In more general terms, the noun may be taken to be a name of something that is viewed as substance or an object.The morphological characteristics of nouns include two catego- ries: the c
Trang 1A New University English Grammar
Êðăììằỉíă ñîđðờởíîêî ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă
Ó÷ơâíỉí ôịÿ ñòóôởòîđ óíỉđơðñỉòơòîđ
Ôỉịîịîêỉ÷ơñíỉĩ ôăíóịüòơò ÑÏâÊÓ
Ñăííò-ÏơòơðâóðêÌîñíđă
Trang 2A New University English Grammar = Êðăììằỉíă
ñî-đðờởíîêî ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă: Ó÷ơâíỉí ôịÿ ñòóôởòîđ
óíỉđơðñỉòơòîđ / Ăđòîðû: Î Đ Ơìơịüÿíîđă, Ă Đ
Ìơịởùỉ-íîđ, Ơ Ñ Ïơòðîđă ỉ ôð.; Îòđ ðơô.: Ă Đ ÌơịởùỉÌơịởùỉ-íîđ,
Ơ Ñ Ïơòðîđă – ÑÏâ.: Ôỉịîịîêỉ÷ơñíỉĩ ôăí-ò ÑÏâÊÓ; Ì.:
Ỉìôằơịüñíỉĩ öởòð «Ăíăôờỉÿ», 2003 — 640 ñ
ISBN 5-8465-0152-4 (Ôỉịîị ôăí-ò ÑÏâÊÓ)
ISBN 5-7695-????-? (Ỉìô öởòð «Ăíăôờỉÿ»)
Ôăííăÿ óíỉđơðñỉòơòñíăÿ êðăììằỉíă ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă, ñîñòîÿùăÿ ỉì
ôđóõ òîìîđ, ÿđịÿơòñÿ ó÷ơâíỉíîì íîđîêî òỉïă Đîïðîñû ïðăíòỉ÷ơñíîêî óìóñă
(Textbook) ðăññìằðỉđăþòñÿ ñ ïîìỉöỉĩ ñîđðờởíîĩ ịỉíêđỉñòỉíỉ Îòìơ÷ăþòñÿ
ìíîêỉơ ÿđịởỉÿ ìîðôîịîêỉỉ ỉ ñỉíòăíñỉñă, ôî ñỉõ ïîð íơ ïîịó÷ỉđøỉơ
ăôơí-đằíîêî îïỉñăíỉÿ, ă òăíươ ðăìịỉ÷ỉÿ ìơưôó âðỉòăíñíỉì ỉ ăìơðỉíăíñíỉì
đă-ðỉăíòăìỉ ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă Óïðăửởỉÿ (Exercises) îðỉởòỉðîđăíû íă
ñî-đðờởíîơ ñîñòîÿíỉơ ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă ỉ ñîñòăđịởû đ ñîîòđơòñòđỉỉ ñ
òðơ-âîđăíỉÿìỉ îòơ÷ơñòđởíîĩ ỉ ìăðóâơửîĩ ìơòîôỉíỉ ïðớîôăđăíỉÿ ỉ
òơñòỉðîđă-íỉÿ ÿìûíîđûõ ìíăíỉĩ Ó÷ơâíỉí íăïỉñăí íă ăíêịỉĩñíîì ÿìûíơ.
Ôịÿ ịỉö, ïðîôơññỉîíăịüíî ìăíỉìăþùỉõñÿ ăíêịỉĩñíỉì ÿìûíîì:
ñòóôở-òîđ-ôỉịîịîêîđ, ăñïỉðăíòîđ, ïðớîôăđằơịơĩ.
ÓÔÍ 802.0 (075.8)
ÂÂÍ 81.2 Ăíêị
Ă 11
Ă đ ò î ð û: Î Đ Ơìơịüÿíîđă (÷ 1, êị 1, 2; ÷ 2, êị 1, 2), Ă Đ Ìơịởùỉíîđ
(÷ 1, êị 6, 9; ÷ 2, êị 6, 9), Ă Ă Ìăñịởíỉíîđă (÷ 1, êị 11; ÷ 2, êị 11),
Ă Ê Ìỉí÷ởíîđ (÷ 1, êị 10; ÷ 2, êị 10), Ơ Ñ Ïơòðîđă (÷ 1, êị 3, 4, 15; ÷ 2,
êị 3, 4, 15), Ă Ì Ïîòîöíỉĩ (÷ 1, êị 7, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3; ÷ 2, êị 7, 14),
Ñ Đ Ñỉịỉíñíỉĩ (÷ 1, êị 13; ÷ 2, êị 13), Þ Ï Òðơòüÿíîđ (÷ 1, êị 8; ÷ 2,
êị 8), Ơ Ê Õîìÿíîđă (÷ 1, êị 5, 14.4)
Î ò đ ơ ò ñ ò đ ơ í í û ơ ð ơ ô ă í ò î ð û: Ă Đ Ìơịởùỉíîđ, Ơ Ñ Ïơòðîđă
Í î í ñ ó ị ü ò ă í ò: Ï Ôữóíì
Í î î ð ô ỉ í ă ò î ð ï ð î ơ í ò ă: Ơ Ê Õîìÿíîđă
Ð ơ ö ơ í ì ơ í ò û:
ô-ð ôỉịîị íẳí ïðîô Ò Ï Òðơòüÿíîđă (Ñ.-Ïơòơðâ êîñ óí-ò),
ô-ð ôỉịîị íẳí ïðîô Î Ơ Ôỉịỉìîíîđă (Ðîñ êîñ ïơô óí-ò ỉì Ă Ỉ Êơðöởă)
ISBN 5-8465-0152-4
ISBN 5-????-????-?
