Ebook General chemistry The essential concepts Part 1

(BQ) Part 1 book General chemistry The essential concepts has contents: Introduction; atoms, molecules, and ions; reactions in aqueous solutions; stoichiometry; gases; energy relationships in chemical reactions; the electronic structure of atoms; the periodic table,...and other contents.

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General Chemistry

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About the Cover

The cover shows a diatomic molecule being irradiated with

laser light of appropriate frequency As a result, the molecule

is promoted to a highly excited vibrational energy level,

which subsequently leads to dissociation into atomic

species

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General Chemistry

Sixth Edition

Raymond Chang

Williams College

Jason Overby

Th e College of Charleston

TM

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY: THE ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS, SIXTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas,

stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including,

but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States

This book is printed on acid-free paper

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

ISBN 978–0–07–337563–2

MHID 0–07–337563–2

Publisher: Ryan Blankenship

Senior Sponsoring Editor: Tamara L Hodge

Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts

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Cover Illustration: Precision Graphics

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Typeface: 10/12 Times Roman

Printer: R R Donnelley

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chang, Raymond

General chemistry : the essential concepts / Raymond Chang — 6th ed / Jason Overby

p cm

Includes index

ISBN 978–0–07–337563–2 — ISBN 0–07–337563–2 (hard copy : alk paper) 1 Chemistry—Textbooks I Overby,

Jason Scott, 1970- II Title

QD33.2.C48 2011

540—dc22

2009034749

www.mhhe.com

TM

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Raymond Chang was born in Hong Kong and grew up in Shanghai and Hong Kong He received his B.Sc degree in chemistry from London University, England, and his Ph.D in chemistry from Yale University After doing postdoctoral research at Washington University and teaching for a year at Hunter College of the City Univer-sity of New York, he joined the chemistry department at Williams College, where he has taught since 1968

Professor Chang has served on the American Chemical Society Examination Committee, the National Chemistry Olympiad Examination Committee, and the

Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) Committee He is an editor of The Chemical

Educator Professor Chang has written books on physical chemistry, industrial chemistry,

and physical science He has also coauthored books on the Chinese language, children’s picture books, and a novel for young readers

For relaxation, Professor Chang maintains a forest garden; plays tennis, Ping-Pong, and the harmonica; and practices the violin

Jason Overby was born in Bowling Green, Kentucky, and grew up in Clarksville, Tennessee He received his B.S in chemistry and political science from the University

of Tennessee at Martin and his Ph.D in inorganic chemistry from Vanderbilt University

After postdoctoral research at Dartmouth College, he began his academic career at the College of Charleston in 1999

Professor Overby maintains research interests in synthetic and computational inorganic and organometallic chemistry His educational pursuits include inorganic chemistry laboratory pedagogy and the use of digital technology, including online homework, as tools in the classroom

In his spare time, Professor Overby enjoys cooking, computers, and spending time with his family

