Volume 3 solar thermal systems components and applications 3 13 – solar space heating and cooling systems

Volume 3 solar thermal systems components and applications 3 13 – solar space heating and cooling systems Volume 3 solar thermal systems components and applications 3 13 – solar space heating and cooling systems Volume 3 solar thermal systems components and applications 3 13 – solar space heating and cooling systems Volume 3 solar thermal systems components and applications 3 13 – solar space heating and cooling systems Volume 3 solar thermal systems components and applications 3 13 – solar space heating and cooling systems

SA Kalogirou and GA Florides, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus

© 2012 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved

3.13.1 Active Systems

3.13.1.1 Direct Circulation Systems

3.13.1.2 Indirect Water Heating Systems

3.13.1.3 Air–Water Heating Systems

3.13.2 Space Heating and Service Hot Water

3.13.2.1 Air Systems

3.13.2.2 Water Systems

3.13.2.3 Location of Auxiliary Source

3.13.2.4 Heat Pump Systems

3.13.3.6.2 Design of single-effect LiBr–H2O absorption systems

3.13.3.7 Ammonia–Water Absorption Systems

3.13.3.8 Solar Cooling with Absorption Refrigeration

3.13.4 Heat Storage Systems

3.13.4.1 Air Systems Thermal Storage

3.13.4.2 Liquid Systems Thermal Storage

3.13.5 Module and Array Design

Active systems are more difficult to retrofit in houses, especially in cases where there is no basement, because space is required for the additional equipment, like the hot water cylinder [1] Five types of systems belong to this category: the direct circulation systems, indirect water heating systems, air systems, heat pump systems, and pool heating systems

According to Duff [2], the flow in the collector loop should be in the range of 0.2–0.4 l min−1m−2 of collector aperture area The result of low flow rate is a reduction of the collector efficiency due to higher collector temperature rise for a given inlet temperature For example, for a reduction of flow rate from 0.9 to 0.3 l min−1m−2, the efficiency is reduced by about 6% However due to the reduction of the inlet temperature to the collectors the loss of collector efficiency The pumps required for most of these active systems are of the low static head centrifugal types (also called circulators), which for small domestic applications consume

30–50 W of electrical power

3.13.1.1 Direct Circulation Systems

A schematic diagram of a direct circulation system is shown in Figure 1 In this system, a pump is used to circulate potable water from the storage tank to the collectors when there is enough available solar energy to increase its temperature and then return the heated water back to the storage tank until it is needed Since a pump is used to circulate the water, the collectors can be mounted either above or below the storage tank In these systems, usually a single storage tank equipped with an auxiliary water heater is used but two-tank storage systems can also be used An important feature of this configuration is the spring-loaded check valve, which is used to prevent the reverse thermosyphon circulation energy losses when the pump is not running

Array of solar collectors

Figure 1 Direct circulation system AAV, automatic air vent; DT, differential thermostat

Direct circulation systems are supplied with water from a cold water storage tank or are directly connected to city water mains Pressure-reducing valves and pressure relief valves are required, however, when the city water pressure is greater than the working pressure of the collectors Direct water heating systems should not be used in areas where the water is extremely hard or acidic because scale (calcium) deposits may clog or corrode the collectors

Direct circulation systems can be used in areas where freezing is not frequent For extreme weather conditions, freeze protection is usually provided by recirculating warm water from the storage tank spending some heat to protect the system

A special thermostat is used in this case to activate the pump when temperature decreases below a certain value Such recirculation freeze protection should only be used for locations where freezing seldom occurs (a few times a year) since stored heat is lost in the process A disadvantage of this system is that in case of power failure the pump will not work and the system could freeze In such a case, a dump valve can be installed at the bottom of the collectors to provide additional protection [1]

The drain-down system is a variation of the direct circulation system and is also used for freeze protection (Figure 2) In this case, potable water is pumped from the storage tank to the collector array where it is heated When a freezing condition or a power failure occurs, the system drains automatically by isolating the collector array and exterior piping from the makeup water supply with the normally closed (NC) valve Draining then is accomplished with the use of the two normally open (NO) valves as shown in Figure 2 It should be noted that the solar collectors and associated piping must be carefully sloped to drain the collector’s exterior piping when circulation stops The check valve, shown on the top of the collectors in Figure 2, allows air to fill the collectors and piping during draining and to escape during fill-up

3.13.1.2 Indirect Water Heating Systems

A schematic diagram of an indirect water heating system is shown in Figure 3 In this system, a heat transfer fluid is circulated through the closed collector loop to a heat exchanger, by which the potable water is heated The most commonly used heat transfer fluids are water/ethylene glycol solutions Other heat transfer fluids such as silicone oils and refrigerants can also be used When fluids that are nonpotable or toxic are used, double-wall heat exchangers should be used; this can be done in practice by two heat exchangers installed in series The heat exchanger can be enclosed in the storage tank It can also be placed around the tank mantle or externally (see Figure 4) Protection devices such as an expansion tank and a pressure relief valve are required to relieve increased pressures in the collector loop, and additional over-temperature protection may be needed to prevent the collector heat transfer fluid from decomposing or becoming corrosive

In areas where extended freezing temperatures are observed, water/ethylene glycol solutions are used to avoid freezing These systems are more expensive to construct and operate, as the solution should be checked every year and changed every few years, depending on the solution quality and system temperatures [1]

Typical collector configurations include the internal heat exchanger shown in Figure 3, the external heat exchanger shown in Figure 4(a), and the mantle heat exchanger shown in Figure 4(b)

