(EBOOK) research methods a modular approach

Review of Key Terms 17Module Exercises 17Critical Thinking Check Answers 18Web Resources 18Descriptive Methods 20Predictive Relational Methods 21Explanatory Method 22 Doing Science 25Pro

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S E C O N D E D I T I O N

Research Methods

A Modular Approach

Sherri L JacksonJacksonville University

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Research Methods: A Modular Approach,

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Sherri L Jackson

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10

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To my parents, Kenneth and Eleanor, for all they have done

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A B O U T T H E A U T H O R

SHERRI L JACKSON is Professor of Psychology at

Jacksonville University, where she has taught since

1988 At JU she has won the Excellence in Scholarship(2003), University Service (2004), and TeachingAwards (2009), the university-wide Professor of theYear Award (2004), the Woman of the Year Award(2005), and the Institutional Excellence Award (2007).She received her M.S and Ph.D in cognitive/experimentalpsychology from the University of Florida Her re-search interests include human reasoning and the teach-ing of psychology She has published numerous articles

in both areas In 1997 she received a research grantfrom the Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology

(APA Division 2) to develop A Compendium of

Introductory Psychology Textbooks 1997–2000 She is

also the author of Research Methods and Statistics:

A Critical Thinking Approach, 3rd edition (Belmont,

CA: Wadsworth/Cengage, 2009) and Statistics Plain

and Simple, 2nd edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage, 2010)

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B R I E F C O N T E N T S

PREFACE xxi

C H A P T E R 1 Thinking Like a Scientist 1

C H A P T E R 2 Getting Started 33

C H A P T E R 3 Variables 67

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C H A P T E R 4 Descriptive Methods 93

C H A P T E R 5 Predictive (Relational) Methods 127

C H A P T E R 6 Explanatory Methods 169

C H A P T E R 7 Descriptive Statistics 213

C H A P T E R 8 Inferential Statistics I 259

vi BRIEF CONTENTS

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C H A P T E R 9 Inferential Statistics II 285

C H A P T E R 10 APA Communication Guidelines 319

A P P E N D I X A Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 355

A P P E N D I X B Statistical Tables 371

A P P E N D I X C Excel, SPSS, and TI84 Exercises 386

A P P E N D I X D Computational Formulas for ANOVAs 426

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C O N T E N T S

PREFACE xxi

C H A P T E R 1 Thinking Like a Scientist 1

Areas of Psychological Research 6

Psychobiology 6 Cognition 6 Human Development 6 Social Psychology 6 Psychotherapy 8

Sources of Knowledge 8

Superstition and Intuition 8 Authority 9

Tenacity 9 Rationalism 10 Empiricism 10 Science 11

The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology 12

Systematic Empiricism 12 Public Verification 13 Empirically Solvable Problems 13

Basic and Applied Research 15Goals of Science 16

Description 16 Prediction 16 Explanation 16

Summary 17

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Review of Key Terms 17Module Exercises 17Critical Thinking Check Answers 18Web Resources 18

Descriptive Methods 20Predictive (Relational) Methods 21Explanatory Method 22

Doing Science 25Proof and Disproof 26The Research Process 27Summary 27

CHAPTER ONE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: THINKING LIKE

C H A P T E R 2 Getting Started 33

Reviewing the Literature 37Library Research 37

Journals 37 Psychological Abstracts 38 PsycINFO and PsycLIT 38

Social Science Citation Index and Science Citation Index 42

Other Resources 42

Reading a Journal Article: What to Expect 44

Abstract 44 Introduction 44 Method 45 Results 45 Discussion 45

Summary 45Module Exercise 45Web Resources 45

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Module 4 Ethical Research 46

Ethical Standards in Research with Human Participants 47

Institutional Review Boards 54 Informed Consent 54

Risk 55 Deception 57 Debriefing 57

Ethical Standards in Research with Children 57

Ethical Standards in Research with Animals 58

Summary 63Review of Key Terms 63Module Exercises 63Critical Thinking Check Answers 63Web Resources 64

C H A P T E R 3 Variables 67

Defining Variables 70Properties of Measurement 71Scales of Measurement 71

Nominal Scale 72 Ordinal Scale 72 Interval Scale 72 Ratio Scale 73

Discrete and Continuous Variables 74Types of Measures 74

Self-Report Measures 74 Tests 75

Behavioral Measures 75 Physical Measures 76

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Module 6 Reliability and Validity 80

Reliability 81

Error in Measurement 81 How to Measure Reliability: Correlation Coefficients 82 Types of Reliability 83

Test/Retest Reliability 83 Alternate-Forms Reliability 83 Split-Half Reliability 84 Interrater Reliability 84

Validity 85

Content Validity 85 Criterion Validity 86 Construct Validity 86 The Relationship between Reliability and Validity 87

