or expect more

Guide to Identifying

the Elements of

Any Rhetorical

Situation

As a responsible writer and speaker, you need to understand the elements

of any rhetorical situation you decide to enter Chapters 1 and 2 will help you identify those elements using the following steps

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1

Rhetoric Surrounds Us

Every day, you use rhetoric You use it as you read course syllabi and

as-signments, the directions for hooking up your stereo system, and your

mail, as well as emails, social network postings, and instant messages

You also use it as you write: when you submit written assignments,

an-swer quiz questions in class, leave notes for your roommate, and send

text messages to your friends Every day, you are surrounded by

rheto-ric and rhetorheto-rical opportunities In fact, you’ve been participating in

rhetorical situations for most of your life

WRITE FOR FIVE

>

1 Take a few minutes to list the kinds of writing you do every

day Include all instances when you write down information (whether on paper, white board, chalk board, or computer screen) Beside each entry, jot down the reason for that type of writing Be prepared to share your answers with the rest of the class.

2 Consider five of the types of writing you identified in the first

activity Who is your audience for these different kinds of writing?

In other words, to whom or for whom are you writing? What is your purpose for each kind of writing? What do you hope to achieve?

Rhetoric: The Purposeful Use

of Language and Images

Rhetoric is the purposeful use of language and images That defi

ni-tion covers a great deal of territory—practically every word and visual

element you encounter every day But it’s the word purposeful that will

guide you through the maze of words and images that saturate your life

When you use words or images to achieve a specifi c purpose—such as

Understanding the Rhetorical Situation

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The Greek philosopher Aristotle coined an authoritative defi nition

of rhetoric over 2,500 years ago: “Rhetoric is the art of observing in any

given situation the available means of persuasion.” Let’s take this defi nition apart and examine its constituent elements

-The art of observing in any given situation

“Rhetoric is the art [or mental ability] of observing ” Notice that

Aristotle does not call for you to overpower your audience (your

read-ers or listenread-ers) with words or images, nor does he push you to win an argument Instead, he encourages you (as a rhetor, or user of rhetoric,

such as a writer or speaker) to observe, as the fi rst step in

discover-ing what you might say or write For Aristotle, and all of the rhetorical thinkers who have followed, observing before speaking or writing is pri-mary You need to observe, to take the time to fi gure out what kind of rhetorical situation you’re entering Whom are you speaking or writing to? What is your relationship to that person or group of people? What is the occasion? Who else is listening? What do you want your language to

accomplish (that is, what is your purpose)? By answering these

ques-tions, you are establishing the elements of the “given situation.”

The available means of persuasion

When you consider “the available means,” you evaluate the possible methods of communication you might use You want to choose the one

that will best make meaning that helps you achieve your purpose In other words, should you deliver your message orally (face to face or

over the telephone), in writing (using a letter or note, an email or stant message, or a Web page), or via fi lm, video, still images, or other visuals? Where might you most successfully deliver that message: in class, at church, at the coffee shop, at a town meeting?

in-The spoken word is sometimes most appropriate If you and a good friend have had an argument, you might not want to put your feelings into writing It might be better if you simply pick up the tele-phone and say, “I’m sorry.” If you’re attending a funeral, you’ll want to offer your spoken condolences directly to the bereaved, even if you’ve already sent a card or fl owers However, if your professor expects you to submit a three-page essay recounting your experiences with technology(a technology autobiography, so to speak) you cannot announce that you’d rather tell her your story over coffee in the student union The only means available in this situation is the written word Or is it? Your professor might be impressed if you prepared an electronic presenta-tion to accompany your written essay, complete with video or audio clips Your available means of communicating are seemingly endless

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The last phrase in Aristotle’s defi nition of rhetoric is “of

persua-sion.” Persuasion is not a zero-sum game, with the winner taking all

Think of persuasion as a coming together, a meeting of the minds

Ideally, persuasion results in you and your audience being changed by

the experience of understanding one another When both parties are

changed (if only by expanding their understanding of an issue), the

rhetorical interaction isn’t one-sided: both sides are heard, and both the

sender and the receiver(s) benefi t

Aristotle tells us that rhetoric’s function is not solely successful

per-suasion; rather, it is to “discover the means of coming as near such

suc-cess as the circumstances of each particular case allow.” If your only

persuasive purpose is to get your own way, you may sometimes

suc-ceed; more often, truth be told, you’ll fi nd yourself disappointed But if

you think about persuasion in terms of understanding, invitation, and

adjustment, you can marshal your rhetorical know-how to achieve

suc-cess in a broader sense

Persuasive writers (and speakers) rely on observation in order to get

a sense of the rhetorical situation, the context in which they are

com-municating They know that no two situations are ever exactly the same

Every context includes distinctive resources (positive infl uences) and

constraints (obstacles) that shape the rhetorical transaction:

what has already been said on the subject (by whom and to whom);