Array of solar collectors

AAV

Outdoor equipment

Hot water OUT Relief valve

AAVArray of solar collectors

Outdoor equipment

Figure 2 Drain-down system NC, normally closed; NO, normally open

Figure 3 Indirect water heating system

The most widely used size for the storage tank is 50 l m−2 of collector aperture area, but as a general rule the tank size should be between 35 and 70 l m−2 of collector aperture area

For freeze protection, a variation of indirect water heating system is used called the drain-back system This system circulates water through the closed collector loop to a heat exchanger, to heat the potable water Circulation continues as long as solar energy is available When the circulation pump stops, the collector fluid drains by gravity to a drain-back tank If the system is pressurized, the tank serves also as an expansion tank when the system is operating and in this case it must be protected with a temperature and pressure relief valve In the case of an unpressurized system (Figure 5), the tank is open and vented to the atmosphere The second pipe directed from the collectors to the top of the drain-back tank is to allow air to fill the collectors during drain-back

As the collector loop is isolated from the potable water, no valves are needed to actuate draining, and scaling is not a problem; however, the collector array and exterior piping must be adequately sloped to drain completely Freeze protection is inherent

Hot water OUT Hot water OUT Relief value

Cold water IN (a) External heat exchanger (b) Mantle heat exchanger

Cold water IN Tank mantle

Relief value

Storage tank

To solar collector

Auxiliary heater

Figure 4 External and mantle heat exchangers

Solar collector array AAV

Vent Sight glass

Figure 5 Drain-back system

with the drain-back system because the collectors and the piping above the roof are empty whenever the pump is not running

A disadvantage of this system is that a pump with high static lift capability is required to fill the collector when the system starts

up [1]

In drain-back systems, there is a possibility that the collectors will be drained during periods of insolation; it is therefore important to select collectors that can withstand prolonged periods of stagnation (no fluid) conditions Such a case can occur when there is no load to meet and the storage tank reaches such a temperature that would not allow the differential thermostat to switch

on the solar pump

An alternative design to the one shown in Figure 5, which is suitable for small systems, is to have an open system (without a heat exchanger) and drain the water directly in the storage tank

3.13.1.3 Air–Water Heating Systems

Air systems are indirect water heating systems because air is circulated through air collectors and via ductworks is directed to an air­to-water heat exchanger In the heat exchanger, heat is transferred to the potable water, which is also circulated through the heat exchanger and returned to the storage tank Figure 6 shows a schematic diagram of a double storage tank system This type of system

is the most common one, because air systems are generally used for preheating domestic hot water and thus a separate tank with an auxiliary heater is needed for increasing the temperature of the water to the required level

The advantages of this system are that air does not need to be protected from freezing or boiling, is noncorrosive, does not suffer from heat transfer fluid degradation, and is free In addition, the system is more cost effective as no safety values and expansion vessel are required The disadvantages are that air handling equipment (ducts and fans) need more space than piping and pumps, air leaks are difficult to detect, and parasitic power consumption (electricity used to drive the fans) is generally higher than that of liquid systems [1]

Solar collector array

Figure 6 Air system NC, normally closed DT, differential thermostat

3.13.2 Space Heating and Service Hot Water

Space heating systems are very similar to active water heating systems The same design principles apply to both systems as described

in the previous section and are therefore not repeated The most common heat transfer fluids are water, water and antifreeze mixtures, and air Although it is technically possible to construct a solar heating or cooling system that can satisfy fully the design load of a building, such a system would not be viable since it would be oversized most of the time The size of the solar system is usually determined by a life-cycle cost analysis

Active solar space systems use collectors to heat a fluid, storage units to store solar energy until needed, and distribution equipment to provide the solar energy to the heated spaces in a controlled manner In addition, a complete system utilizes pumps or fans for transferring the energy to the storage or to the load, which require a continuous availability of nonrenewable energy, generally in the form of electricity

The load can be space cooling, heating, or a combination with hot water supply When it is combined with conventional heating equipment, solar heating provides the same levels of comfort, temperature stability, and reliability as conventional systems

In solar systems, the collectors during daytime absorb solar energy, which is stored using a suitable fluid When heat is required

in the building, it is taken from the storage The control of the solar system is exercised by differential temperature controllers (DTCs), described in Section 3.13.6 In locations where freezing conditions may occur, a low-temperature sensor is installed on the collector, which activates the solar pump when a preset temperature is reached This process wastes some stored heat, but it prevents costly damages to the solar collectors Alternatively, the systems described in the previous section, such as the drain-down and drain-back systems, can be used depending on whether the system is closed or open

Solar cooling of buildings is an attractive idea as the cooling loads and availability of solar radiation are in phase In addition, the combination of solar cooling and heating greatly improves the use factors of collectors as compared to heating alone Solar air conditioning can be accomplished mainly by two types of systems: absorption and adsorption (desiccant) cycles Some of these cycles are also used in solar refrigeration systems It should be noted that the same solar collector array is used for both space heating and cooling systems when both are present

A review of the various solar heating and cooling systems is presented by Hahne [3], and a review of solar and low-energy cooling technologies is presented by Florides et al [4]

The solar systems usually have five basic modes of operation [1], depending on the existing conditions of the system at a particular time:

1 When solar energy is available and heat is not required in the building, solar energy is added to the storage

2 When solar energy is available and heat is required in the building, solar energy is used to supply the building load demand

3 When solar energy is not available, heat is required in the building, and the storage unit has stored energy, the stored energy is used to supply the building load demand

4 When solar energy is not available, heat is required in the building, and the storage unit has been depleted, auxiliary energy is used to supply the building load demand

