Academic rigour in science assessment tasks

Reshaping middle years programs has included an emphasis on integrating Information and Communication Technologies ICTs and improving assessment practices to engage students in higher co

ACADEMIC RIGOUR IN SCIENCE ASSESSMENT TASKS

by

Mary Lincoln DipT(BKTC), BEdSt, GradDipEd(TeachLib), GradDipLibSc,

ABSTRACT

The critical problem of student disengagement and underachievement in the middle years of schooling (Years 4 – 9) has focussed attention on the quality of educational programs in schools, in Australia and elsewhere The loss of enthusiasm for science

in the middle years is particularly problematic given the growing demand for science professionals Reshaping middle years programs has included an emphasis on

integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and improving assessment practices to engage students in higher cognitive processes and enhance academic rigour Understanding the nature of academic rigour and how to embed it

in students‟ science assessment tasks that incorporate the use of ICTs could enable teachers to optimise the quality of the learning environment However, academic rigour is not clearly described or defined in the literature and there is little empirical evidence upon which researchers and teachers could draw to enhance

understandings

This study used a collective case study design to explore teachers' understandings of academic rigour within science assessment tasks The research design is based on a conceptual framework that is underpinned by socio-cultural theory Three methods were used to collect data from six middle years teachers and their students These methods were a survey, focus group discussion with teachers and a group of students and individual semi-structured interviews with teachers

Findings of the case study revealed six criteria of academic rigour, namely, higher order thinking, alignment, building on prior knowledge, scaffolding, knowledge construction and creativity Results showed that the middle years teachers held rich

understandings of academic rigour that led to effective utilisation of ICTs in science assessment tasks Findings also indicated that teachers could further enhance their understandings of academic rigour in some aspects of each of the criteria In

particular, this study found that academic rigour could have been further optimised

by: promoting more thoughtful discourse and interaction to foster higher order thinking; increasing alignment between curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, and

students‟ prior knowledge; placing greater emphasis on identifying, activating and

building on prior knowledge; better differentiating the level of scaffolding provided

and applying it more judiciously; fostering creativity throughout tasks; enhancing

teachers‟ content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, and providing

more in-depth coverage of fewer topics to support knowledge construction Key contributions of this study are a definition and a model which clarify the nature of

academic rigour

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Keywords i

Abstract iii

Figures x

Tables xi

List of abbreviations xii

Statement of originality xiii

Acknowledgements xiv

Refereed publications xv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Preamble 1

1.2 Chapter overview 2

1.3 Context of the study 3

1.3.1 International context 3

1.3.2 National context 4

1.3.3 Queensland 5

1.4 Significance 5

1.4.1 Inadequate intellectual demands in middle years programs 6

1.4.2 Limited research on academic rigour 6

1.4.3 ICTs with assessment for learning 7

1.4.4 Academic rigour and challenging tasks 8

1.4.5 Declining student interest in science 8

1.5 Purpose of the study 9

1.6 Conceptual framework and research design 10

1.7 Overview of the document 10

1.8 Chapter summary 12

Chapter 2 Literature review 13

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Middle years of schooling 13