C H A P T E R 4 Descriptive Methods 93

Naturalistic Observation 96Options When Using Observation 96Laboratory Observation 98

Data Collection 99

Narrative Records 99 Checklists 100

Qualitative Methods 101

Case Study Method 102 Archival Method 102 Interviews and Focus Group Interviews 103 Field Studies 104

Action Research 105 Qualitative Data Analysis 106

Summary 106Review of Key Terms 107

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Module Exercises 107Critical Thinking Check Answers 107Web Resources 108

Sampling Techniques 117

Probability Sampling 117 Nonprobability Sampling 119

Lab Resources 122

CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY AND REVIEW: DESCRIPTIVE

C H A P T E R 5 Predictive (Relational) Methods 127

Magnitude, Scatterplots, and Types of Relationships 131

Magnitude 132 Scatterplots 132 Positive Relationships 133 Negative Relationships 134

No Relationship 134 Curvilinear Relationships 134

Misinterpreting Correlations 136

The Assumptions of Causality and Directionality 136 The Third-Variable Problem 137

Restrictive Range 138 Curvilinear Relationships 139 Prediction and Correlation 139

Summary 140

xii CONTENTS

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Lab Resources 142

Nonmanipulated Independent Variables 144

An Example: Snow and Cholera 145Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs 146

Single-Group Posttest-Only Design 147 Single-Group Pretest/Posttest Design 147 Single-Group Time-Series Design 148 Nonequivalent Control Group Posttest-Only Design 149 Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest/Posttest Design 150 Multiple-Group Time-Series Design 150

Internal Validity and Confounds in Quasi-Experimental Designs 151Summary 152

Lab Resources 154

Types of Single-Case Designs 157

Reversal Designs 157 ABA Reversal Designs 158 ABAB Reversal Designs 158 Multiple-Baseline Designs 159 Multiple Baselines across Participants 160 Multiple Baselines across Behaviors 161 Multiple Baselines across Situations 161

Lab Resources 164

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: PREDICTIVE (RELATIONAL)

CONTENTS xiii

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C H A P T E R 6 Explanatory Methods 169

Control and Confounds 176Threats to Internal Validity 177

Nonequivalent Control Group 177 History 177

Maturation 178 Testing 178 Regression to the Mean 178 Instrumentation 178

Mortality or Attrition 179 Diffusion of Treatment 179 Experimenter and Subject (Participant) Effects 179 Floor and Ceiling Effects 181

Threats to External Validity 183

Generalization to Populations 183 Generalization from Laboratory Settings 183

Lab Resources 185

Within-Participants Experimental Designs 187Matched-Participants Experimental Designs 190Developmental Designs 192

Cross-Sectional Designs 192 Longitudinal Designs 192 Sequential Designs 193

Lab Resources 194

xiv CONTENTS

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Module 14 Advanced Experimental Designs 195

Using Designs with More Than Two Levels of an IndependentVariable 196

Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study 196

Comparing Two or More Kinds of Treatment with the Control Group

(No Treatment) 197

Comparing a Placebo Group with the Control and Experimental

Groups 199

Using Designs with More Than One Independent Variable 199

Factorial Notation and Factorial Designs 200 Main Effects and Interaction Effects 201 Possible Outcomes of a 2 × 2 Factorial Design 204

Bar Graphs and Histograms 217 Frequency Polygons 219

Descriptive Statistics 221

Measures of Central Tendency 221 Mean 221

Median 223 Mode 224

Measures of Variation 225

Range 226 Standard Deviation 226

Summary 230

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Types of Distributions 234

Normal Distributions 234 Kurtosis 234

Positively Skewed Distributions 235 Negatively Skewed Distributions 236

z-Scores 236

z-Scores, the Standard Normal Distribution, Probability, and Percentile

Ranks 239

Correlation Coefficients 247Advanced Correlational Techniques: Regression Analysis 250Summary 251

CHAPTER SEVEN SUMMARY AND REVIEW: DESCRIPTIVE

C H A P T E R 8 Inferential Statistics I 259

Null and Alternative Hypotheses 262One- and Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests 263Type I and Type II Errors in Hypothesis Testing 264Statistical Significance and Errors 265

Parametric Statistics for Two-Group Designs 267Summary 268

xvi CONTENTS

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Module 18 The t Test for Independent Groups 270

t Test for Independent Groups: What It Is and What It Does 271

Calculations for the Independent-Groups t Test 273 Interpreting the Independent-Groups t Test 274

Graphing the Means 276

Effect Size: Cohen s d 276 Assumptions of the Independent-Groups t Test 277

Statistical Software Resources 280

CHAPTER EIGHT SUMMARY AND REVIEW: INFERENTIAL

C H A P T E R 9 Inferential Statistics II 285

t Test for Correlated Groups: What It Is and What It Does 288

Calculations for the Correlated-Groups t Test 290 Interpreting the Correlated-Groups t Test and Graphing the Means 291 Effect Size: Cohen s d 292