5 When the storage unit is fully heated, there are no loads to meet and the collector is absorbing heat, solar energy is discarded The last mode is achieved through the operation of pressure relief valves In the case of air collectors where the stagnant temperature

is not detrimental to the collector materials, the flow of air is turned off and the collector temperature rises until the absorbed energy

is dissipated to the environment by thermal losses

In addition to the operation modes outlined above, the solar system may also provide domestic hot water The operation of the system is usually controlled by thermostats So depending on the load of each service, that is, heating, cooling, or hot water, the thermostat controlling the operation mode gives the signal to operate a pump when needed, provided that the collector temperature

is higher than that of the storage By using the thermostats, it is possible to combine modes, that is, to operate in more than one mode at a time Some kinds of systems do not allow direct heating from the solar collectors to building but always transfer heat from the collectors to the storage whenever this is available and from the storage to the load whenever this is needed

In Europe, solar heating systems for combined space and water heating are known as combisystems and the storage tanks of these systems are called combistores Many of these combistores have one or more heat exchangers immersed directly in the storage fluid The immersed heat exchangers are used for various functions such as charging via solar collectors or a boiler and discharging for domestic hot water and space heating

For combisystems, the heat store is the key component, since it is used as a short-term store for solar energy and as a buffer store for the fuel or wood boiler The storage medium used in solar combistores is usually the water of the space heating loop and not the tap water used in conventional solar domestic hot water stores The tap water is heated up on demand by passing it through a heat exchanger, which can be placed either inside or outside the tank containing the water of the heating loop When the heat exchanger

is in direct contact with the storage medium, the temperature of the tap water at the start of the draw-off is identical to that of the water inside the store The tap water volume inside the heat exchanger can vary from a few liters, for immersed heat exchangers, to several hundred liters for a tank-in-tank store

Three typical combistores are shown in Figure 7 In the first type (Figure 7(a)), an immersed heat exchanger mounted on the whole inside surface of the mantle and top of the store is used In the second type (Figure 7(b)), the water is heated with the natural circulation (thermosyphoning) heat exchanger that is mounted in the upper part of the store The third case (Figure 7(c)) is called the tank-in-tank type In this type, a conical hot water vessel is placed inside the main tank and its bottom part is almost reaching the bottom of the store Typical heat exchanger tap water volumes for the three tank types are 15, 10, and 150–200 l, respectively [5]

In the initial stages of design of a solar space heating system, a number of factors need to be considered Among the first ones are whether the system would be direct or indirect and whether a different fluid will be used in the solar system and the heat delivery system Generally speaking, the designer must be aware that the presence of a heat exchanger in a system imposes a reduction of

5–10% in the effective energy delivered to the system This is usually translated as an extra percentage of collector area to allow the system to deliver the same quantity of energy as a system without a heat exchanger

Fan Three-way damper

Auxiliary

To warm air supply ducts

bypass

From cold air return duct

Three-way damper

Another important parameter to consider is the time matching of the load and the solar energy input The energy requirements of a building are not constant over the annual seasonal cycle For the Northern Hemisphere, heating requirements start at about October, and the maximum heating load is during January or February The heating season ends at about the end of April Depending on the latitude, cooling requirements start in May, the maximum is about the end of July, and the cooling season ends at about the end of September The domestic hot water requirements are almost constant throughout the year with some small variations due to changes in water supply temperature Although it is possible

to design a system that could cover the total thermal load requirements of a building, a very large collector area and storage would be required Therefore, such a system would not be economically viable, as the system would, for most time of the year, collect energy that would not be possible to use

Since the load is not constant but varies throughout the year, a space heating system would be inoperative during many months

of the year This could create overheating problems in the solar collectors during summertime To avoid it, a solar space heating system needs to be combined with solar space cooling so as to fully utilize the system throughout the year Solar heating systems are examined in this section, whereas solar cooling systems are examined in Section 3.13.3

A space heating system can use either air or liquid collectors, but the energy delivery system may use the same medium or a different one Usually air systems use air for all the processes, that is, collection, storage, and delivery Liquid systems use water or water and antifreeze solution for collection, water for storage, and finally, water (e.g., floor heating system) or air (e.g., water-to-air heat exchanger and air handling unit) for the heat delivery process

There are many variations of systems used for both solar space heating and service hot water production The basic configuration is similar to that of the solar water heating systems outlined in Section 3.13.1 When used for both solar space heating and hot water production, these systems have independent control of the solar collector–storage and storage– auxiliary load loops This allows solar-heated water to be added to the storage at the same time that hot water is removed from it to meet the building loads Usually, a bypass is provided around the storage tank, which can be of considerable size,

to avoid heating it with auxiliary energy

3.13.2.1 Air Systems

A schematic of a basic solar air heating system, with a pebble bed storage unit and an auxiliary heating source, is shown in Figure 8

In this case, the various operation modes are achieved by the use of the dampers shown Usually, in air systems, it is not practical to have simultaneous addition and removal of energy from the storage If the energy supplied from the collector or the storage is not adequate to meet the load, auxiliary energy can be used to top up the air temperature to cover the building load When there is no sunshine and the storage tank is completely depleted, it is also possible to bypass the collector and the storage unit and use the auxiliary alone to provide the required heat (Figure 8) A more detailed schematic of an air space heating system incorporating a subsystem for the supply of domestic hot water is shown in Figure 9 For the heating of water, an air-to-water heat exchanger is used with a preheat tank as shown Details of controls are also shown in Figure 9 Furthermore, the system can use air collectors with a hydronic space heating system in an arrangement similar to that of the water heating air system described in Section 3.13.1.3 and shown in Figure 6