Thus, every rhetorical situation calls for you to take note of the

avail-able means of persuasion as well as the contextual resources and

con-straints that will affect your persuasive success

ANALYZING THE RHETORICAL SITUATION

>

Choose two of the following situations and note their similarities

and differences in terms of speaker or writer, purpose, audience,

and available means (including any resources and constraints) Be

prepared to share your observations with the rest of the class.

1 It’s time for you to talk with your parents about how you’ll spend

the coming summer

2 For the fi rst time, your rent check will be late You need to explain

the reason to your landlord in such a way that the usual late fee will be waived.

3 Your boss has asked you to compose a sign for the store entrance,

one that politely asks customers to turn off their cell phones

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stu-Analyzing the Rhetorical Situation

You encounter rhetoric—and rhetorical situations—every day, all through the day, from the minute you turn on the morning news to the moment you close your textbook, turn off the light, and go to sleep In order to develop your skills of persuasion, you need to be able to recog-nize the elements of rhetorical situations and gauge your own rhetoric accordingly

As noted above, a rhetorical situation is the context for cating, the context a writer (or speaker) enters into in order to shape a message that can address a problem and reach an intended audience to change an attitude, action, or opinion The writer identifi es that prob-

communi-lem as an opportunity to make change through the use of language,

whether visual, written, or spoken Such a problem or opportunity is also known as an exigence For instance, by asking a question, your in-

structor creates an opportunity for change in the classroom (usually a change in everyone’s understanding) The question just hangs there—

until someone provides an appropriate response, a fi tting response

in terms of timing, medium of delivery, tone, and content Similarly, if the company you work for loses online business because its Web site is outdated, that problem can be resolved only through appropriate use of text and visuals Once the fi tting response comes into being, the oppor-tunity for making a change (“I need an answer” or “We need to update our Web site”) is either partially removed or disappears altogether; then you have responded to the invitation for change

Sample analysis of a rhetorical situation

If the idea of a rhetorical situation still seems unfamiliar, consider a ding invitation Each invitation is rhetorical, embodying every element of

wed-a rhetoricwed-al situwed-ation: opportunity for chwed-ange, wed-a writer, wed-an wed-audience, wed-a pose, the message itself, and a context The need (or desire, in this case)

pur-to invite family and friends pur-to their wedding—the problem—provides the happy couple with a rhetorical opportunity Whether sent to the au-dience of potential wedding guests through the mail or electronically, the invitation is a response, a way to resolve the specifi c problem The meaning of a wedding invitation resonates within a specifi c context: it announces a joyous celebration for specifi c people

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meaning meaning

meaning

meaning meaning

c o n t e t

m ing mea eanin an n

aning

m mea eaning

m ning me m ng

e

m

me

m ean e nin n ning

me e eani n

m aning me meamea m me

c o n t e x t

o n t e x t

o n t e x e x t

t e x x t o

o n t e e x e t

t e x x t c

c e

gean ngningnin

g mea ing anin g

meaning eaning

gmeaninninn nnnng

o

oo e e

e x

n t ett

xxt

Me

ssg

Above is a generic representation of the rhetorical situation For help visualizing

the elements of specifi c rhetorical situations—including those you will encounter in

the assignments in Part 2 of this book—access the English CourseMate via

CengageBrain.com.

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a box on a card included with the tation, indicating that you will attend If you are close to the couple and have decided you cannot attend the wed-ding, you might give them a phone call,

invi-in addition to checkinvi-ing the “must cline with regret” box on the reply card The appropriateness of your response depends on your relationship to the couple (your audience, in this rhetorical

de-s i t u a t i o n ) a n d y o u r p u r p o de-s e i n responding

al-The decision to engage

Rhetorical situations may call for your attention, as when you receive a wedding invitation, or they may arise from your interpretation of some event For instance, if you’re in the market for a new car, you might be tantalized by an advertised price for a car that interests you, only to ar-rive at the dealership and discover that the marked price is higher than the advertised price If the price discrepancy catches your attention—enough that you want to enter the rhetorical situation—then that’s your opportunity

Every invitation, such as this one for

a commitment ceremony, is rhetorical.