2.2.1 The middle years learner 14

2.2.2 Implementation and effectiveness of programs in America 16

2.2.3 Implementation and effectiveness of programs in Australia 18

2.2.4 Summary 25

2.3 Academic rigour 26

2.3.1 Studies of academic rigour 26

2.3.2 Higher order thinking 31

2.3.3 Alignment 38

2.3.4 Building on prior knowledge 42

2.3.5 Scaffolding 45

2.3.6 Knowledge construction 50

2.3.7 Summary 57

2.4 Assessment 57

2.4.1 Assessment for Learning 57

2.4.2 Summary 63

2.5 Information and communication technologies 64

2.5.1 Teacher use of information and communication technologies 64

2.5.2 Use of information and communication technologies for learning 67

2.5.3 Use of information and communication technologies for assessment 71

2.5.4 Summary 73

2.6 Conceptual framework 73

2.7 Chapter summary 75

Chapter 3 Research design and methods 77

3.1 Introduction 77

3.2 Case study design 77

3.2.1 Appropriateness of case study design for this study 77

3.2.2 Research questions 80

3.2.3 The participants 80

3.2.4 The professional development program 82

3.2.5 The science assessment task 85

3.2.6 Stages of the study 87

3.2.7 The role of the researcher 88

3.2.8 Map of academic rigour 90

3.3 Data collection 91

3.3.1 Surveys 92

3.3.2 Semi-structured interviews 92

3.3.3 Focus groups 95

3.4 Data analysis 100

3.4.1 Three-level process of data analysis 100

3.4.2 Use of criteria for data analysis 101

3.4.3 Cross-case analysis 102

3.5 How data analysis was conducted for each source of data 103

3.5.1 Data analysis of survey 103

3.5.2 Data analysis for concept map and definition 104

3.5.3 Data analysis to address RQ1 105

3.5.4 Data analysis to address RQ2 106

3.5.5 Data analysis of the student focus group discussion 107

3.5.6 Data analysis of the teacher focus group discussion 107

3.6 Issues of quality 110

3.6.1 Trustworthiness 110

3.6.2 Compliance with ethical standards 112

3.7 Chapter summary 114

Chapter 4 Question 1: teachers‟ perceptions 115

4.1 Introduction 115

4.2 Teachers’ group definition and concept map of academic rigour 115

4.2.1 Group definition of academic rigour 116

4.2.2 Concept map of academic rigour 117

4.3 Criteria One: Higher order thinking 120

4.3.1 Higher order thinking for academic rigour 120

4.3.2 Affordances of ICTs for fostering higher order thinking 123

4.3.3 Socio-cultural contexts for fostering thinking with ICTs 127

4.4 Criteria Two: Alignment 129

4.4.1 Alignment helps establish academic rigour 130

4.4.2 Alignment is strengthened through explicitness in task documentation 135

4.4.3 Alignment supports more rigorous use of ICTs in assessment tasks 138

4.4.4 Alignment helps create a challenging but supportive environment 139

4.5 Criteria Three: Building on prior knowledge 145

4.5.1 Building on prior knowledge for academic rigour 145

4.5.2 Identifying and activating prior knowledge 151

4.5.3 Building on different types of prior knowledge 154

4.6 Criteria Four: Scaffolding 157

4.6.1 Relevance of scaffolding for academic rigour 157

4.6.2 The role of the teacher in scaffolding 162

4.6.3 Types of scaffolding 167

4.6.4 ICTs and scaffolding 175

4.7 Criteria Five: Knowledge construction 180

4.7.1 Approaches to knowledge construction in science 180

4.7.2 Active engagement in constructing scientific knowledge 186

4.7.3 Opportunities to be creative in science 188

4.8 Perceptions of academic rigour 191

4.8.1 Using ICTs in assessment 191

4.8.2 Summary of teachers‟ perceptions 192

4.9 Chapter summary 198

Chapter 5 Discussion of results of teachers‟ perceptions 199

5.1 Introduction 199

5.2 Teachers’ perceptions of higher order thinking 199

5.3 Teachers’ perceptions of alignment 202

5.4 Teachers’ perceptions of building on prior knowledge 210

5.5 Teachers’ perceptions of scaffolding 213

5.6 Teachers’ perceptions of knowledge construction 217

5.7 Chapter summary 220

Chapter 6 Results: Collective explication view 221

6.1 Introduction 221

6.2 The case of Alice: Collective explication view 221

6.3 Task design: Building on prior knowledge 224

6.3.1 The importance of building on prior knowledge 224

6.3.2 Intentionally activating prior knowledge 225

6.3.3 Challenging and extending the students 226

6.3.4 Building on various types of prior knowledge 228

6.3.5 Making learning meaningful 229

6.4 Task set-up: Alignment 231

6.4.1 Aligning teaching and learning experiences 231

6.4.2 The task structure 232

6.4.3 Providing a task example 232

6.4.4 Task explicitness 233

6.4.5 Aligned use of ICTs 234

6.4.6 Some alignment to prior knowledge 235

6.4.7 Establishing a positive climate 235

6.5 Task implementation: Scaffolding 236

6.5.1 Scaffolding contributed to academic rigour 236

6.5.2 Collaboration in scaffolding 237

6.5.3 Scaffolding ICTs use 238

6.5.4 Regulating the level of scaffolding 239

6.6 Task completion: Higher order thinking 241

6.6.1 Evidence of higher order thinking 241

6.6.2 Time and effort 241

6.6.3 The use of ICTs fostered higher order thinking 242

6.6.4 ICTs provide a shared focus for collaboration and thinking 243

6.6.5 Limited emphasis on in-depth knowledge of few topics 244

6.7 Task completion: Knowledge construction 245

6.7.1 The identification and explanation of scientific concepts 245

6.7.2 Engaging and actively involving students 247

6.7.3 Evidence of creativity in presenting science knowledge 248

6.8 Chapter summary 250

Chapter 7 Results: Concept application view 251

7.1 Introduction 251

7.2 The case of Emily: Concept application view 251

7.3 Task design: Building on prior knowledge 253

7.3.1 The importance of building on prior knowledge 253

7.3.2 Intentionally activating prior knowledge 255

7.3.3 Challenging and extending the students 255

7.3.4 Making learning meaningful 256

7.3.5 Building on various types of prior knowledge 257

7.4 Task set-up: Scaffolding 259

7.4.1 Scaffolding contributed to academic rigour 259

7.4.2 Role of collaboration in scaffolding 260

7.4.3 Scaffolding use of ICTs 260

7.4.4 Regulating the level of scaffolding 261

7.5 Task implementation: Knowledge construction 262

7.5.1 Knowledge construction contributes to academic rigour 263

7.5.2 The application of scientific concepts 264

7.5.3 Engaging and actively involving students 265

7.5.4 Opportunities to be creative in science 266

7.6 Task completion: Higher order thinking 267

7.6.1 Evidence of higher order thinking 267

7.6.2 Higher order thinking is fostered through effort 268

7.6.3 Higher order thinking with ICTs 269

7.6.4 Limited emphasis on collaboration 269

7.7 Task completion: Alignment 270

7.7.1 Alignment assisted in establishing academic rigour 271

7.7.2 Alignment helped foster a positive climate 271

7.7.3 Task clarity, explicitness and front-ending assessment 273

7.7.4 The aligned use of ICTs 273

7.8 Chapter summary 274

Chapter 8 Discussion of results of case studies 277

8.1 Introduction 277

8.2 Teachers’ enactment of higher order thinking 277

8.2.1 Reflections on higher order thinking 282

8.3 Teachers’ enactment of alignment 282

8.3.1 Reflections on alignment 286

8.4 Teachers’ enactment of building on prior knowledge 287

8.4.1 Reflection on building on prior knowledge 291

8.5 Teachers’ enactment of scaffolding 292

8.5.1 Reflections on scaffolding 296

8.6 Teachers’ enactment of knowledge construction 296

8.6.1 Reflections on knowledge construction 301

8.7 Creativity for academic rigour 302

8.8 Summary of case study findings 303

8.9 Chapter summary 307