Further to the advantages of using air as a heat transfer fluid, outlined in Section 3.13.1.3, another advantage is the high degree of stratification that occurs in the pebble bed, which leads to lower collector inlet temperatures In addition, the working fluid is air and warm air heating systems are common in the building services industry Control equipment are also readily available and can

be obtained from the building services industry

Figure 8 Schematic of a basic hot air system

ducts Service

T

Load heat House

ductsWater supply

array

Hot water supply

Cold water supply

T Cold air return Control

Figure 9 Detailed schematic of a solar air heating system DHW, domestic hot water

Further to the disadvantages of air systems analyzed in Section 3.13.1.3, additional disadvantages are the difficulty of adding solar air conditioning to the systems, the higher storage cost, and noisier operation Another disadvantage is that air collectors are operated at lower fluid capacitance rates and thus with lower values of FR than the liquid heating collectors

Usually, air heating collectors used in space heating systems are operated at fixed airflow rates; therefore, the outlet temperature varies through the day It is also possible to operate the collectors at a fixed outlet temperature by varying the flow rate When flow rates are low, however, they result in reduced FR and therefore reduced collector performance

3.13.2.2 Water Systems

There are many variations of systems, which can be used for both solar space heating and domestic hot water production The basic configurations are similar to those of the solar water heating systems outlined in Sections 3.13.1.1 and 3.13.1.2 When the systems are used for both space and hot water production, solar-heated water can be added to storage at the same time that hot water is removed from the storage to meet building loads To accomplish this, the systems allow independent control of the solar collector–storage loop and the storage–auxiliary load loop Usually, a bypass is provided around the storage tank, which can be

of considerable size, to avoid heating it with auxiliary energy

A schematic diagram of a solar space heating and hot water system is shown in Figure 10 Control of the solar heating system is based on two thermostats: the collector–storage temperature differential, and the room temperature The collector operates with a differential thermostat as explained in Section 3.13.6 When the room thermostat senses a low temperature, the load pump is activated, drawing heated water from the main storage tank to meet the demand If the energy stored in the tank cannot meet the load demand, the thermostat activates the auxiliary heater to supply the extra need Usually, whenever the storage tank is depleted, the controllers actuate the three-way valves, shown in Figure 10, and direct all the flow through the auxiliary heater

The solar heating system design shown in Figure 10 is suitable for use in nonfreezing climates To use such a system in locations where freezing may occur, provisions for complete and dependable drainage of the collector must be made This can be done with

Figure 10 Schematic diagram of a solar space heating and hot water system

Warm air

Collector

array

Relief valve Collector

heat exchanger

Storage pump

Collector

Main storage

ducts

Cold air ducts

House

T

Auxiliary Control

Control

Fan

Load pump

Load heat exchangerHot

water tank

T

T

Figure 11 Detailed schematic diagram of a solar space heating and hot water system with antifreeze solution

an automatic discharge valve, activated by the ambient air temperature, and an air vent that drains the collector water to waste Alternatively, a drain-back system can be used in which the collector water is drained back to the storage whenever the solar pump stops When this system drains, air enters the collector through a vent

If the climate is characterized by frequent subfreezing temperatures, positive freeze protection with the use of an antifreeze solution in a closed collector loop is necessary A detailed schematic of such a liquid-based system is shown in Figure 11 A collector heat exchanger is used between the collector and the storage tank, which allows the use of antifreeze solutions in the collector circuit The most usual solutions are water and glycol Relief valves are also required for dumping excess energy when overheating occurs To

‘top up’ the energy available from the solar system, auxiliary energy is required It should be noted that the connections to the storage tank should be done in such a way as to enhance stratification, that is, cold streams to be connected at the bottom and hot streams at the top In this way, cooler water/fluid is supplied to the collectors that maintain the best possible efficiency In this type

of systems, the auxiliary is never used directly in the solar storage tank

The use of a heat exchanger between the collector heat transfer fluid and the storage water imposes a temperature differential across the two sides, leading to a lower storage tank temperature This has a negative impact on system performance; however, this system design is preferred in climates with frequent freezing conditions to avoid the danger of malfunction in a self-draining system

A load heat exchanger is also required, as shown in Figure 11, to transfer energy from the storage tank to the heated spaces This must

be adequately sized to avoid excessive decrease in temperature with a corresponding increase in the tank and collector temperatures The advantages of liquid heating systems are the high collector FR, the small storage volume requirement, and the relatively easy combination with an absorption air conditioner for cooling (see Section 3.13.3.5)

The thermal analysis of these systems is similar to that of the water heating systems When both space heating and hot water needs are considered, then the rate of the energy removed from the storage tank to the load is Qls, that is, the space load supplied by solar energy through the load heat exchanger The energy balance equation, which neglects stratification in the storage tank, is

dTs

M is the mass of stored water cp the specific heat of storage media (water), t is time, Qlw the domestic water heating load supplied through the domestic water heat exchanger (kJ), Qu the useful energy collected given by eqn [26], and Qtl the energy lost from the storage tank given by an equation similar to eqn [2] but having Ts instead of TR and UA of the storage tank, shown in Section 3.13.5.3

The space heating load, Qhl, can be estimated from the following equation (positive values only):

where (UA)l is the space loss coefficient and area product

The maximum rate of heat transferred across the load heat exchanger, Qle(max), is given by

where εl is the load heat exchanger effectiveness, ðmc_ pÞa the air loop mass flow rate and specific heat product (W K ), and T−1 s thestorage tank temperature (°C)

It should be noted that in eqn [3] the air side of the water-to-air heat exchanger is considered to be the minimum as the cp of air (∼1.05 kJ kg−1 °C−1) is much lower than the cp of water (∼4.18 kJ kg−1 °C−1)