Assumptions of the Correlated-Groups t Test 293

Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study 297Analyzing the Multiple-Group Experiment 298

Between-Participants Designs: One-Way Randomized ANOVA 298

One-Way Randomized ANOVA: What It Is and What It Does 299 Calculations for the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 302

Interpreting the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 306 Graphing the Means and Effect Size 307

Assumptions of the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 308 Tukey s Post Hoc Test 308

CONTENTS xvii

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One-Way Repeated Measures and Two-Way ANOVAs 311Summary 311

Lab Resources 314Statistical Software Resources 314

CHAPTER NINE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: INFERENTIAL

C H A P T E R 10 APA Communication Guidelines 319

Writing Clearly 322Avoiding Grammatical Problems 322Reporting Numbers 324

Citing and Referencing 326

Citation Style: One Author 326 Citation Style: Multiple Authors 326 Reference Style 326

Typing and Word Processing 328Organizing the Paper 329

Title Page 329 Abstract 330 Introduction 330 Method 330 Results 331 Discussion 331 References 331 Appendices 331 Tables and Figures 331 The Use of Headings 332

APA-Formatting Checklist 333Conference Presentations 333

Oral Presentations 333 Poster Presentations 335 Summary 335

xviii CONTENTS

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Module Exercises 336Critical Thinking Check Answers 336Web Resources 336

CHAPTER TEN SUMMARY AND REVIEW: APA COMMUNICATION

A P P E N D I X A Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 355

A P P E N D I X B Statistical Tables 371

A P P E N D I X C Excel, SPSS, and TI84 Exercises 386

A P P E N D I X D Computational Formulas for ANOVAs 426

REFERENCES 427

GLOSSARY 429

INDEX 435

CONTENTS xix

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P R E F A C E

This text was written to provide students and instructors with a simpleapproach to learning and teaching research methods One of my writing goals

was to be concise yet comprehensive The text is organized into ten chapters,

each divided into modules The modular format allows students to digestsmaller chunks and allows teachers to enjoy greater flexibility in reading as-signments and class coverage Most modules are brief: 7 to 15 pages inlength However, even using a modular presentation, most of the text is com-prehensive in its coverage of research methods and some statistics Each mod-ule is divided into subsections, which further serve to break the materialdown into even smaller digestible chunks for ease of understanding andassimilation

In addition, I have made every attempt to use a straightforward,

easy-to-understand writing style, presenting information in a simple and direct

fash-ion Because the research methods course is often one of the more difficultones for many students, I also try to write in an engaging, conversationalstyle, much as if the reader were a student seated in front of me in my class-room Through this writing style, I hope to help students better understandsome of the more troublesome concepts without losing their interest andattention

PEDAGOGICAL AIDS

The text utilizes several pedagogical aids at the chapter and modular levels

Each chapter begins with a chapter outline Within the modules are:

A running glossary in the book margin Learning objectives at the beginning of each module

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In Review summary matrices, which are at the end of major subsections

and which provide a review of the subsection s main concepts in a lar format

tabu-Critical Thinking Checks, which vary in length and format, with most

involving a series of application questions concerning the module tion information, that are designed to foster analytical/critical thinkingskills in students in addition to reviewing the module subsection informa-tion (students can thus use the In Review summary after reading a mod-ule subsection and then engage in the Critical Thinking Check on thatinformation)

subsec-Module Exercises, which are at the end of each module and which enable

students to further review and apply the knowledge in the module

At the end of each chapter, there is a chapter summary and review

essentially a built-in study guide consisting of a chapter review, Fill-In Test, Multiple-Choice Self-Test, and Key Terms review Answers to the Criti-cal Thinking Checks are provided at the end of each module Answers to theodd-numbered Module Exercises and all Chapter Review Exercises are in-cluded in Appendix A

Self-Additional study resources, including practice quizzes, chapter-by-chapterflashcards, research methods workshops, and more, can be found on the com-

panion website at www.cengage.com/psychology/jackson.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

In this second edition, the APA manuscript style guidelines have been updated

to bring them in line with the newest edition of the APA style guide (2009)

In addition, learning objectives have been added to each module, the coverage

of the qualitative methods and the survey methods has been expanded andupdated, and the text has been reorganized from seven sections to ten chap-ters Further, there is an additional appendix which shows students how touse Excel, SPSS, or the TI84 calculator to compute the statistics that are cov-ered in the text

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I must acknowledge several people for their help with this project I thank myhusband for his careful proofreading and insightful comments as well asHenry for the encouragement of his ever-present wagging tail Additionally,