Chapter 9 Conclusion and implications 309

9.1 Introduction 309

9.2 Study overview 309

9.3 Response to RQ1: Teachers’ perceptions of academic rigour 310

9.4 Response to RQ2: Teachers’ enactment of academic rigour 310

9.5 Contribution of this study to research 312

9.5.1 Academic rigour 312

9.5.2 Middle years of schooling 315

9.5.3 Assessment and ICTs 317

9.5.4 Methodological technique 318

9.6 Directions for further research 320

9.6.1 Academic rigour 320

9.6.2 Middle years of schooling 321

9.6.3 ICTs and assessment 322

9.7 Implications for professional development 323

9.8 Implications for policy and practice 324

9.9 Limitations of this study 325

9.10 Concluding remarks 327

9.11 Chapter summary 327

REFERENCES 329

Appendix A Glossary 343

Appendix B Initial survey 347

Appendix C Cluster facilitator interview questions 349

Appendix D Interview 1 questions 351

Appendix E Interview 2 questions 353

Appendix F Student focus group questions 355

Appendix G Teacher focus group questions 356

Appendix H Alice‟s assessment task 358

Appendix I Coded excerpt of Emily‟s transcript 364

Appendix J Task template 366

Appendix K Bella‟s assessment task 369

Appendix L Alice‟s Student A‟s video excerpt 376

Appendix M Alice‟s Student A‟s script 377

Appendix N Emily‟s Student A‟s task 383

Appendix O Professional development program 394

Appendix P Emily‟s assessment task 396

Appendix Q Bella‟s Student A‟s self evaluation 405

Appendix R Teacher consent form 409

Appendix S Release of visual images consent form 410

FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework for this study 74

Figure 3.1 Excerpt from a typical assessment task: Bella‟s task 86

Figure 3.2 Map of academic rigour 91

Figure 4.1 Group definition of academic rigour 117

Figure 4.2 Concept map of academic rigour 119

Figure 4.3 Alice‟s diagram of academic rigour 133

Figure 5.1 Continuum of higher order thinking with ICTs 202

Figure 5.2 Preliminary model of academic rigour 219

Figure 6.1 Description of Alice‟s assessment task 223

Figure 7.1 Description of Emily‟s assessment task 253

Figure 7.2 Excerpt from Emily‟s Student A, Year 8 assessment task 265

Figure 9.1 Refined model of academic rigour 312

Figure 9.2 Refined definition of academic rigour 313

TABLES

Table 2.1 Turning Points Original Principles 17

Table 2.2 Turning Points Revised Recommendations 18

Table 2.3 Characteristics of Middle Schooling 19

Table 2.4 Signature Practices of Middle Schooling 21

Table 2.5 Goals for the Middle Years 22

Table 2.6 New Directions for Middle Schooling Reforms 25

Table 2.7 Six Elements of Observational Dimensions 37

Table 2.8 Phases of the Task 49

Table 2.9 Criteria for Academic Rigour 56

Table 2.10 Resources Teachers Depend on for Formative Assessment 60

Table 2.11 Features of Quality Assessment 62

Table 2.12 Conditions for Effective Use of ICTs in Education 72

Table 3.1 Professional Development Program 82

Table 3.2 Participants and Data Collection Methods 98

Table 3.3 Data Collection Methods for Each Research Questions 99

Table 3.4 Description of Data Analysis Process 102

Table 3.5 Research Questions with Data Collection and Analysis Methods 109

Table 4.1 Strategies to Enhance the Use of ICTs in Assessment 192

Table 4.2 Te achers’ Perceptions of Academic Rigour 196

Table 5.1 Teachers’ Perceptions of Higher Order Thinking 200

Table 5.2 Teachers’ Perceptions of Alignment 203

Table 5.3 Guide to Implementing Alignment in Middle Years Assessments 205

Table 5.4 Teachers’ Perceptions of Building on Prior Knowledge 211

Table 5.5 Teachers’ Perceptions of Scaffolding 214

Table 5.6 Teachers’ Perceptions of Knowledge Construction 217

Table 6.1 Alice’s References to Task Criteria 224

Table 7.1 Emily’s References to Task Criteria 252

Table 8.1 Teachers’ Enactment of Higher Order Thinking 278

Table 8.2 Teachers’ Enactment of Alignment 283

Table 8.3 Teachers’ Enactment of Building on Prior Knowledge 288

Table 8.4 Teachers’ Enactment of Scaffolding 295

Table 8.5 Teachers’ Enactment of Knowledge Construction 299

Table 8.6 Summary of Main Findings from the Case Studies 305

Table 8.7 Areas Requiring Further Enhancement 306

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACER Australian Council of Education Research

AARE Australian Association for Research in Education

CSILE Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environment DEEWR Department of Education, Employment and Work Relations DET Department of Education and Training

DETA Department of Education, Training and the Arts

ICTs Information and Communication Technologies

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

The research contained within this thesis has not been previously submitted, in whole

or part, to meet requirements for an award at the Queensland University of

Technology or any other educational institution To the best of my knowledge and belief, the information contained within this thesis has not been previously published

or written by another person, except where appropriate acknowledgement is

provided

Mary Lincoln

in my research

To my husband Brian, I am deeply grateful for your love, continued support, and encouragement to achieve my dreams Thank you also to my wonderful children, friends and family who have been very patient, caring and supportive throughout my journey

REFEREED PUBLICATIONS

Lincoln, M (2009) Aligning ICTs in assessment with teaching and learning:

Enhancing student achievement in the middle years In: Proceedings of the

Biennial Australian Curriculum Studies Association Conference − Curriculum:

A national conversation, 2-4 October 2009, Canberra

Lassig, C., Lincoln, M., Dillon, L., Diezmann, C., Fox, J., & Neofa, Z (2009)

Writing together, learning together: The value and effectiveness of a research writing group for doctoral students In: Proceedings of the Annual Australian

Association for Research in Education International Education Research Conference, 29 November- 3 December 2009, Canberra

Lincoln, M (2008) Higher order thinking through ICTs: What do middle years

teachers think really matters? In: Proceedings of the Annual Australian

Association for Research in Education International Education Conference, 30 November- 4 December 2008, Brisbane

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

From the very first days of the child‟s development his activities

acquire a meaning of their own in a system of social behavior and,

being directed towards a definite purpose, are refracted through the

prism of the child‟s environment (Vygotsky, 1978, p 30)

1.1 Preamble

This study stems from concerns about student disengagement and underachievement

in the middle years of schooling (Years 4 to 9) During this period of schooling students are typically 9 to 14 years old A general decline in enthusiasm for science during the middle years and a decrease in participation in the later years of schooling have been particularly noted in the literature Paradoxically this loss of interest in science is occurring at a time when there is a growing demand for science

professionals (Goodrum, Hackling, & Rennie, 2001; Tytler, 2007) The quality of education and the social and cultural environment provided for students in the middle years may be contributing to this problem, in Australia and elsewhere (Cormack & Cumming, 1996; Hill & Russell, 1999; Jackson & Davis, 2000) Reflections on

research have led to calls for enhancing academic rigour in middle years programs