The space load, Qls, is then given by (positive values only)

The domestic water heating load, Qw, can be estimated from

where ðmc_ pÞ is the domestic water mass flow rate and specific heat product (W Kw −1), Tw the required hot water temperature (usually

60 °C), and Tmu the makeup water temperature from mains (°C)

The domestic water heating load supplied by solar energy through the domestic water heat exchanger, Qlw, of effectiveness εw can

be estimated from

Qlw ¼ εwð _ w ðTs − TmuÞFinally, the auxiliary energy required, Qaux, to cover the domestic water heating and space loads is given by (positive values only)

where the auxiliary energy required to cover the domestic water heating load, Qaux,w, is given by (positive values only)

In all cases where a heat exchanger is used, there is a loss that can be estimated according to eqn [33] indicated in Section 3.13.5.3

3.13.2.3 Location of Auxiliary Source

One important consideration concerning the storage tank is the decision for the best location of the auxiliary energy input This is especially important in the case of solar space heating systems as bigger amounts of auxiliary energy are usually required and storage tank sizes are larger For the maximum utilization of the energy supplied by the auxiliary source, its location should be at the load and not at the storage The supply of auxiliary energy at the storage will undoubtedly increase the temperature of the fluid entering the collector, resulting in lower collector efficiency When a water-based solar system is used in conjunction with a warm air space heating system, the most economical means of auxiliary energy supply is by the use of a fossil fuel-fired boiler In case of bad weather, the boiler can take over the entire heating load

When a water-based solar system is used in conjunction with a water space heating system or to supply the heated water to an absorption air-conditioning unit, the auxiliary heater can be located in the storage–load loop, either in series or in parallel with the storage, as illustrated in Figure 12 When auxiliary energy is used to boost the temperature of solar-heated water (Figure 12(a)),

From collector

Main storage tank

Auxiliary heater

Load

Load pump

To collector

(a) From collector

Main storage tank

Figure 12 Auxiliary energy supply in water-based systems: (a) in series with load and (b) parallel with load

Return air

Supply air

Auxiliary

C

maximum utilization of stored solar energy is achieved when the source is in series with the load This way of connecting the auxiliary supply, however, also has the tendency of boosting the storage tank temperature because water returning from the load may be at a higher temperature than the storage Increasing the storage temperature by auxiliary energy has the undesirable effect of lowering the collector effectiveness This, however, depends on the operating temperature of the heating system Therefore, a low-temperature system is required This can be achieved with a water-to-air heat exchanger either centrally with an air handling unit or in a distributed way with individual fan coil units in each room This system has the advantage of being connected easily with

a space cooling system as for example with an absorption system (see Section 3.13.3.5) By using this type of system, solar energy can be used more effectively; with a high-temperature system, the hot water storage remains at high temperature, thus solar collectors work at lower efficiency

Another possibility is to use underfloor heating or an all-water system employing the traditional heating radiators In the latter case, provisions need to be made during the design stage to operate the system at low temperature, which implies the use of radiators of bigger size Such a system is also suitable for retrofit applications

Figure 12(b) illustrates an arrangement where it is possible to isolate the auxiliary heating circuit from the storage Solar-heated storage water is used exclusively to meet the load demand when its temperature is adequate When the storage temperature decreases below the required level, circulation through the storage tank is discontinued and hot water from the auxiliary heater is used exclusively to meet space heating In this way of connecting the auxiliary supply, the undesirable increase of storage water temperature by auxiliary energy is avoided However, it has the disadvantage that stored solar energy at lower temperature is not fully utilized and this energy may be lost from the storage (through jacket losses) To extract as much energy as possible from the storage tank, the same requirements for a low-temperature system should apply here as well

3.13.2.4 Heat Pump Systems

Active solar energy systems can also be combined with heat pumps for domestic water heating and/or space heating In residential heating, the solar system can be used in parallel with a heat pump, which supplies auxiliary energy when the sun is not available In addition, for domestic water systems requiring high water temperatures, a heat pump can be placed in series with the solar storage tank

A heat pump is a device that uses mechanical energy to pump heat from a low-temperature sink to a higher temperature one Heat pumps are usually vapor-compression refrigeration machines, where the evaporator can take heat into the system at low temperature and the condenser can reject heat from the system at high temperature In the heating mode, a heat pump delivers thermal energy from the condenser for space heating and can be combined with solar heating In the cooling mode, the evaporator extracts heat from the air to be conditioned and rejects heat from the condenser to the atmosphere with solar energy not contributing to the energy for cooling The performance characteristics of an integral-type solar-assisted heat pump are given by Huang and Chyng [6]

Electrically driven heat pump heating systems have two advantages compared to electric resistance heating or expensive fuels The first advantage is that the heat pump’s coefficient of performance (COP) is high enough to yield 9–15 MJ of heat for each kilowatt-hour of energy supplied to the compressor, which saves on purchase of energy; and the second advantage is that they can be used for air conditioning in the summer Water-to-air heat pumps, which use solar-heated water from the storage tank as the evaporator energy source, are an alternative auxiliary heat source Use of water in the system, however, involves freezing problems, which need to be taken into consideration

Heat pumps have been used in combination with solar systems in residential and commercial applications The additional complexity imposed from such a system and extra cost are offset by the high COP and the lower operating temperature of the collector subsystem A schematic of a common residential-type heat pump system is shown in Figure 13

Figure 13 Schematic diagram of a domestic water-to-air heat pump system (series arrangement)

C Collector

array

Water storage

heaters

Figure 14 Schematic diagram of a domestic water-to-water heat pump system (parallel arrangement)

