Introduction to management 13th schemerhorn bachrach chapter 16

Individual Needs and MotivationHierarchy of needs theory  Developed by Abraham Maslow  Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes  Lower-order needs:

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Chapter 16 Motivation Theory and Practice

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Planning Ahead —Key Takeaways

 Explain theories of how individual needs motivate behavior

 Identify the influences of expectancy, equity, goal-setting, and self-efficacy

processes on motivation

 Discuss the roles reinforcement principles and strategies play in motivation.

 Explain how job designs and alternative work schedules influence motivation.

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Chapter 16 Outline

1 Individual Needs and Motivation

a) Hierarchy of needs theory

b) ERG theory

c) Two-factor theory

d) Acquired needs theory

2 Process Theories of Motivation

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Individual Needs and Motivation

Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level,

direction, and persistence of effort expended at work

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Needs

 Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual

 Explain workplace behavior and attitudes

 Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior

 Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction

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Hierarchy of needs theory

 Developed by Abraham Maslow

 Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes

 Lower-order needs:

 Higher-order needs:

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Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs

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Hierarchy of needs theory

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ERG theory

 Developed by Clayton Alderfer

 Three need levels

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Two-factor theory

 Developed by Frederick Herzberg

 Hygiene factors:

 Satisfier factors:

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Figure 16.2 Elements in Herzberg’s two-factor theory

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Acquired needs theory

 Developed by David McClelland

 People acquire needs through their life experiences

 Needs that are acquired:

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 Need for Achievement (nAch)

complex tasks

 People high in (nAch) prefer work that:

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 Need for Power (nPower)

other people

 People high in (nPower) prefer work that:

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 Need for Affiliation (nAff)

 People high in (nAff) prefer work that:

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Process Theories of Motivation

 Process theories of motivation …

 How people make choices to work hard or not

 Choices are based on:

 Types of process theories:

 Equity theory

 Expectancy theory

 Goal-setting theory

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Equity theory

 Developed by J Stacy Adams

 When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to

others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation

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Figure 16.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison

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Equity and social comparison

 People compare their ratio of outcomes-to-inputs to the outcomes-to-inputs

ratio of another (a referent)

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– Over-reward inequity (positive inequity) occurs when an individual

perceives that rewards received are more than what is fair for work

inputs

– Under-reward inequity (negative inequity) occurs when an individual perceives that rewards received are less than what is fair for work inputs

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Managerial implications of equity theory—

 Gender equity

 Comparable worth

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 Expectancy theory

Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance

Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards

Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes

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Figure 16.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation

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Expectancy theory

– Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:

Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low

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Managerial implications of expectancy theory

 To maximize expectancy, managers should:

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Managerial implications of expectancy theory

 To maximize instrumentality, managers should:

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Managerial implications of expectancy theory

 To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:

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Goal-setting theory

 Developed by Edwin Locke

 Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating

 Motivational effects of task goals:

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 Goal-setting theory

 Participation in goal setting

support exist

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Self-Efficacy Theory

 a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

 Capability directly affects motivation

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 high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation

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Reinforcement Theory

Fundamentals of reinforcement theory

 Focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior

 Law of effect — behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be

repeated: behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not

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Operant conditioning:

 Developed by B.F Skinner

 Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences

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Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on

 Law of contingent reinforcement —

 Law of immediate reinforcement —

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 Schedules of reinforcement:

approximations to it

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Guidelines for using punishment:

 Tell the person what is being done wrong

 Tell the person what is being done right

 Match the punishment to the behavior

 Administer punishment in private

 Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement

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Figure 16.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management

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Motivation and Job Design

Job design

 The process of arranging work tasks for individuals and groups

 Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result

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Job simplification

 Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and

highly specialized tasks

 Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth

 Automation

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Job rotation and job enlargement:

 Expands job scope

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Job enrichment

 Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content

 Increases job depth by adding work planning duties normally performed by a

supervisor

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Focuses attention on the extent to which five core job characteristics are present in a job:

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Figure 16.6 Job design essentials using the job characteristics model

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How to improve core job characteristics:

 Form natural units of work

 Combine tasks

 Establish client relationships

 Open feedback channels

 Practice vertical loading

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Alternative Work Schedules: Flexible working hours

 Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their

daily work hours

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Potential benefits of flexible working hours:

 People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while ensuring maintenance

of work responsibilities

 Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work

responsibilities

 Worker morale may be improved

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Alternative Work Schedules: Compressed workweek

 Allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of

8-hour shifts

potentially improved performance

problems

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Alternative Work Schedules: Job sharing

 One full-time job is split between two or more persons

 Potential advantages of job sharing: organizations benefit by employing

talented people who are unable/unwilling to commit full-time

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Alternative Work Schedules: Telecommuting

 A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be

completed outside of the office

 Hoteling

 Virtual offices

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 Potential advantages of telecommuting:

 Freedom from

 Increased productivity

 Fewer distractions

 Being one’s own boss

 Having more personal time

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Motivation and Job Design?

Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:

 Working too much

 Having less personal time

 Difficulty in separating work and personal life

 Less time for family

 Feelings of isolation

 Loss of visibility for promotion

 Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees

from a distance

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 Contingency workers

 Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term

basis

 Part-time work

 Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and

does not qualify person as a full-time employee

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Implications of part-time work:

 Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and dealing with

cyclical labor demands

 Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive

 Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe

benefits

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