I would like to thank those who reviewed the text in its various stages Thereviewers include Dr Ibtihaj Arafat, City College of the City University ofNew York; Dr Eric Bressler, Westfield State College; Dr Bruce J Diamond,William Paterson University and UMDNJ-NJ Medical School; Dr Hyun-Jeong Kim, Rhodes College; Dr Gary McCullough, the University of Texas

of the Permian Basin; Dr Anne Moyer, Stony Brook University; Dr ToddNelson, California State University, Stanislaus; and Dr Frances M Sessa,Penn State Abington

xxii PREFACE

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Special thanks to the team at Wadsworth: Tim Matray, AcquisitionsEditor; Alicia McLaughlin, Editorial Assistant; Sini Sivaraman, Content ProjectManager; Jessica Egbert, Senior Marketing Manager; Talia Wise, SeniorMarketing Communications Manager; Vernon Boes, Senior Art Director; andRoberta Broyer, Permissions Editor Finally, thanks to James A Corrick for hisexcellent copyediting skills.

Sherri L Jackson

PREFACE xxiii

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C H A P T E R 1

Thinking Like a Scientist

Areas of Psychological Research

PsychobiologyCognitionHuman DevelopmentSocial PsychologyPsychotherapy

Sources of Knowledge

Superstition and IntuitionAuthority

TenacityRationalismEmpiricismScience

The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology

Systematic EmpiricismPublic VerificationEmpirically Solvable Problems

Basic and Applied Research

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Goals of Science

DescriptionPredictionExplanation

SUMMARYREVIEW OF KEY TERMSMODULE EXERCISESCRITICAL THINKING CHECK ANSWERSWEB RESOURCES

Descriptive Methods Predictive (Relational) Methods Explanatory Method

Doing Science Proof and Disproof The Research Process

SUMMARYREVIEW OF KEY TERMSMODULE EXERCISESCRITICAL THINKING CHECK ANSWERSWEB RESOURCES

CHAPTER ONE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: THINKING LIKE A SCIENTIST

Welcome to what is most likely your first research methods class

If you are like most psychology students, you are probablywondering what in the world this class is about—and, moreimportantly, why you have to take it Most psychologists and the AmericanPsychological Association (APA) consider the research methods classespecially important in the undergraduate curriculum In fact, along with theintroductory psychology class, the research methods class is required bymost psychology departments (Messer, Griggs, & Jackson, 1999) Why isthis class considered so important, and what exactly is it all about? These

2 CHAPTER 1 Thinking Like a Scientist

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M O D U L E 1

Science and Psychology

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Identify and describe the areas of psychological research

Identify and differentiate between the various sources of knowledge.Describe the three criteria of the scientific (critical thinking) approach.Explain the difference between basic and applied research

Explain the goals of science

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Before answering the two questions above, I will ask you to

complete a couple of exercises related to your knowledge of chology I usually begin my research methods class by asking thestudents to do them I assume that you have had at least one otherpsychology class Thus these exercises should not be difficult

psy-Exercise 1: Name five psychologists Make sure your list does not

include “pop” psychologists such as Dr Ruth or Dr Laura These latterindividuals are considered by most psychologists to be pop psycholo-gists because although they are certified to do some sort of counseling,neither completed a degree in psychology Dr Ruth has an Ed.D in theinterdisciplinary study of the family, whereas Dr Laura has a Ph.D inphysiology and a postdoctoral certification in marriage, family, and childcounseling

Stop reading at this point, make your list, and then read on

Okay, who is first on your list? If you are like most people, you namedSigmund Freud In fact, if we were to stop 100 people on the street andask them the same question, we would probably find that, other than poppsychologists, Freud is the most commonly named psychologist (Stanovich,2007) What do you know about Freud? Do you believe that he representsall that psychology encompasses? Most people on the street think so, and

in fact, they equate what psychologists “do” with what they see pop chologists do and what they believe Freud did That is, they believe thatmost psychologists listen to people and help them solve their problems Ifthis belief represents your schema for psychology, this class should helpyou see the discipline in a very different light

psy-Exercise 2 (from Bolt, 1998): Make two columns on a piece of paper:

label one “Scientist” and one “Psychologist.” Now write five descriptiveterms for each You may include terms or phrases that you believe de-scribe the “typical” scientist’s or psychologist’s appearance, dress,behavior, or personal characteristics

Stop reading at this point, make your list, and then read on

Once you finish this task, evaluate your descriptions Do the listsdiffer? Again, if you are like most students—even psychology majors—youhave probably written very different terms to describe a scientist and apsychologist

4 MODULE 1 Science and Psychology

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First, consider your description of a scientist Most students see thescientist as a middle-aged man, usually wearing a white lab coat with apocket protector The terms for the scientist’s personality typically include

“analytical,” “committed,” and “introverted.” He is regarded as havingpoor people or social skills How do all these characteristics compare withyour description?

Now let’s turn to your description of a typical psychologist Once again,

a majority of students tend to picture a man, although some picture awoman They definitely see the psychologist in professional attire, not in

a white lab coat The terms for personality characteristics tend to be

“warm,” “caring,” “empathic,” and “concerned about others.” Is thisdescription similar to what you have written?