The arrangement in Figure 13 is a series configuration and the heat pump evaporator is supplied with energy from the solar system As can be seen, energy from the storage unit is directly supplied to the building when the temperature of the water in the storage tank is high When the storage tank temperature cannot satisfy the load, the heat pump is operated and in doing so it benefits from the relatively high temperature of the solar system, which is higher than the ambient, thus increasing the heat pump’s COP A parallel arrangement is also possible where the heat pump serves as an independent auxiliary energy source for the solar system as shown in Figure 14 In this case, a water-to-water heat pump is used

The series configuration is usually preferred to the parallel one as it allows all the collected solar power to be used, leaving the tank at low temperature This allows the solar system to work more effectively the next day In addition, the heat pump performance

is higher with high evaporator temperatures An added advantage of this system is that the solar system is conventional using liquid collectors and a water storage tank A dual-source heat pump can also be used in which another form of renewable energy, such as a pellets boiler, can be used when the storage tank is completely depleted In such a case, a control system switches to the use of the hotter source providing the best heat pump COP Another possible design is to use an air solar heating system and an air-to-air heat pump

3.13.3 Solar Cooling

The quest to accomplish a safe and comfortable environment has always been one of the main preoccupations of the human race In ancient times, people used the experience gained over many years to utilize the available resources in the best possible way to achieve adequate living conditions Central heating was pioneered by the Romans using double floors and passing the fumes of a fire through the floor cavity Also in Roman times windows were covered for the first time with materials such as mica or glass Thus, light was admitted in the house without letting in wind and rain [7] The Iraqis, on the other hand, utilized the prevailing wind to take advantage of the night cool air and provide a cooler environment during the day [8] In addition, running water was used to provide some evaporative cooling

As late as the 1960s though, house comfort conditions were only for the few From then onward, central air-conditioning systems became common in many countries due to the development of mechanical refrigeration and the rise of the standard of living The oil crisis of the 1970s stimulated intensive research aimed at reducing energy costs Also, global warming and ozone depletion and the escalating costs of fossil fuels, over the past few years, have forced governments and engineering bodies to reexamine the whole approach of building design and control Energy conservation in the sense of fuel saving is also of great importance

During recent years, research aimed at the development of technologies that can offer reductions in energy consumption, peak electrical demand, and energy costs without lowering the desired level of comfort conditions has intensified Alternative cooling technologies are being developed that can be applied to residential and commercial buildings, in a wide range of weather conditions These include night cooling with ventilation, evaporative cooling, desiccant cooling, slab cooling, and other cooling strategies The design of buildings using low-energy cooling technologies, however, presents difficulties and requires advanced modeling and control techniques to ensure efficient operation

Another method that can be used to reduce the energy consumption is ground cooling This is based on the heat-loss dissipation from a building to the ground, which during the summer has a lower temperature than the ambient This dissipation can be achieved either by direct contact of an important part of the building envelope with the ground or by blowing air into the building that has first been passed through an earth-to-air heat exchanger [9]

The role of designers and architects is very important, especially with respect to solar energy control, the utilization of thermal mass, and natural ventilation of buildings In effective solar energy control, summer heat gains must be reduced while winter solar heat gains must be maximized This can be achieved by proper orientation and shape of the building, the use of shading devices, and the selection of proper construction materials Thermal mass, especially in hot climates with diurnal variation

of ambient temperatures exceeding 10 °C, can be used to reduce the instantaneous high cooling loads, reduce energy

consumption, and attenuate indoor temperature swings Correct ventilation can enhance the roles of both solar energy control and thermal mass

Reconsideration of the building structure, the readjustment of capital cost allocations, that is, investing in energy conservation measures that may have a significant influence on thermal loads, and improvements in equipment and maintenance can minimize the energy expenditure and improve thermal comfort

In intermediate seasons in hot dry climates, processes such as evaporative cooling can offer energy conservation opportunities However, in summertime, due to the high temperatures low-energy cooling technologies alone cannot satisfy the total cooling demand of domestic dwellings For this reason, active cooling systems are required Vapor-compression cooling systems are usually used, powered by electricity, which is expensive and whose production depends mainly on fossil fuel In such climates, one of the sources abundantly available is solar energy, which could be used to power an active solar cooling system based on the absorption cycle The problem with solar absorption machines is that they are expensive compared to vapor-compression machines and until recently they were not readily available in the small capacity range applicable to domestic cooling applications Reducing the use of conventional vapor-compression air-conditioning systems will also reduce their effect on both global warming and ozone layer depletion

The integration of the building envelope with an absorption system should offer better control of the internal environment Two basic types of absorption units are available: ammonia–water (NH3–H2O) and lithium bromide–water (LiBr–H2O) units The latter are more suitable for solar applications since their operating (generator) temperature is lower and thus more readily obtainable with low-cost solar collectors [10]

Solar cooling of buildings is an attractive idea as the cooling loads and availability of solar radiation are in phase In addition, the combination of solar cooling and heating greatly improves the use factors of collectors compared to heating alone Solar air conditioning can be accomplished by three types of systems: absorption cycles, adsorption (desiccant) cycles, and solar-mechanical processes Some of these cycles are also used in solar refrigeration systems and are described in the following sections

Solar cooling can be considered for two related processes: to provide refrigeration for food and medicine preservation and to provide comfort cooling Solar refrigeration systems usually operate at intermittent cycles and produce much lower temperatures (ice) than in air conditioning When the same cycles are used for space cooling, they operate on continuous cycles The cycles used for solar refrigeration are absorption and adsorption During the cooling portion of the cycles, the refrigerant is evaporated and reabsorbed In these systems, the absorber and generator are separate vessels The generator can be an integral part of the collector, with refrigerant-absorbent solution in the tubes of the collector circulated by a combination of a thermosyphon and a vapor lift pump