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You’ll next have to decide if you want to attempt to change the

situ-ation through the use of rhetoric If you choose to say something about

the discrepancy, you’ll have to decide on your purpose, what message

you want to send, how to send it, and to whom You’ll also need to take

into consideration the constraints on your message: perhaps the

adver-tised car had higher mileage than the one on the dealer’s lot, or perhaps

the advertised price had a time limit Therefore, if you decide to enter

the rhetorical situation, you’ll need to shape it in a way that allows you

to send a message If you’re annoyed by the price discrepancy but walk

away because you don’t want to discuss it, let alone negotiate with the

car dealership, then you’ve chosen not to act rhetorically

On a daily basis, you’ll encounter dozens of opportunities to enter

rhetorical situations Some situations you’ll decide to enter, and some

you’ll decide to pass by If you witness a car accident, for example, you

are an observer; you may decide to volunteer to testify about it and

thus become a speaker If you identify an old friend from a

newspa-per photograph (observer), you may decide to email him (writer) You

might hear a song (observer) and decide to perform it and post a video

of your performance on YouTube (speaker) Or you might decide to

begin introducing yourself to people in an online video game (observer,

audience, and writer) Whatever the situations are and however they are

delivered (whether spoken, printed, online, or in some other way), you

can decide how or whether you want to act on them

YOUR WRITING EXPERIENCES

>

1 To whom have you written today? Why did you write to that

per-son? Take fi ve minutes to describe that rhetorical situation and transaction, identifying the elements of the rhetorical situation (opportunity, writer, audience, purpose, message, constraints, and resources), the means of communication (handwriting or word processing), and means of delivery (mail, email, note on a slip of paper) How did you make your response a fi tting one for the rhetorical situation, even if you did so unconsciously?

2 Think of a time when you identifi ed an opportunity to address

a problem but didn’t respond Write for fi ve minutes, describing that opportunity for change and explaining why you didn’t write

or speak in response to it If you could do it over, how might you respond? How would you take into consideration each element

of the rhetorical situation, in order to come as close to sion as conditions allowed?

3 What have you learned from reading this section that you didn’t

know when you started? How might the information about the rhetorical situation help you? Is there a rhetorical situation that

is tugging at you now? If you decide to enter that rhetorical ation, how will you do so? How will you take into consideration each element of the rhetorical situation?

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Shaping Reasons to Write

Now that you have begun to identify the constituent elements of a torical situation, take a closer look at each of these elements, along with examples from diverse contexts

rhe-What is a rhetorical opportunity for change?

A rhetorical opportunity (sometimes called an exigence) is an opening

you identify to address or resolve a problem through spoken or written language In the example on the facing page, student Collin Allan has identifi ed a rhetorical opportunity in his need for a letter of recom-mendation His response to that need is in the form of an email (written language) sent to his instructor

In writing to Dr Eves, Collin has created a response to his own need (the need for a letter of recommendation) He’s also doing his best

to present a rhetorical opportunity to which his instructor will respond After all, he clearly wants his instructor to consider writing him a posi-tive letter of recommendation Thus, he has set out to resolve his prob-lem using words Although he has composed an email, he could have written Dr Eves a letter or spoken to her over the phone or during an offi ce visit Whether he used spoken or written words, he would not lose sight of the fact that his audience is his instructor and his purpose is to obtain a letter that gives him a good recommendation

The medium of delivery—spoken or written (with or without visual elements other than text)—is always up to the sender of a mes-sage, who must decide which medium of delivery is most appropriate and timely Suppose you’re applying for a scholarship and need some help from your academic advisor If the semester isn’t yet under way, your best option may be to send an email message to your advisor, which he can access remotely If you see your advisor almost daily and have taken several classes from him, it might make sense to begin with

a spoken request You could then mail him a set of written documents that include offi cial materials he must fi ll out and your own materials (illustrating your interests and strengths) that pertain to the application The materials you supply and the medium you use to communicate with your advisor depend on the elements of the specific rhetorical situation

Another important characteristic of a rhetorical opportunity for change is that the writer or speaker believes that change can be brought about through language that is spoken or written (or some combina-tion of the two, perhaps combined with visual elements) The woman who picks up the phone to tell her friend she’s sorry, the couple who want guests at their wedding, the student who composes an email ask-ing his instructor for a letter of recommendation—all believe that their

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problems can be resolved through language If any of these problems

were certain to be resolved, however, there would be no need to craft

a response to them If a problem could never be resolved, there would

also be no point in responding to it

>

Decide whether each problem listed below is also a rhetorical

opportunity Be prepared to share the reasoning behind your

responses with the rest of the class.