What is the point of these exercises? First, they illustrate that mostpeople have misconceptions about psychologists and psychology In otherwords, most people believe that the majority of psychologists do whatFreud did—try to help others with their problems They also tend to seepsychology as a discipline devoted to the mental health profession As youwill soon see, psychology includes many other areas of specialization,some of which may actually involve wearing a white lab coat and workingwith technical equipment

Why do I ask you to describe a scientist and a psychologist? The

reason is that I hope you will realize that a psychologist is a scientist.

“Wait a minute,” you may be saying, “I decided to major in psychologybecause I don’t like science.” What you are failing to recognize is that what

makes something a science is not what is studied but how it is studied.

Psychology as a science is precisely what we will be learning about inthis course as we study how to use the scientific method to conductresearch in psychology Because the scientific method relies on theuse of statistics, you may have had to take statistics as a pre- or corequi-site to this class In addition, statistics are also covered in this textbecause doing research requires an understanding of how to usestatistics In this text you will learn mainly about research methods;

however, some of the statistics most useful for these methods are alsocovered

Science and Psychology 5

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AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

As noted, psychology is not just about mental health Psychology is a verydiverse discipline that encompasses many areas of study To illustrate thispoint, examine Table 1.1, which lists the divisions of the American Psycho-logical Association (APA) Notice that the areas of study in psychologyrange from those that are close to the so-called hard sciences (chemistry,physics, and biology) to those close to the so-called soft social sciences (soci-ology, anthropology, and political science) The APA has 54 divisions, eachrepresenting an area of research or practice To understand psychology, youhave to appreciate its diversity In the following sections, we briefly discusssome of the more popular research areas within the discipline of psychology

Psychobiology

One of the most popular research areas in psychology today is psychobiology

As the name implies, this research area combines biology and psychology.Researchers in this area typically study brain organization or the chemicals in thebrain (neurotransmitters) Using the appropriate research methods, psychobiolo-gists have discovered, for example, links between illnesses such as schizophreniaand Parkinson s disease and various neurotransmitters in the brain These find-ings have led in turn to research on possible drug therapies for these illnesses

Cognition

Researchers who study cognition are interested in how humans process, store,and retrieve information; solve problems; use reasoning and logic; make deci-sions; and use language Understanding and employing the appropriate re-search methods have enabled scientists in these areas to develop models ofhow memory works, ways to improve memory, methods to improve problemsolving and intelligence, and theories of language acquisition Whereas psycho-biology researchers study the brain, cognitive scientists study the mind

Human Development

Psychologists specializing in human development conduct research on humanphysical, social, and cognitive development This work might involve researchfrom the prenatal development period throughout the life span to research onthe elderly (gerontology) Research on human development has led, for instance,

to a better understanding of prenatal development and hence better prenatalcare, greater knowledge of cognitive development and limitations in children,and a greater awareness of the effects of peer pressure on adolescents

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TABLE 1.1

Divisions of the American Psychological Association

1 Society for General Psychology

2 Society for the Teaching of Psychology

3 Experimental Psychology

5 Evaluation, Measurement, and Statistics

6 Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology

7 Developmental Psychology

8 Society for Personality and Social Psychology

9 Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues

10 Society for the Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts

12 Society for Clinical Psychology

13 Society for Consulting Psychology

14 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology

15 Educational Psychology

16 School Psychology

17 Society for Counseling Psychology

18 Psychologists in Public Service

19 Society for Military Psychology

20 Adult Development and Aging

21 Applied Experimental and Engineering Psychology

22 Rehabilitation Psychology

23 Society for Consumer Psychology

24 Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology

25 Behavior Analysis

26 Society for the History of Psychology

27 Society for Community Research and Action: Division of Community Psychology

28 Psychopharmacology and Substance Abuse

29 Psychotherapy

30 Society for Psychological Hypnosis

31 State, Provincial, and Territorial Psychological Association Affairs

32 Humanistic Psychology

33 Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities

34 Population and Environmental Psychology

35 Society for the Psychology of Women

41 American Psychology Law Society

42 Psychologists in Independent Practice

43 Family Psychology

44 Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Issues

45 Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic and Minority Issues

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Psychologists also conduct research to evaluate psychotherapies Such search is designed to assess whether a therapy is really effective in helpingindividuals Accordingly, researchers ask whether patients would have im-proved without the therapy, or did they perhaps improve simply becausethey thought the therapy was supposed to help? Given the widespread use ofvarious therapies, it is important to have an estimate of their effectiveness.SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

re-There are many ways to gain knowledge, and some are better than others Asscientists, psychologists must be aware of these methods Let s look at severalways of acquiring knowledge, beginning with sources that may not be as reliable

or accurate as scientists might desire We then consider sources that offer greaterreliability and ultimately discuss using science as a means of gaining knowledge