There are many options available that enable the integration of solar energy into the process of ‘cold’ production Solar refrigeration can be accomplished by using either a thermal energy source supplied from a solar collector or electricity supplied from photovoltaics This can be achieved by using either thermal adsorption or absorption units or conventional vapor-compression refrigeration equipment powered from photovoltaics Solar refrigeration is used mainly to cool vaccine stores

in areas with no mains electricity

Photovoltaic refrigeration, although uses standard refrigeration equipment, which is an advantage, has not achieved widespread use because of the low efficiency and high cost of the photovoltaic cells As photovoltaic-operated vapor-compression systems do not differ in operation from the mains-powered systems, these are not covered in this chapter and details are given only on the solar adsorption and absorption units with more emphasis on the latter

Solar cooling is more attractive for southern countries of the Northern Hemisphere and northern countries of the Southern Hemisphere Solar cooling systems are particularly applicable to large applications (e.g., commercial buildings) that have high cooling loads during large periods of the year Such systems in combination with solar heating can make more efficient use of solar collectors, which would be idle during the cooling season Generally, however, there is less experience with solar cooling than with solar heating systems

Solar cooling systems can be classified into three categories: solar sorption cooling, solar-mechanical systems, and solar-related systems [4]

3.13.3.1 Solar Sorption Cooling

Sorbents are materials that have an ability to attract and hold other gases or liquids This characteristic makes them very useful in chemical separation processes Desiccants are sorbents that have a particular affinity for water The process of attracting and holding moisture is described as either absorption or adsorption, depending on whether the desiccant undergoes a chemical change as it takes on moisture Absorption changes the desiccant, as for example the table salt, which changes from a solid to a liquid as it absorbs moisture Adsorption, on the other hand, does not change the desiccant except by the addition of the weight of water vapor, similar in some ways to a sponge soaking up water [11]

Compared to an ordinary cooling cycle, the basic idea of an absorption system is to avoid compression work This is done by using a suitable working pair The working pair consists of a refrigerant and a solution that can absorb the refrigerant

Absorption systems are similar to vapor-compression air-conditioning systems but differ in the pressurization stage In general,

an evaporating refrigerant is absorbed by an absorbent on the low-pressure side Combinations include LiBr–H2O, where water vapor is the refrigerant, and NH3–H2O systems, where ammonia is the refrigerant [12]

Adsorption cooling is the other group of sorption air conditioners that utilizes an agent (the adsorbent) to adsorb the moisture from the air (or dry any other gas or liquid) and then uses the evaporative cooling effect to produce cooling Solar energy can be used to regenerate the drying agent Solid adsorbents include silica gels, zeolites, synthetic zeolites, activated alumina, carbons, and synthetic polymers [11] Liquid adsorbents can be triethylene glycol solutions of lithium chloride and lithium bromide solutions

These systems are explained in more detail in separate sections further on

3.13.3.2 Solar-Mechanical Systems

These systems utilize a solar-powered prime mover to drive a conventional air-conditioning system This can be done by converting solar energy into electricity by means of photovoltaic devices and then utilize an electric motor to drive a vapor compressor The photovoltaic panels, however, have a low field efficiency of about 10–15%, depending on the type of cells used, which result in low overall efficiencies for the system

The solar-powered prime mover can also be a Rankine engine In a typical system, energy from the collector is stored, then transferred to a heat exchanger, and finally energy is used to drive the heat engine The heat engine drives a vapor compressor, which produces a cooling effect at the evaporator As shown in Figure 15, the efficiency of the solar collector decreases as the operating temperature increases, whereas the efficiency of the heat engine of the system increases as the operating temperature increases The two efficiencies meet at a point (A in Figure 15) giving an optimum operating temperature for steady-state operation The combined system has overall efficiencies between 17% and 23%

Due to the diurnal cycle, both the cooling load and the storage tank temperature vary through the day Therefore, designing such a system presents appreciable difficulties When a Rankine heat engine is coupled with a constant-speed air conditioner, the output of the engine seldom matches the input required by the air conditioner Therefore, auxiliary energy must be supplied when the engine output is less than that required, or otherwise, excess energy may be used to produce electricity for other purposes

3.13.3.3 Solar-Related Air Conditioning

Some components of systems installed for the purpose of heating a building can also be used to cool it but without the direct use of solar energy Examples of these systems can be heat pumps, rock bed regenerator, and alternative cooling technologies or passive systems Heat pumps were examined in Section 3.13.2.4 The other two methods are briefly introduced here

1 Rock bed regenerator Rock beds (or pebble beds) storage units of solar air heating systems can be night-cooled during summer to store ‘cold’ for use the following day This can be accomplished by passing outside air during the night when the temperature and humidity are low through an optional evaporative cooler, through the pebble bed, and to the exhaust During the day, the building can be cooled by passing room air through the pebble bed A number of applications using pebble beds for solar energy storage are given by Hastings [13] For such systems, airflow rates should be kept to a minimum so as to minimize fan power requirements without affecting the performance of the pebble bed Therefore, an optimization process should be followed as part of the design

2 Alternative cooling technologies or passive systems Passive cooling is based on the transfer of heat by natural means from a building

to environmental sinks, such as clear skies, the atmosphere, the ground, and water The transfer of heat can be by radiation, naturally occurring wind, airflow due to temperature differences, conduction to the ground, or conduction and convection to bodies of water It is usually up to the designer to select the most appropriate type of technology for each application The options depend on the climate type