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1 Introduction 1

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 320

Appendix  Units for the Gas Constant A-1

Appendix  Selected Th ermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-2

Appendix  Mathematical Operations A-6

Appendix  Th e Elements and the Derivation of Th eir Names and

Symbols A-9

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C ONTENTS

List of Animations xiv Preface xv

A Note to the Student xxii

Introduction 1

1.1 Th e Study of Chemistry 2

1.2 Th e Scientifi c Method 2

1.3 Classifi cations of Matter 4

1.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 7

1.5 Measurement 8

1.6 Handling Numbers 13

1.7 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems 18

Key Equations 22 Summary of Facts and Concepts 22 Key Words 23

Questions and Problems 23

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 29

2.1 Th e Atomic Th eory 30

2.2 Th e Structure of the Atom 31

2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes 36

2.4 Th e Periodic Table 38

2.5 Molecules and Ions 39

2.6 Chemical Formulas 41

2.7 Naming Compounds 44

2.8 Introduction to Organic Compounds 52

Summary of Facts and Concepts 53 Key Words 54

Stoichiometry 60

3.1 Atomic Mass 61

3.2 Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element 62

3.3 Molecular Mass 66

3.4 Th e Mass Spectrometer 68

3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds 70

3.6 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas 72

3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 75

3.8 Amounts of Reactants and Products 79

3.9 Limiting Reagents 83

C H A P T E R

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viii Contents

3.10 Reaction Yield 86

Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 97

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 98

4.2 Precipitation Reactions 100

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 109

4.5 Concentration of Solutions 118

5.1 Substances Th at Exist as Gases 137

5.4 Th e Ideal Gas Equation 146

5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 152

5.6 Th e Kinetic Molecular Th eory of Gases 157

5.7 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 164

Energy Relationships in Chemical Reactions 176

6.1 Th e Nature of Energy and Types

of Energy 177

6.2 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 178

6.3 Introduction to Th ermodynamics 179

6.4 Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions 185

6.6 Standard Enthalpy of Formation

and Reaction 196

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Contents ix

of Atoms 211

7.1 From Classical Physics to Quantum Th eory 212

7.2 Th e Photoelectric Eff ect 216

7.3 Bohr’s Th eory of the Hydrogen Atom 218

7.4 Th e Dual Nature of the Electron 222

7.8 Electron Confi guration 232

7.9 Th e Building-Up Principle 239

8.1 Development of the Periodic Table 252

8.2 Periodic Classifi cation of the Elements 253

8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties 256

8.5 Electron Affi nity 266

8.6 Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative

Elements 268

Key Equation 278 Summary of Facts and Concepts 278 Key Words 279

Covalent Bond 285

9.3 Lattice Energy of Ionic Compounds 289

9.7 Formal Charge and Lewis Structure 300

9.8 Th e Concept of Resonance 303

9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 305

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x Contents

Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 320

10.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 336

10.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and

Triple Bonds 345

10.6 Molecular Orbital Th eory 348

Introduction to Organic Chemistry 363

11.1 Classes of Organic Compounds 364

11.4 Chemistry of the Functional Groups 382

11.5 Chirality—Th e Handedness of Molecules 389

Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids 399

12.1 Th e Kinetic Molecular Th eory of Liquids and Solids 400

12.3 Properties of Liquids 407

Physical Properties of Solutions 436

13.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process 437

13.4 Eff ect of Temperature on Solubility 443

13.5 Eff ect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases 445

13.6 Colligative Properties 447

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HO O

O N H

CH 3

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Contents xi

14.1 Th e Rate of a Reaction 467

14.3 Relation Between Reactant Concentrations

and Time 475

14.4 Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence

of Rate Constants 483

15.1 Th e Concept of Equilibrium 511

15.2 Ways of Expressing Equilibrium Constants 514

15.3 What Does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us? 521

15.4 Factors Th at Aff ect Chemical Equilibrium 526

Acids and Bases 544

16.1 Brønsted Acids and Bases 545

16.2 Th e Acid-Base Properties of Water 546