Superstition and Intuition

Gaining knowledge via superstition means acquiring knowledge based on

sub-jective feelings, belief in chance, or belief in magical events Thus you may haveheard someone say, Bad things happen in threes Where does this idea comefrom? As far as I know, no study has ever supported the hypothesis that badevents occur in threes; yet you frequently hear people say this and act as ifthey believe it Some people believe that breaking a mirror brings 7 years ofbad luck or that the number 13 is unlucky These are all examples of supersti-tious beliefs that are not based on observation or hypothesis testing As such,they represent a means of gaining knowledge that is neither reliable nor valid

When we gain knowledge via intuition, we have knowledge of something

without being consciously aware of where it came from You have probablyheard people say things like I don t know, it s just a gut feeling or I don tknow, it just came to me, and I know it s true These statements are exam-ples of intuition

Sometimes we intuit knowledge based not on a gut feeling but on events

we have observed The problem is that the events may be misinterpreted and

48 Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict, and Violence: Peace Psychology Division

49 Group Psychology and Group Psychotherapy

50 Addictions

51 Society for the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity

52 International Psychology

53 Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology

54 Society of Pediatric Psychology

55 American Society for the Advancement of Pharmacotherapy

feelings, belief in chance,

or belief in magical events.

knowledge via

intuition: Knowledge

gained without being

consciously aware of its

source.

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not representative of all events in that category For example, many people lieve that more babies are born during a full moon than at other times of themonth or that couples who have adopted a baby are more likely to conceive

be-after the adoption These are examples of illusory correlation the perception

of a relationship that does not exist More babies are not born when themoon is full, nor are couples more likely to conceive after adopting (Gilovich,1991) Instead, we are more likely to notice babies born after a full moon orcouples who conceive after adopting and to ignore the counter examples

Authority

When we accept what a respected or famous person tells us, we are gaining

knowledge via authority You may have gained much of your own knowledge

through authority figures As you were growing up, your parents providedyou with information that for the most part you did not question, especiallywhen you were very young You believed that they knew what they weretalking about, and so you accepted their answers You probably also gainedknowledge from teachers whom you viewed as authority figures, at timesblindly accepting what they said as truth Most people tend to accept infor-mation imparted by those they view as authority figures Historically author-ity figures have been primary sources of information For instance, in sometime periods and cultures, organized religion and its leaders were responsiblefor providing much of the knowledge that individuals gained throughout thecourse of their lives

Even today, many individuals gain much of their knowledge from ceived authority figures; such knowledge may not be a problem if the figuretruly is an authority However, problems may arise when the perceived au-thority figure really is not knowledgeable in the subject area A good example

per-is the infomercial in which celebrities are often used to deliver the message or

a testimonial about a product Cindy Crawford may tell us about a makeupproduct, or Jessica Simpson may provide a testimonial regarding an acneproduct Do either of them have a degree in dermatology? What do they actu-ally know about dermatology? These individuals may be experts on model-ing, acting, or singing, but they are not authorities on the products they arehelping to advertise Yet many individuals readily accept what they say.Accepting the word of an authority figure may be a reliable and validmeans of gaining knowledge but only if the individual is truly an authority

on the subject Thus we need to question authoritative sources of edge and develop an attitude of skepticism so that we do not blindly acceptwhatever we hear

knowl-Tenacity

Gaining knowledge via tenacity involves hearing a piece of information so

often that you begin to believe it is true and then, despite evidence to the trary, clinging stubbornly to that belief This method is often used in politicalcampaigns in which a slogan is repeated so often that we begin to believe it.Advertisers also use the method of tenacity by repeating a slogan for a prod-uct over and over until people associate it with the product and believe theproduct meets the claims As an example, the makers of Visine advertised for

con-knowledge via

authority: Knowledge

gained from those viewed

as authority figures.

knowledge via tenacity:

Knowledge gained from

repeated ideas and

stubbornly clung to

despite evidence to the

contrary.

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over 40 years that it gets the red out, and although Visine recently changedits slogan, most of us have heard the original so many times that we probablynow believe it The problem with gaining knowledge through tenacity is that

we do not know whether the claims are true As far as we know, the accuracy

of such knowledge may not have been evaluated in any valid way

Rationalism

Gaining knowledge via rationalism involves logical reasoning With this

ap-proach ideas are precisely stated and logical rules are applied to arrive at areasoned and sound conclusion Rational ideas are often presented in the form

of a syllogism Take the exampleAll humans are mortal;

I am a human;

Therefore I am mortal

The conclusion is logically derived from the major and minor premises in thesyllogism

Consider, however, the following syllogism:

Attractive people are good;

Nellie is attractive;