(Bradley, 1998; Lingard, et al., 2001; Luke et al., 2003) However, academic rigour

is variously defined and not often clearly described in the literature The lack of clarity about the nature of academic rigour may be contributing to the slow progress being made in addressing disengagement and underachievement in the middle years Initially in this thesis, “academic rigour” is used to refer to high quality learning and achievement, commensurate with a student‟s level of ability and development A more comprehensive definition, developed from insights emerging from this study, is provided in the final chapter (see Figure 9.2)

Reshaping the middle years learning environment has included a focus on improving assessment practices and integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to enhance academic rigour and student learning In this thesis, ICTs are

broadly defined as encompassing hardware, associated devices, software programs, and Internet connections which enable production or communication of information and resources Definitions and explanations of terms used in this study are provided

in Appendix A The term assessment with ICTs refers to an assessment task that has

some elements that need to be completed using ICTs The inclusion of ICTs in assessment tasks provides learners with the opportunity to respond to the task in a variety of modes as they interact with various multimedia For example, in creating web pages or developing video productions students can add digital images, sound clips, text, graphs, and other visuals The use of multimedia materials has the

potential to enhance teaching and learning in science (Watters & Diezmann, 2007) However, there is a lack of research evidence regarding how teachers make effective use of ICTs in science assessment tasks in middle years classrooms As teachers‟ knowledge and beliefs play an important role in shaping their practice, this study investigated middle years teachers‟ understandings of academic rigour in the context

of incorporating ICTs in middle years science assessment tasks

The outcomes of this research extend knowledge in three areas: (1) Academic rigour (Braxton & Nordvall, 1985; Graham & Essex, 2001; Resnick & Helquist, 1999), (2) Middle schooling (Felner, Jackson, Kasak, & Mulhall, 1997; Lingard et al., 2001; Luke et al., 2003; Mertens, Flowers & Mulhall, 1998), and (3) Assessment with ICTs (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Chadbourne, Kershaw, Leadbetter, & McMahon, 2006; McCormick, 2004) In particular, this study contributes understandings that could inform subsequent research and discourse on approaches to enhancing academic rigour and improving the learning environments for students in the middle years

1.2 Chapter overview

This chapter introduces the background to this study and provides a general overview

of the thesis The chapter has four parts The first part outlines the context for this study, providing international, national, and local perspectives on middle schooling (Section 1.3) The second part of the chapter discusses the significance of this study, particularly noting issues relating to academic rigour in the middle years and the novel approach used in the investigation (Section 1.4) The third part of the chapter

outlines the purpose of this study which sought to provide insight into the nature of academic rigour (Section 1.5) It also highlights the use of case study design

employed in the investigation (Section 1.6) The fourth part concludes the chapter, providing a synopsis of the further chapters in the thesis (Section 1.7) and a summary

of this chapter (Section 1.8)

1.3 Context of the study

Concerns about student loss of enthusiasm for their learning and underperformance

in the middle years contributed to an increased focus on the quality of their learning environments, both in Australia and overseas (Cormack & Cumming, 1996; Hill & Russell, 1999; Jackson & Davis, 2000; Lingard et al., 2001) Research suggests that

in attempting to address these concerns, schools are providing happier and more supportive environments for students in the middle years, but have made only limited progress in improving student performance (Lipsitz, Mizell, Jackson, & Austin, 1997; Lingard et al., 2001) The middle years of schooling are therefore an area of important focus in education, internationally (Section 1.3.1), within Australia

(Section 1.3.2), and in Queensland (Section 1.3.3)

1.3.1 International context

The emergence of the middle schooling movement has largely been attributed to approaches originating 100 years ago in America Middle schooling approaches gained increased attention from the middle of the 20th century Approaches were further shaped in the 1960s amid claims of inappropriate practices being used to teach young adolescents in the existing system of junior and senior high schools The junior high schools were largely seen to be operationalised as miniature senior high schools Middle schools, for 10 to 15 year olds, were created in an attempt to

mitigate the failures of the junior schools which were perceived to overemphasise teacher-centred and subject-oriented approaches There is some evidence to support the notion that initial middle school programs that were responsive to the specific developmental and instructional needs of young adolescents had a positive impact on improving student performance (Mertens et al., 1998) However, this success does

not appear to have been widespread Although the National Middle School

Association (1995) defined essential middle schooling practices, the process of translating them into developmentally responsive programs, that also enhanced academic performance, was problematic (Mizell, 1995; Norton, 2000) Similar difficulties in implementing middle schooling practices were noted elsewhere,

including in New Zealand and the United Kingdom where a variety of middle school structures have emerged (Dinham & Rowe, 2007) Thus, initial approaches to

implementing middle schooling need enhancement

Critics of middle schooling in America claimed that academic rigour had been

supplanted with an overemphasis on the social, emotional and physical needs of students (Bradley, 1998) New generation programs attempted to address these concerns by adopting a comprehensive holistic approach to implementing middle years reforms, including an emphasis on increased intellectual challenge (Jackson & Davis, 2000) Nevertheless, significant problems remain with concern over a lack of widespread improvement in the overall level of academic achievement of middle years students in America and elsewhere

comprehensive and concerted effort to implementing middle schooling reforms (Hill

& Russell, 1999) A recurring theme in the research literature is the call for a

stronger and more sustained focus on student engagement and intellectual demand Therefore, middle schooling is also a priority in educational policy and practice in Australia However, in Australia, as education is primarily a state responsibility, each state has responded in different ways

Government schools It is underpinned by a focus on improving engagement,

achievement and relationships for middle years students in Years 4 to 9 The Action Plan includes a focus on: improving alignment in the areas of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment; bringing greater consistency and rigour to what is taught; and

achieving greater accountability and reliability in how it is assessed (Lincoln & Davis, 2006) This plan builds on research which recommends a focus on improving pedagogical and assessment practices to engage teachers in achieving higher

intellectual demand (Lingard et al., 2001) Schools began implementing these actions

in 2003, with some local and systemic support However, research suggests that extensive concentrated effort is needed over many years before schools successfully transform reform activities into the core business of teaching and learning in the middle years (Lingard et al., 2001; Pendergast et al., 2005) Hence, further work is needed to address the ongoing problems that persist in the middle years of schooling