1 The Internal Revenue Service is charging you $2,000 in back

taxes, asserting that you neglected to declare the income from your summer job.

2 Your college library has just sent you an email informing you

that you’re being fi ned for several overdue books, all of which you returned a month ago.

3 After Thanksgiving dinner is served, your brothers and mother

resume their ongoing argument about U.S politics: health care, the wars, and the economy

From: Collin Allan <csallan2111@hotmail.com>

Date: August 13, 2009 1:19 PM

Subject: Letter of recommendation

To: Rosalyn Eves <rosalyn.eves@gmail.com>

Dear Dr Eves,

I will be applying to law school this coming semester Having

worked with you both as a student and as a Writing Fellow,

I thought that you might be willing to provide a letter of

recommendation for me Most schools require two letters of

recommendation from an academic source If you feel you

could write a positive letter of recommendation for me, I would

be honored and would deeply appreciate it I will be out of town

until school starts, but, if you are willing, I will get you the necessary

information upon my return I hope that I have contacted you far

enough in advance to give you an opportunity to consider writing

the letter before the grind of the semester really starts.

Thank you,

Collin Allan

Collin Allan chose email as the most appropriate medium for delivering

his request for a letter of recommendation.

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5 If the university’s child care center raises its rates again this year, you will have to look elsewhere for affordable child care.

YOUR WRITING EXPERIENCES

>

1 Write for fi ve minutes about a specifi c school-related assignment that created a rhetorical opportunity for you In other words, try

to remember an assignment that posed a problem to which

you wanted to respond and felt a need to respond with spoken

or written words or visuals Be prepared to share your memory of this assignment with the rest of the class.

2 Consider a school-related assignment that you’ve been given

in recent weeks In your own words, write out the assignment, paying careful attention to the problem you think the assignment is asking you to resolve with language Does this assignment establish an opportunity that calls for your response? Do

you want to respond? If so, explain why If not, explain how the

assignment could be rewritten in such a way that you would feel an authentic reason to write Be prepared to share your ideas with the rest of the class

Reading a text for rhetorical opportunity

The following essay, “Why I Want a Wife,” by Judy Brady, was fi rst lished forty years ago, in the inaugural issue of Ms magazine It remains

pub-one of the most widely anthologized essays in the United States As you read this short essay, try to imagine American domestic life forty years ago What specifi c details does the author provide to feed your imagi-nation? Try to determine Brady’s reason for writing this essay What might have been the rhetorical opportunity that called for her written response?

Why I Want a Wife

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course, with his ex-wife He is obviously looking for another wife As I

thought about him while I was ironing one evening, it suddenly occurred

to me that I, too, would like to have a wife Why do I want a wife?