16.4 Strength of Acids and Bases 551

16.5 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants 555

16.6 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants 566

16.7 Th e Relationship Between Conjugate Acid-Base

Ionization Constants 569

16.8 Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids 570

16.9 Acid-Base Properties of Salts 573

16.10 Acidic, Basic, and Amphoteric Oxides 579

16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases 581

C H A P T E R

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xii Contents

Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 590

17.1 Homogeneous Versus Heterogeneous Solution

Equilibria 591

17.3 A Closer Look at Acid-Base Titrations 597

17.5 Solubility Equilibria 606

17.6 Th e Common Ion Eff ect and Solubility 613

17.7 Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility 614

17.8 Application of the Solubility Product Principle

to Qualitative Analysis 617

18.1 Th e Th ree Laws of Th ermodynamics 629

18.4 Th e Second Law of Th ermodynamics 635

18.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium 647

18.7 Th ermodynamics in Living Systems 651

Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry 661

19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials 667

19.4 Th ermodynamics of Redox Reactions 673

19.5 Th e Eff ect of Concentration on Cell Emf 676

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Contents xiii

20.1 Properties of the Transition Metals 704

20.3 Geometry of Coordination Compounds 713

20.4 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field

Th eory 715

20.5 Reactions of Coordination Compounds 721

20.6 Coordination Compounds in Living Systems 721

21.1 Th e Nature of Nuclear Reactions 729

21.8 Biological Eff ects of Radiation 753

Organic Polymers—Synthetic and Natural 761

22.1 Properties of Polymers 762

22.2 Synthetic Organic Polymers 762

Appendix 1 Units for the Gas Constant A-1

Appendix 2 Selected Th ermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-2

Appendix 3 Mathematical Operations A-6

Appendix 4 Th e Elements and the Derivation of Th eir Names and

Symbols A-9

Credits C-1

Index I-1

C H A P T E R

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The animations listed below are correlated to General Chemistry within each chapter in two ways The fi rst

is the Student Interactive Activities found in the opening pages of every chapter Then within the chapter are icons letting the student and the instructor know that an animation is available for a specifi c topic and

where to fi nd the animation for viewing on our Chang General Chemistry ARIS website.

Chang Animations

Absorption of color (20.4)

Acid-base titrations (17.3)

Acid ionization (16.5)

Activation energy (14.4)

Alpha, beta, and gamma rays (2.2)

Alpha-particle scattering (2.2)

Atomic and ionic radius (8.3)

Base ionization (16.6)

Buffer solutions (17.2)

Catalysis (14.6)

Cathode ray tube (2.2)

Chemical equilibrium (15.1)

Chirality (11.5)

Collecting a gas over water (5.5)

Diffusion of gases (5.6)

Dissolution of an ionic and a covalent compound (13.2)

Electron confi gurations (7.8)

Emission spectra (7.3)

Equilibrium vapor pressure (12.6)

Formal charge calculations (9.7)

Galvanic cells (19.2)

Gas laws (5.3)

Heat fl ow (6.4)

Hybridization (10.4)

Hydration (4.1)

Ionic versus covalent bonding (9.4)

Le Châtelier’s principle (15.4)

Limiting reagent (3.9)

Making a solution (4.5)

Millikan oil drop (2.2)

Neutralization reactions (4.3)

Nuclear fi ssion (21.5)

Orientation of collision (14.4)

Osmosis (13.6)

Oxidation-reduction reactions (4.4)

Packing spheres (12.4)

Polarity of molecules (10.2)

Precipitation reactions (4.2)

Preparing a solution by dilution (4.5)

Radioactive decay (21.3) Resonance (9.8)

Sigma and pi bonds (10.5) Strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes (4.1)

VSEPR (10.1)

McGraw-Hill Animations

Atomic line spectra (7.3)

Charles’ law (5.3)

Cubic unit cells and their origins (12.4) Dissociation of strong and weak acids (16.5)

Dissolving table salt (4.1) Electronegativity (9.3) Equilibrium (15.1) Exothermic and endothermic reactions (6.2) Formal charge calculations (9.5)

Formation of an ionic compound (9.3) Formation of the covalent bond in H2 (10.4) Half-life (14.3)

Infl uence of shape on polarity (10.2) Law of conservation of mass (2.1) Molecular shape and orbital hybridization (10.4) Nuclear medicine (21.7)

Operation of voltaic cell (19.2) Oxidation-reduction reaction (4.4 & 19.1) Phase diagrams and the states of matter (12.7) Reaction rate and the nature of collisions (14.4) Three states of matter (1.3)

Using a buffer (17.2) VSEPR theory and the shapes of molecules (10.1)

Simulations

Stoichiometry (Chapter 3) Ideal gas law (Chapter 5) Kinetics (Chapter 14) Equilibrium (Chapter 15) Titration (Chapter 17) Electrochemistry (Chapter 19) Nuclear (Chapter 21)

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