1.4 Significance

This study is significant in five ways: it is timely as intellectual demands of middle years programs are argued to be inadequate (Section 1.4.1), it investigates an area in which there is limited research upon which teachers can draw to enhance their

knowledge (Section 1.4.2), it combines innovative uses of ICTs with assessment for learning approaches (Section 1.4.3), and it explores academic rigour using

challenging tasks (Section 1.4.4), in the context of declining student interest in science (Section 1.4.5)

1.4.1 Inadequate intellectual demands in middle years programs

This study is timely as intellectual demands of middle years programs are inadequate and do not appear to be effectively providing middle years students with the learning opportunities they need, both in Australia and elsewhere (Anfara & Waks, 2000; Lingard et al., 2001; Lipsitz et al., 1997) High quality education is needed in the middle years to help equip students with capabilities to engage critically with

existing knowledge and create new knowledge using ICTs (Jonassen, 2000) Given the fast paced growth in the use of ICTs and the increased generation and

dissemination of information, the ability to engage in higher order thinking and to learn will be crucial for students throughout their lives These socio-cultural changes suggest that students in the middle years need learning opportunities that engage, challenge and extend them so that they acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and dispositions to participate effectively in the world around them However, evidence suggests that during the middle years students can be stifled by low expectations and challenges (Dinham & Rowe, 2007) This present research can inform approaches to enhancing intellectual demands in middle years in science assessment tasks that incorporate ICTs

1.4.2 Limited research on academic rigour

There is limited research upon which teachers can draw to enhance their

understandings of academic rigour Teachers‟ understandings are important as research shows that quality teaching can make a difference to students‟ learning outcomes (Hattie, 2003) In addition to having deep knowledge of the nature of academic rigour, teachers also need to have an understanding of the large number of support factors needed to ensure the level of rigour in a student‟s assessment task is maintained throughout the task (Diezmann &Watters, 2002; Henningsen & Stein, 1997) However, there is limited empirical evidence as to what these support factors look like in practice Understanding the nature of academic rigour and how to embed

it in assessment could enable teachers to optimise the learning environment, which in turn should improve student outcomes Furthermore, the views of teachers of middle years students are foregrounded in this research Thus, the study provides empirical evidence upon which teachers could draw in furthering their understandings of

academic rigour and how to establish it in middle years science assessment tasks that incorporate the use of ICTs

1.4.3 ICTs with assessment for learning

The potential for improved learning afforded by the application of innovations in the use of ICTs to current developments in the field of assessment has not yet been fully explored in research (McCormick, 2004) In today‟s globalised society, the relevance

of constructs of time and place has changed as ICTs connect learners instantaneously across virtual spaces Innovative uses of ICTs support learning in groups in which learners are actively engaged in solving problems, communicating, analysing

information and designing solutions collaboratively – all of which relate to higher order processes (Cooper & Maor, 1998; Masters, 2005; Roschelle et al., 2000) Furthermore, Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (1999) suggest that ICTs can enable

“connections to other people who provide information, feedback, and inspiration, all

of which can enhance learning” (p xix) Thus, uses of ICTs as stimulus for

engagement, as tools to support higher order processes, and as enablers of

communication, offer potential for enhanced learning

Developments in the field of assessment emphasise uses of assessment for learning (AfL) Using assessment to promote and enhance learning has been found to lead to improved engagement and instructional practices, which in turn can improve student performance (Black & Wiliam, 1998) While there are various definitions of AfL, it generally represents an approach that views assessment as having more value than mere measurement of achievement (Assessment Reform Group, 2002; Black & Wiliam, 1998) Assessment is used to inform learning rather than being an activity that is implemented only at the end of a complex task to measure the outcomes It emphasises motivating and improving student learning Black and Wiliam (1998) refer to AfL, also known as formative assessment, as encompassing “all those

activities undertaken by teachers, and by their students in assessing themselves,

which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and

learning activities in which they are engaged” (p 2, emphasis is original)

Henceforth, in this present study, Black and Wiliam‟s (1998) definition of AfL is

used However, little is known about what teachers prioritise in combining the use of ICTs with AfL practices in middle years programs and the consequences of their practices for student engagement and learning Hence, this study extends

understandings of approaches to assessment with ICTs that have the potential to enhance learning opportunities in the middle years

1.4.4 Academic rigour and challenging tasks

Exploring how academic rigour is established and maintained using challenging tasks is a novel approach to investigating ways of optimising learning with ICTs in assessment Engaging with tasks that have high relative cognitive value for the learner has the potential to enhance learning The nature of the learning environment and the role of the teacher are important in ensuring that the level of intellectual demand of a task is optimised throughout the task (Diezmann & Watters, 2002; Henningsen & Stein, 1997) For example, an appropriate level of scaffolding is essential for learning because too little scaffolding might cause the learner to become frustrated and give up, and too much scaffolding can reduce the level of cognitive demand However, there is a paucity of research into the learning environments that middle years teachers create and the kinds of practices they employ with challenging tasks This study explores teachers‟ use of challenging tasks from when they are first designed to when they are completed Thus, this research using challenging tasks contributes new insights into how academic rigour can be established and maintained

in middle years science assessment tasks that incorporate ICTs

1.4.5 Declining student interest in science

There is increasing concern about science education in Australia due to the

diminishing numbers of students undertaking science subjects in the post-compulsory phase of schooling (Goodrum, Hackling, & Rennie, 2001; Tytler, 2007) In light of the increasing demand for qualified science professionals, the drop in enrolments in science-related areas at universities has been referred to as a “crisis” Although it is likely that there are various influences impacting on the participation rates in science, there is considerable focus on the quality of teaching and learning in school science

(Dekkers & De Laeter, 2001) However, slow progress has been noted in enhancing the quality of science programs (Tytler, 2007) A lack of consensus regarding the characteristics of engaging and contemporary science curriculum, particularly for students in the middle years, has been highlighted in the literature This study

provides a source of research evidence which could contribute to enriching

understandings of approaches to enhancing teaching and learning in middle years science assessment tasks

1.5 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to describe, analyse and theorise about teachers‟ understandings of academic rigour in relation to middle years assessment with ICTs

In particular, it aimed to develop a comprehensive definition and model to inform discourse on approaches to enhancing academic rigour in the middle years

Additionally, this investigation sought to provide an understanding of how teachers combine the use of ICTs and AfL practices in enacting their views of academic rigour in middle years of schooling classrooms Science was selected as the content area for this investigation because of concerns about students‟ declining enthusiasm for science in the middle years and beyond In order to achieve these goals, two research questions were used to guide the investigation

The research questions are:

RQ1 How do teachers perceive academic rigour in middle years science assessment tasks that incorporate ICTs?