Adsorption and absorption systems are explained in more detail below

Heat input

Warm-damp Hot-damp

9 Exhaust air8

An adsorbent–refrigerant working pair for a solar refrigerator requires the following characteristics:

1 a refrigerant with a large latent heat of evaporation,

2 a working pair with high thermodynamic efficiency,

3 a small heat of desorption under the envisaged operating pressure and temperature conditions, and

4 a low thermal capacity

H2O–NH3 has been the most widely used sorption refrigeration pair and research has been undertaken to utilize the pair for solar-operated refrigerators The efficiency of such systems is limited by the condensing temperature, which cannot be lowered without the introduction of advanced and expensive technology For example, cooling towers or desiccant beds have to be used to produce cold water to condensate ammonia at lower pressure Among the other disadvantages inherent in using water and ammonia as the working pair are the heavy-gauge pipe and vessel walls required to withstand the high pressure, the corrosiveness

of ammonia, and the problem of rectification, that is, removing water vapor from ammonia during generation A number of different solid adsorption working pairs, such as zeolite–water, zeolite–methanol, and activated carbon–methanol, have been studied to find the one that performed better The activated carbon–methanol working pair was found to perform the best [14] Many cycles have been proposed for adsorption cooling and refrigeration [15] The principle of operation of a typical system

is indicated in Figure 16 The process followed at points from 1 to 9 of Figure 16 is traced on the psychrometric chart depicted

in Figure 17 Ambient air is heated and dried by a dehumidifier from point 1 to 2, regeneratively cooled by exhaust air from

Figure 16 Schematic of a solar adsorption system

Saturation line

Dry bulb temperature

Figure 17 Psychrometric diagram of a solar adsorption process

Rotating desiccant wheel Humid air

Dried air

Air solar collector

Figure 18 Solar adsorption cooling system

point 2 to 3, evaporatively cooled from point 3 to 4, and introduced into the building Exhaust air from the building is evaporatively cooled from point 5 to 6, heated to point 7 by the energy removed from the supply air in the regenerator, heated by solar or other source to point 8, and then passed through the dehumidifier where it regenerates the desiccant

The selection of the adsorbing agent depends on the size of the moisture load and application

Rotary solid desiccant systems are the most common for continuous removal of moisture from the air The desiccant wheel rotates through two separate air streams In the first stream, the process air is dehumidified by adsorption, which does not change the physical characteristics of the desiccant, while in the second stream, the reactivation or regeneration air, which is first heated, dries the desiccant A schematic of a possible solar-powered adsorption system is illustrated in Figure 18

When the drying agent is a liquid, such as triethylene glycol, the agent is sprayed into an absorber where it picks up moisture from the air inside the building Then it is pumped through a sensible heat exchanger to a separation column where it is sprayed into a stream of solar-heated air The high-temperature air removes water from the glycol, which then returns to the heat exchanger and the absorber Heat exchangers are provided to recover sensible heat, maximize the temperature in the separator, and minimize the temperature in the absorber This type of cycle is marketed commercially and used in hospitals and large installations [16]

The energy performance of these systems depends on the system configuration, geometries of dehumidifiers, properties of adsorbent agent, and other factors, but generally the COP of this technology is around 1.0 It should be noted, however, that in hot/ dry climates the desiccant part of the system may not be required

Because complete physical property data are available for only a few potential working pairs, the optimum performance remains unknown at the moment In addition, the operating conditions of a solar-powered refrigerator, that is, generator and condenser temperature, vary with its geographical location [14]

The development of three solar/biomass adsorption air-conditioning refrigeration systems is presented by Critoph [17] All systems use active carbon–ammonia adsorption cycles and the principle of operation and performance prediction of the systems are given Thorpe [18] presented an adsorption heat pump system that uses ammonia with granular active adsorbate A high COP is achieved and the cycle is suitable for the use of heat from high-temperature (150–200 °C) solar collectors for air conditioning

3.13.3.5 Absorption Units

Absorption is the process of attracting and holding moisture by substances called desiccants Desiccants are sorbents (i.e., materials that have an ability to attract and hold other gases or liquids) that have a particular affinity for water During absorption, the desiccant undergoes a chemical change as it takes on moisture; an example we have seen before is table salt, which changes from a solid to a liquid as it absorbs moisture The characteristic of the binding of desiccants to moisture makes them very useful in chemical separation processes [11]

Absorption machines are thermally activated and they do not require high input shaft power Therefore, where power is unavailable or expensive, or where there is waste, geothermal, or solar heat available, absorption machines could provide reliable and quiet cooling Absorption systems are similar to vapor-compression air-conditioning systems but differ in the pressurization stage In general, an absorbent, on the low-pressure side, absorbs an evaporating refrigerant The most usual combinations of fluids include LiBr–H2O, where water vapor is the refrigerant, and NH3–H2O systems, where ammonia is the refrigerant

Absorption refrigeration system is based on extensive development and experience in the early years of the refrigeration industry,

in particular for ice production From the beginning, its development has been linked to periods of high energy prices Recently, however, there has been a great resurgence of interest in this technology not only because of the rise in the energy prices but also mainly due to the social and scientific awareness about the environmental degradation, which is related to the energy generation The pressurization is achieved by dissolving the refrigerant in the absorbent, in the absorber section (Figure 19) Subsequently, the solution is pumped to a high pressure with an ordinary liquid pump The addition of heat in the generator is used to separate the low-boiling refrigerant from the solution In this way, the refrigerant vapor is compressed without the need of large amounts of mechanical energy that the vapor-compression air-conditioning systems demand

The remainder of the system consists of a condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator, which function in a similar way as in a vapor-compression air-conditioning system