Therefore Nellie is good

This syllogism reflects the problem with gaining knowledge by logic though the syllogism is logically sound, the content of both premises is notnecessarily true If the content were true, the conclusion would be true in ad-dition to being logically sound However, if the content of either premise isfalse (as is the premise Attractive people are good ), then the conclusion islogically valid but empirically false, and it is therefore of no use to a scientist.Logic deals only with the form of the syllogism and not its content Obvi-ously, researchers are interested in both form and content

Al-Empiricism

Knowledge via empiricism involves gaining knowledge through objective

ob-servation and the experiences of the senses An individual who says that

I believe nothing until I see it with my own eyes is an empiricist The piricist gains knowledge by seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching.This method dates back to the age of Aristotle, an empiricist who made ob-servations about the world in order to know it better Plato, in contrast, pre-ferred to theorize about the true nature of the world without gathering data.Empiricism alone, however, is not enough It leads to a collection of facts.Thus, as scientists, if we rely solely on empiricism, we have nothing morethan a long list of observations or facts For these facts to be useful, we need

em-to organize them, think about them, draw meaning from them, and use them

to make predictions That is, we need to use rationalism together with icism to make sure that our observations are logical As we will see, thismelding is what science does

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Gaining knowledge via science then involves a merger of rationalism and

em-piricism Scientists collect data (make empirical observations) and test

hypothe-ses with these data (ashypothe-sess them using rationalism) A hypothesis is a prediction

regarding the outcome of a study Often the prediction concerns the

relation-ship between two variables (a variable is an event or behavior that has at least

two values) By merging rationalism and empiricism, we have the advantage ofusing a logical argument based on observation We may find that our hypothe-sis is not supported, and thus we have to reevaluate our position On the otherhand, our observations may support the hypothesis being tested

In science the goal of testing hypotheses is to arrive at or to test a theory,

which is an organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts toexplain phenomena and how they are related Theories help us organize andexplain the data gathered in research studies In other words, theories allow

us to develop a framework regarding facts For example, Darwin s theoryorganizes and explains facts related to evolution To develop his theory,Darwin tested many hypotheses In addition to helping us organize and ex-plain facts, theories help in producing new knowledge by steering researcherstoward specific observations of the world

Students are sometimes confused about the difference between a sis and a theory A hypothesis is a prediction regarding the outcome of a singlestudy On a given topic many hypotheses may be tested, and several researchstudies conducted before a comprehensive theory is put forth Once a theory

hypothe-is developed, it may aid in generating future hypotheses That hypothe-is, researchersmay pose additional questions regarding the theory that help them to generatenew hypotheses If the results from additional studies support the theory, weare likely to have greater confidence in it However, further research can alsoexpose weaknesses in a theory that may lead to future revisions

IN REVIEW Sources of Knowledge

Superstition Gaining knowledge through subjective feelings,

belief in chance, or belief in magical events

Not empirical or logical

Intuition Gaining knowledge without being consciously

aware of where the knowledge came from Not empirical or logicalAuthority Gaining knowledge from those viewed as

authority figures

Not empirical or logical; authority figure may not be an expert in the area Tenacity Gaining knowledge by clinging stubbornly to

repeated ideas, despite evidence to the contrary Not empirical or logicalRationalism Gaining knowledge through logical reasoning Logical but not empirical

Empiricism Gaining knowledge through observation of

organisms and events in the real world

Empirical but not necessarily logical or systematic

Science Gaining knowledge through empirical methods

and logical reasoning The only acceptable way for research-ers and scientists to gain knowledge

knowledge via science:

regarding the outcome of

a study that often involves

the relationship between

system of assumptions and

principles that attempts

to explain certain

phenomena and how

they are related.

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THE SCIENTIFIC (CRITICAL THINKING) APPROACH AND PSYCHOLOGY

How do we apply what we know about science to the discipline of ogy? As already mentioned, many students are attracted to psychology be-

psychol-cause they think it is not a science The error in their thinking is that they

believe subject matter alone defines what is and what is not science Instead,what defines science is how something is studied Science is a way of thinkingabout and observing events in order to achieve a deeper understanding ofthem Psychologists apply the scientific method to their study of humanbeings and other animals

The scientific method requires developing an attitude of skepticism A

skeptic is a person who questions the validity, authenticity, or truth of

some-thing purportedly factual In our society being described as a skeptic is nottypically thought of as a compliment, but for a scientist it is Being a skepticmeans that you do not blindly accept any new idea being promoted at thetime Instead, the skeptic needs data to support an idea and insists on propertesting procedures when the data are collected Being a skeptic and using thescientific method involve applying three important criteria that help definescience: systematic empiricism, public verification, and empirically solvableproblems (Stanovich, 2007)