RQ2 How do teachers operationalise academic rigour in assessment tasks that incorporate ICTs in middle years classrooms?

In addressing these questions, this research should contribute new understandings and theorisations of academic rigour, and illuminate ways of embedding it into middle years science assessment tasks with ICTs

1.6 Conceptual framework and research design

The research design used to explore the study‟s research questions is underpinned by

a socio-cultural conceptual framework (Vygotsky, 1978) Social interaction and the use of tools and signs to mediate learning and foster intellectual growth are inherent

to the framework A collective case study design was employed in this research to investigate social interaction (between teachers and students) and tools and signs (ICTs and language) This approach is valuable for gaining in-depth knowledge of specific phenomena, and people‟s beliefs and actions (Merriam, 1988; Stake, 1995) This study was conducted with six teachers from a middle years cluster, five of whom were classroom teachers and the other provided guidance to these teachers Twenty-five students, selected by the classroom teachers, also participated in the investigation The teacher participants were invited to join the study at the end of a seven-month professional development program Three methods were used to collect data from the participants These methods were surveys, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions The data collected were stored in a case study database, coded, and analysed to aid in the development of explanations and interpretations

1.7 Overview of the document

There are eight further chapters in this document Chapter 2 provides an analysis of relevant research and policy published in Australia and overseas in four areas: the middle years of schooling, academic rigour, assessment, and ICTs It also presents a conceptual framework, developed from the analysis of the literature, which

underpins the study‟s approach

Chapter 3 describes the research design, underpinned by a socio-cultural framework

It also presents the collective case study design used in the investigation The chapter then explains the selection of the participants and how the study was implemented using a survey, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions It also describes the data analysis process conducted and addresses issues of ethics and trustworthiness

Chapter 4 presents an analysis of teachers‟ perceptions The results are organised around five criteria for academic rigour that emerged from the data, namely, higher order thinking; alignment; building on prior knowledge; scaffolding; and

constructing knowledge A comparison of teachers‟ perceptions identified two

distinct viewpoints which are further explored in the case of Alice (Chapter 6) and the case of Emily (Chapter 7)

Chapter 5 provides a discussion of teachers‟ perceptions of each of the five criteria for academic rigour It also explains the development of three resources, based on these perceptions: (1) a preliminary model of academic rigour which encompasses all five criteria and elements of each of the criteria that teachers indicated were

important in establishing academic rigour, (2) a continuum of higher order thinking with ICTs, and (3) a guide to implementing alignment in middle years assessment

tasks

Chapter 6 presents the case study of Alice Alice fostered uses of ICTs that

encouraged greater effort for higher order thinking, incorporating social interaction and collaboration She emphasised providing opportunities for her students to

uncover and explain underpinning scientific concepts as they constructed and

extended their knowledge of science In addition, Alice prioritised activities that encouraged creative responses from students in completing their tasks

Chapter 7 presents the case of Emily who emphasised uses of ICTs that she

considered helped stimulate higher order thinking to challenge and extend her

students She created her assessment tasks around the development of specific key science concepts Emily encouraged her students to actively engage in constructing knowledge as they applied those concepts In addition, she fostered some

opportunities for social interaction and creative responses to assessment tasks

Chapter 8 compares and contrasts findings of the cases of Alice and Emily Although both teachers demonstrated rich understandings of academic rigour, there were some

areas in which one or both teachers could further develop their expertise Key areas related to: science content knowledge, strategies to identify and build on prior

knowledge, approaches to differentiating scaffolding, and fostering creativity

Chapter 9 revisits the purpose of this study and discusses the study‟s findings The chapter describes the contribution of this study to research, notably the provision of a definition and model of academic rigour Additionally, the chapter outlines

limitations of the study and provides directions for further research It also identifies implications of the research for professional development, policy, and practice

framework for the investigation and the case study design Finally, it presented an overview of the remaining chapters in the thesis

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews relevant international and Australian literature in four areas of education research and policy The first area is the middle years of schooling which emphasise specific approaches identified with a particular phase of schooling,

namely Years 4 to 9 (Section 2.2) The second area is academic rigour It is argued to

be highly desirable for student learning, yet it is a nebulous term and little is

documented about how to embed it in middle years assessment (Section 2.3) The third area is assessment The discussion focusses on approaches to using assessment for learning (AfL) which can enhance teachers‟ practices and subsequently have a positive impact on student outcomes (Section 2.4) The fourth area is Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) The review of the literature on ICTs suggests that further research is needed to explore potential benefits of its use in education (Section 2.5) The chapter then presents the study‟s conceptual framework developed from the analysis of these four areas of the literature (Section 2.6) It concludes with a summary of the discussion, highlighting how it has informed the approach taken in this study (Section 2.7)

2.2 Middle years of schooling

The middle years of schooling has emerged as an important focus in education in Australia and elsewhere Attention has moved beyond the traditional divide of

primary and secondary education to a partitioning of schooling and curriculum into three phases of learning, early, middle and senior, each with its own priorities

However, various approaches have been taken to implementing middle years of schooling programs This section explores the needs of the middle years learner (Section 2.2.1) and investigates the implementation and effectiveness of middle schooling programs in America (Section 2.2.2) and Australia (Section 2.2.3) It then presents a summary of the discussion (Section 2.2.4)