I would like to go back to school, so that I can become economically

independent, support myself, and, if need be, support those dependent

upon me I want a wife who will work and send me to school And

while I am going to school I want a wife to take care of my children I

want a wife to keep track of the children’s doctor and dentist

appoint-ments And to keep track of mine, too I want a wife to make sure my

children eat properly and are kept clean I want a wife who will wash

the children’s clothes and keep them mended I want a wife who is a

good nurturant attendant to my children, arranges for their schooling,

makes sure that they have an adequate social life with their peers, takes

them to the park, the zoo, etc I want a wife who takes care of the

chil-dren when they are sick, a wife who arranges to be around when the

children need special care, because, of course, I cannot miss classes at

school My wife must arrange to lose time at work and not lose the job

It may mean a small cut in my wife’s income from time to time, but I

guess I can tolerate that Needless to say, my wife will arrange and pay

for the care of the children while my wife is working

I want a wife who will take care of my physical needs I want a wife

who will keep my house clean A wife who will pick up after my

chil-dren, a wife who will pick up after me I want a wife who will keep my

clothes clean, ironed, mended, replaced when need be, and who will

see to it that my personal things are kept in their proper place so that

I can fi nd what I need the minute I need it I want a wife who cooks

the meals, a wife who is a good cook I want a wife who will plan the

menus, do the necessary grocery shopping, prepare the meals, serve

them pleasantly, and then do the cleaning up while I do my studying I

want a wife who will care for me when I am sick and sympathize with

my pain and loss of time from school I want a wife to go along when

our family takes a vacation so that someone can continue to care for

me and my children when I need a rest and a change of scene

I want a wife who will take care of details of my social life When

my wife and I are invited out by my friends, I want a wife who will take

care of the babysitting arrangements When I meet people at school

that I like and want to entertain, I want a wife who will have the house

clean, will prepare a special meal, serve it to me and my friends, and

not interrupt when I talk about the things that interest me and my

friends I want a wife who will have arranged that the children are fed

and ready for bed before my guests arrive so that the children do not

bother us I want a wife who takes care of the needs of my guests so

that they feel comfortable, who makes sure that they have an ashtray,

that they are passed the hors d’oeuvres, that they are offered a

sec-ond helping of the food, that their wine glasses are replenished when

continued

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necessary, that their coffee is served to them as they like it And I want

a wife who knows that sometimes I need a night out by myself

I want a wife who is sensitive to my sexual needs, a wife who makes love passionately and eagerly when I feel like it, a wife who makes sure that I am satisfi ed And, of course, I want a wife who will not demand sexual attention when I am not in the mood for it I want a wife who assumes the complete responsibility for birth control, because I do not want more children I want a wife who will remain sexually faithful to

me so that I do not have to clutter up my intellectual life with sies And I want a wife who understands that my sexual needs may en- tail more than strict adherence to monogamy I must, after all, be able

jealou-to relate jealou-to people as fully as possible

If, by chance, I fi nd another person more suitable as a wife than the wife I already have, I want the liberty to replace my present wife with another one Naturally, I will expect a fresh, new life; my wife will take the children and be solely responsible for them so that I am left free When I am through with school and have acquired a job, I want

my wife to quit working and remain at home so that my wife can more fully and completely take care of a wife’s duties

My God, why wouldn’t I want a wife?

After reading Brady’s essay, you may want to spend some class time discussing the merits of her argument, for both the 1970s and today You may also want to consider her pervasive use of irony (her tongue-in-cheek attitude toward her subject), the extent to which she’s being serious, and the potential sexism of the essay Few readers of this essay can resist registering their agreement or disagreement with its author; you may want to register yours as well

Whether or not you agree with Brady, it’s important for you to be able to analyze her rhetorical situation, starting with the reason she may have written this essay in the fi rst place Why would she keep repeating

“I want a wife ”? Why would she write from the husband’s point of view? Why would she describe a wife who does all the “heavy lifting” in

a marriage? What kind of husband does she evoke? What effects do her rhetorical choices have on you as a reader?

Write your responses to the following questions In doing so, you are practicing what’s known as rhetorical analysis

1 What does this essay say? Compile the details of a wife’s daily life

and describe the writer’s feelings about a husband’s expectations; then write one sentence that conveys Brady’s main argument

2 Why does the essay say that? Drawing on your previous answer,

write three or four assertions that support Brady’s argument

“Why I Want a Wife” (continued)

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3 Who composed this message? What information does the writer

supply about her identity?

4 What rhetorical opportunity called for the writing of this essay? State

that opportunity in one sentence

5 How does the essay respond to that opportunity? What change in

at-titude, opinion, or action does the author wish to infl uence?

Reading an image for rhetorical opportunity

Responses to rhetorical opportunities are not always verbal Visual

re-sponses to rhetorical opportunities constantly bombard us—from

adver-tisements and promotions to

cards from friends and

politi-cal messages If you think the

Callout Card here addresses

the problem of electronic

ha-rassment, then you view it as a

fi tting response to a rhetorical

opportunity for change

Obvi-ously, the sender of “David,

wrapped in a towel” does not

want to receive visuals that are

“naughty,” maybe even

por-nographic When you consider

this image and text in terms of

a rhetorical response, you are

analyzing it rhetorically,

“read-ing” it more thoroughly than

you might have otherwise

Reading for rhetorical

opportunity helps you

de-velop your skills as an active,

informed reader and as a

rhe-torical analyst Respond to the

same questions you answered

about “Why I Want a Wife,”

but this time focus on the

Callout Card:

1 What does the visual

“say”—and how? Describe the visual in one sentence, paying

at-tention to both the statue and the brightly colored text that companies it

ac-2 Why does the visual say that? Consider the contexts in which you

might usually see a statue such as Michelangelo’s David

Com-pare those contexts with this one

This Callout Card, available at Thatsnotcool.com,

is a visual response to a rhetorical opportunity.

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