Systematic Empiricism

As we have seen, empiricism is the practice of relying on observation to drawconclusions Before the 17th century most people relied more on intuition, re-ligious doctrine provided by authorities, and reason than they did on empiri-cism Most people today would probably agree that the best way to learnabout something is to observe it However, empiricism alone is not enough;

it must be systematic empiricism Therefore simply observing a series of

events does not lead to scientific knowledge The observations must be madesystematically to test a hypothesis and to refute or develop a theory As anexample, if a researcher is interested in the relationship between vitamin C

C R I T I C A L

T H I N K I N G

C H E C K 1 1

Identify the source of knowledge in each of the following examples:

1 A celebrity is endorsing a new diet program, noting that she lost weight

on the program and so will you

2 Based on several observations that Pam has made, she feels sure thatcell phone use does not adversely affect driving ability

3 A friend tells you that she is not sure why, but because she has a feeling

of dread, she thinks that you should not take the plane trip you wereplanning for next week

skeptic: A person who

questions the validity,

order to test hypotheses

and refute or develop a

theory.

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and the incidence of colds, she does not simply ask people haphazardlywhether they take vitamin C and how many colds they have had This ap-proach is empirical but not systematic Instead, the researcher might design astudy to assess the effects of vitamin C on colds Her study would probablyinvolve using a representative group of individuals, who are then randomlyassigned to either take or not take vitamin C supplements She would thenobserve whether the groups differ in the number of colds they report This ap-

proach would be empirical and systematic (We go into more detail on

de-signing such a study in the next module.) By using systematic empiricism,researchers can draw more reliable and valid conclusions than they can fromobservation alone

Public Verification

Scientific research is research that is open to public verification The research

is presented to the public in such a way that it can be observed, replicated,criticized, and tested for veracity by others Commonly the research is submit-ted to a scientific journal for possible publication Most journals are peerreviewed, that is, other scientists critique the research in order to decidewhether it meets the standards for publication If a study is published, otherresearchers can read about the findings, attempt to replicate them, andthrough this process demonstrate that the results are reliable We should besuspicious of any claims made without the support of public verification Forinstance, many people have claimed that they were abducted by aliens Theseclaims do not fit the bill of public verification; they are simply the claims ofindividuals with no evidence to support them Other people claim that theyhave lived past lives Once again, there is no evidence to support such claims.These types of claims are unverifiable; there is no way that they are open topublic verification

Empirically Solvable Problems

Science always investigates empirically solvable problems questions that are

potentially answerable by means of currently available research techniques If

a theory cannot be tested using empirical techniques, then scientists are not terested in it For example, the question Is there life after death? is not anempirical question and thus cannot be tested scientifically However, the ques-tion Does an intervention program minimize rearrests of juvenile delin-quents? can be empirically studied, and thus it is within the realm of science

in-When solvable problems are studied, they are always open to the ple of falsifiability, meaning that a scientific theory must be stated in such a

princi-way that it is possible to refute or disconfirm it That is, the theory must dict not only what will happen but also what will not happen A theory is notscientific if it is irrefutable You may be thinking that if a theory is irrefutable,

pre-it must be really good However, in science, an irrefutable theory is not good.Read on to see why

public verification:

Presenting research to the

public so that it can be

observed, replicated,

criticized, and tested.

empirically solvable

problems: Questions that

are potentially answerable

by means of currently

available research

techniques.

principle of falsifiability:

Stating a scientific theory

in such a way that it is

possible to refute or

disconfirm it.

The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology 13

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Pseudoscience, a claim that appears to be scientific but that actually

vio-lates the criteria of science, is usually irrefutable and is also often confusedwith science As an example, those who believe in extrasensory perception(ESP, a pseudoscience) often make an argument of the fact that no publiclyverifiable example of ESP has ever been documented through systematic em-piricism The reason they offer is that the conditions necessary for ESP to oc-cur are violated by controlled laboratory conditions This argument meansthat they have an answer for every situation If ESP were ever demonstratedunder empirical conditions, they might say their belief is supported However,when ESP repeatedly fails to be demonstrated in controlled laboratory condi-tions, they say their belief is not falsified because the conditions were notright for ESP to be demonstrated Thus, because ESP believers have set up

a situation in which they claim falsifying data are not valid, the theory of ESPviolates the principle of falsifiability

You may be thinking that the explanation provided by the proponents

of ESP makes some sense Let me give you an analogous example fromStanovich (2007) Stanovich jokingly claims he has found the underlyingbrain mechanism that controls behavior and that you will soon be able to

read about it in the National Enquirer According to him, two tiny green

men reside in the left hemispheres of our brains These little green men havethe power to control the processes taking place in many areas of the brain.Why have we not heard about these little green men before? Well, that s easy

to explain According to Stanovich, the little green men have the ability to tect any intrusion into the brain, and when they do, they become invisible.You may feel that your intelligence has been insulted with this foolish expla-nation of brain functioning However, you should see the similarity of thisexplanation to the one offered by proponents of ESP, despite any evidence tosupport it and much evidence to refute it

scientific but that actually

violates the criteria of

science.

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