2.2.1 The middle years learner

Middle years programs need to incorporate approaches that engage and meet the needs of all students (Barratt, 1998; Jackson & Davis, 2000; Pendergast & Bahr, 2005) These needs are diverse because while some students thrive during the middle years, others struggle to meet the demands for more sophisticated skills and lose enthusiasm for their learning Understanding the needs and interests of the middle years learner will therefore be a consideration in determining how to provide an appropriate middle years program Aspects highlighted in the literature emphasise: characteristics of the middle years learner (Section 2.2.1.1), needs and capabilities of the middle years learner (Section 2.2.1.2), and attuning programs to the digital world that students inhabit (Section 2.2.1.3)

2.2.1.1 Characteristics of the middle years learner

Some views of the middle years learner have emphasised developmental

characteristics (Barratt, 1998) This emphasis appears to have stemmed from

concerns about students‟ disengagement and underperformance Suggestions for possible causes of these unsatisfactory outcomes have referred to the rapid growth and social change that students experience during this phase Others suggest that learning environments that overemphasise the social, emotional and developmental characteristics of the middle years are to blame for poor academic performance (Bradley, 1998; Beane, 1999) Rather than viewing this debate as a dichotomy, Bahr (2005) argues that a more productive approach to the middle years is to focus on the learners, their assets and their developmental tasks embracing both the productive elements of classical developmental theories and those of socio-cultural theories Thus, middle years programs need to be responsive to a range of characteristics and attributes

2.2.1.2 Needs and capabilities of the middle years learner

In addition to being cognisant of the characteristics of middle years learners, the distinctive and diverse needs and capabilities of adolescents are also a consideration

in developing appropriate programs (National Middle Schooling Association, 1995) Middle years learners are capable of complex and analytical thinking often reserved for later years of schooling (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989) This highlights the need to provide middle years learners with opportunities to engage in higher order processes Additionally, middle years programs must be equitable and provide these opportunities to learn, and accommodate the needs of all students to lift their performance (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Newmann, King, & Secada, 1996) The needs of the middle years learner have been summarised as:

identity and how it is shaped by individuals within socio-cultural environments; building relationships; being able to negotiate learning opportunities and see a purpose for them; empowerment to respond critically to the world; having multiple opportunities to experience success in learning; and rigour as experienced through taking on learning challenges characterised by high expectations within a safe but

stimulating environment (Barratt, 1998) Accordingly, middle years programs need

to be developmentally responsive, equitable and academically rigorous to address the needs, interests and capabilities of middle years learners

2.2.1.3 Attuning programs to the digital world students inhabit

Students in the middle years require a curriculum that not only responds to their needs, interests and capabilities but also one that considers the nature of the world they inhabit Today‟s students have been referred to as “digital natives” because of the digital era into which they were born and live (Prensky, 2001) Youth today have access to an ever-evolving range of engaging ICTs resources, which many of them use regularly in their everyday lives Recent research, based on telephone interviews with a nationally representative sample of 1,100 teens and their parents in America and a short online survey and focus groups with students from 38 high school and middle schools, indicates that 87% of teenagers use the Internet, with 51% of them doing so on a daily basis (Lenhart, Madden, & Hitlin, 2005) Therefore, middle years programs need to draw on a variety of ICTs resources to engage students and provide them with appropriate learning opportunities (Prensky, 2005) The increasing

emphasis on ICTs also impacts on young people‟s identities, cultural capital,

allegiances, skills and interests that they bring to the classroom (Buckingham 1993,

2000; Cazden et al., 1996) Therefore, the use of ICTs is fundamental to any

curriculum for students of the digital age

Overall, middle years programs need to incorporate approaches that take account of the characteristics, needs, capabilities and interests of middle years students and the digital environment in which they play and learn These considerations need to be addressed in the design and implementation of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment

in the middle years in order to optimise student learning Hence, teachers‟

understandings of these aspects are important in investigating academic rigour in the middle years It is also valuable to examine how effectively our schools are currently meeting this challenge

2.2.2 Implementation and effectiveness of programs in America

Implementation of middle schooling programs that respond to the needs of middle years learners have met with some success, both internationally and in Australia The following discussion critiques American research which has largely influenced directions taken to middle schooling in Australia

Some major American studies have investigated the effects of middle schooling programs on student performance, although generally there is a paucity of empirical data on the effectiveness of middle schooling reforms (Felner et al., 1997; Lee & Smith, 1993) Some limited research has reported positive effects of middle

schooling on student outcomes For example, Felner et al., (1997) conducted a

compressed longitudinal study in 31 schools using a design based on observations of sets of schools in different phases of reform implementation Their transformation progress and outcomes were tracked over time using a framework based on the

“Turning Points” recommendations The principles of classroom practice emphasised

in the Turning Points program are outlined in Table 2.1 Principles emphasised smaller learning communities, staffed by teachers who were expert at teaching

adolescents, and programs organised around a core of common knowledge

Principles also emphasised building mutual respect with families and fostering

partnerships with the community in educating middle years students The study reported that increased student achievement scores were attained in reading and mathematics Furthermore, there was a reduction in school behaviour problems for students in participating schools The study also found that the increase in student achievement was higher in schools which had comprehensively implemented the program

Table 2.1

Turning Points Original Principles

Large middle schools are divided into smaller communities for learning Middle schools teach a core of common knowledge to all students Middle schools are organised to ensure success for all students

Teachers and principals have major responsibility and power for

decision-making

Middle schools staffed by teachers, expert at teaching young adolescents Schools promote good health - education and health are inextricably linked

Families - allied with school staff through mutual respect, trust, and communication

Schools and communities - partners in educating young adolescents

Note Adapted from Jackson and Davis (2000, p 2.)

However, few American studies of other middle years programs have produced empirical evidence to corroborate these findings In contrast, studies generally reported that schools largely became happier places but with little sustainable progress in improving students‟ performance (Lipsitz et al., 1997) Reflection on research findings and lessons learned eventuated in revised recommendations to the program by Jackson and Davis (2000) New directions were grounded in rigorous public academic standards, emphasised fostering higher standards for all students,

and promoted organising efforts and relationships to enhance learning Table 2.2

provides a summary of the revised recommendations However, further research is

needed to explore how effectively these new directions are being implemented and what success they are having in improving student achievement

Table 2.2

Turning Points Revised Recommendations

Teach a curriculum grounded in rigorous public academic standards Prepare all students to achieve higher standards and become lifelong learners

Staff middle schools with teachers expert at teaching young adolescents Organise relationships for learning

Govern democratically, through direct or representative participation Provide a safe and healthy school environment

Involve parents and communities

Note Adapted from Jackson and Davis (2000)

2.2.3 Implementation and effectiveness of programs in Australia

In Australia, there is no single agreed middle schooling approach However, the characteristics identified by Chadbourne (2001) and the signature practices described

by Carrington (2003) emphasise a middle schooling philosophy that takes account of the learning needs and characteristics of middle years students Although

individually many of these characteristics and practices may also be applied to other phases of learning, as a group they have most notably been associated with middle schooling

Table 2.3

Characteristics of Middle Schooling

higher order thinking, holistic learning, critical thinking, problem-solving and life-long learning

students taking charge of their own learning and constructing their own meanings

integrated and disciplinary curricula that are negotiated, relevant and challenging

cooperative learning and collaborative teaching

authentic, reflective, and outcomes-based assessment

heterogeneous and flexible student groupings

success for every student

small learning communities that provide students with sustained

individual attention in a safe, healthy school environment

emphasis on strong teacher-student and student-student relationships through extended contact with a small number of teachers and a

consistent student cohort

democratic governance and shared leadership

parental and community involvement in student learning

Note Adapted from Chadbourne (2001, pp 2-3)

Implementation of Australian middle schooling programs which reflect the

characteristics outlined by Chadbourne (2001) encompass small learner-centred communities in which students feel safe (Table 2.3) They encourage flexible

grouping of students in a supportive environment Ideally, teachers work

collaboratively and encourage cooperative learning Students engage with an

integrated relevant and meaningful curriculum which extends across disciplines, emphasising complex thinking and problem-solving Furthermore, assessment is

underpinned by an outcomes-based philosophy Parents and the community are

encouraged to be involved in students‟ learning Program implementation is

facilitated by organisational structures that enable shared leadership and democratic decision-making processes Thus, Chadbourne‟s (2001) characteristics of middle schooling informed the nature of programs in Australia

Quality practices associated with middle schooling were further informed by the work of Carrington (2003) Her list of signature practices, including an emphasis on the social and academic outcomes, collaborative approaches to teaching and learning, strong teacher-student relationships, integrated curriculum, authentic learning, active student learning environments, and authentic engagement with the larger community, has many common themes with Chadbourne‟s (2001) characteristics However, Carrington (2001) also added an emphasis on incorporating technology, creative use

of space and time, the need for a home-room for students, interdisciplinary teacher teaming, and the deprivatisation of practice (Table 2.4) Hence, programs informed

by Carrington‟s (2003) signature practices further enlighten ways of strengthening approaches to enhancing student engagement and learning in the middle years

Both Chadbourne‟s (2001) characteristics and Carrington‟s (2003) signature

practices are underpinned by a constructivist view of learning Constructivism, which stems from Vygotsky‟s (1978) theory of learning, refers to learning as a social

process whereby students are actively involved in building on their prior knowledge and constructing new meanings Constructivism stresses the need for students to be engaged in learning experiences in which they are intellectually challenged

according to their level of ability (Chadbourne & Pendergast, 2005) Programs underpinned by a constructivist approach to learning incorporate a focus on engaging students in complex thinking, fostering positive learning dispositions, and promoting success in learning for all students Thus, in this present study the researcher was mindful of these middle schooling characteristics and practices, underpinned by a constructivist view of learning, when selecting case study sites

Table 2.4

Signature Practices of Middle Schooling

incorporation of technology

interdisciplinary teacher teaming

creative use of space and time

deprivatisation of practice

strong teacher-student relationships

home-rooms for students

integrated curriculum

collaborative teaching and learning

authentic learning

active student learning environments

concern for social as well as academic outcomes

authentic engagement with larger community

Note From Carrington (2003, p 47)

In addition to Chadbourne‟s (2001) and Carrington‟s (2003) work, a number of other Australian reports have helped shape implementation of middle schooling in

Australia (Barratt, 1998; Chadbourne, 2001; Cormack & Cumming, 1996; Hill & Russell, 1999; Luke et al., 2003) For instance, the study by Cormack and Cumming (1996) highlighted the many complexities in addressing the needs of young

adolescents The study found that a comprehensive holistic approach was the most effective way to combat alienation and generate reforms that were enduring The National Middle Schooling Project (Barratt, 1998) was established to build on this work and the project report set future directions to guide developmental work in this country Consistent with the recommendations of this report, three main goals were developed to move middle schooling into the next stage of reform emphasising the need: (a) for effective responses to the needs of adolescents; (b) for effective

curriculum, teaching and organisational practices to create a stimulating and

challenging environment; and (c) for strengthening support and partnerships (see Table 2.5) However, many schools have not yet successfully moved into the next stage of reform to effectively address these issues

Table 2.5

Goals for the Middle Years

Engaged, focussed and achieving adolescents – To develop an

approach to learning that recognises, acknowledges and responds

effectively to the needs of all young adolescents

Effective curriculum, teaching and organisational practices – To create a stimulating and challenging environment that will enable all students to experience success and to achieve significant learning

outcomes

Genuine partnerships and long term support – To strengthen the links between those with key roles regarding the education and development of young adolescents with a view to generating and sustaining high quality middle schooling practice

Note Adapted from Barratt (1998, pp 34-35)

Research suggests that, in particular, creating a stimulating and intellectually

challenging learning environment has been difficult to achieve in middle years programs (Lingard et al., 2001; Luke et al., 2003) For example, drawing on the work

of Newmann et al (1996), Lingard et al (2001) investigated pedagogies that

contributed to the enhancement of the academic and social performance of all

students The research design was based on backward mapping from student

outcomes to classroom practices, to school organisational capacity, and then to systemic supports Methodology incorporated a combination of interviews, ratings of sample assessment instruments and student assessment pieces, and detailed

classroom observations The study was conducted with students from Years 6, 8 and