© Ă.Đ Ìơịởùỉíîđ, Ơ.Ñ Ïơòðîđă, Î.Đ Ơìơịüÿíîđă ỉ ôð., 2003
© Ôỉịîịîêỉ÷ơñíỉĩ ôăí-ò ÑÏâÊÓ, 2003
© Ỉìôằơịüñíỉĩ öởòð «Ăíăôờỉÿ», 2003
© Ñ Đ Ịơâơôỉíñíỉĩ, îôîðìịởỉơ, 2003
ÓÔÍ 802.0(075.8) ÂÂÍ 81.2 Ăíêị
Ă 11
CONTENS
ÏÐƠÔỈÑỊÎĐỈƠ 9
T E X T B O O K Part I MORPHOLOGY 13
1 NOUNS 13
1.1 Definition 13
1.2 Semantic Classification of Nouns 14
1.3 Morphological Structure of the Noun 15
1.4 Syntactic Functions of the Noun 16
1.5 Grammatical Categories of the Noun 18
1.5.1 The Category of Number 18
1.5.2 The Category of Case 28
1.5.3 Gender 34
2 ARTICLES 38
2.1 Articles with Common Nouns 38
2.1.1 The Use of Articles with Concrete Count Nouns 38
2.1.2 The Use of Articles with Abstract Nouns 52
2.1.3 The Use of Articles with Concrete Non-Count Nouns 56
2.1.4 The Use of Articles with Predicative and Appositive Nouns 58
2.1.5 The Use of Articles in some Set Expressions 60
2.1.6 The Use of Articles with some Semantic Groups of Nouns 62
2.1.7 The Place of Articles 66
2.1.8 Leaving out Articles 67
2.2 Articles with Proper Nouns 68
2.2.1 Personal Names 68
2.2.2 Geographical Names 69
2.2.3 Calendar Items 71
2.2.4 The Use of Articles with Miscellaneous Proper Names 71
Trang 33 PRONOUNS 74
3.1 Meaning of Pronouns 74
3.2 Morphological Structure of Pronouns 74
3.3 Syntactic Functions of Pronouns 75
3.4 Grammatical and Lexical Categories of Pronouns 76
3.4.1 The Category of Person 76
3.4.2 The Category of Number 76
3.4.3 The Category of Case 77
3.4.4 The Category of Gender 79
3.5 Personal (Central) Pronouns 80
3.5.1 Personal Pronouns Proper 80
3.5.2 Personal Possessive Pronouns 91
3.5.3 Personal Reflexive Pronouns 94
3.6 Demonstrative Pronouns 100
3.6.1 Demonstratives in Situational Reference 101
3.6.2 Demonstratives in Discourse 103
3.7 Indefinite Pronouns 104
3.7.1 Indefinite Pronouns Proper 104
3.7.2 Compound Pronouns 112
3.7.3 Negative Pronouns 118
3.7.4 Distributive Pronouns 121
3.8 Reciprocal Pronouns 130
3.9 Interrogative / Relative Pronouns 131
4 NUMERALS 137
4.1 Meaning of Numerals 137
4.2 Morphological Structure of Numerals 138
4.3 Syntactic Functions of Numerals 141
4.4 Uses of Numerical Expressions 142
4.4.1 Year Dates Date Abbreviations 143
4.4.2 Time Expressions 144
4.4.3 Age Expressions 145
4.4.4 Currency Statements 145
4.4.5 Vulgar (Simple) Fractions and Decimals 146
4.4.6 Simple Calculations 146
4.5 Cross-Cultural Variation 147
4.6 Set Expressions with Numerals 149
5 VERBS 151
5.1 Semantic Classification of Verbs 151
5.2 Morphological Structure of Verbs 152
5.3 Syntactic Functions of Verbs 153
5.4 The Verb Phrase 154
5.5 Verbal Categories 160
6 TENSE AND ASPECT 164
6.1 Present Tenses 165
6.1.1 The Present Simple Tense 165
6.1.2 The Present Progressive Tense 169
6.1.3 The Present Perfect Tense 172
6.1.4 The Present Perfect Progressive Tense 176
6.2 Past Tenses 179
6.2.1 The Past Simple Tense 179
6.2.2 The Past Progressive Tense 182
6.2.3 The Past Perfect Tense 185
6.2.4 The Past Perfect Progressive Tense 190
6.3 Future Tenses 191
6.3.1 The Future Simple Tense 191
6.3.2 The Future Progressive Tense 193
6.3.3 The Future Perfect Tense 194
6.3.4 The Future Perfect Progressive Tense 195
6.3.5 Other Ways of Expressing Future Time 195
6.3.6 The Sequence of Tenses 197
7 THE PASSIVE VOICE 199
7.1 The Formation of the Passive Voice 199
7.2 Uses of the Passive Voice 200
7.2.1 The Appropriateness of the Passive Voice 200
7.2.2 Verbs that are Used in the Passive Voice 200
8 MOOD AND MODALITY 207
8.1 The Indicative Mood 207
8.2 The Imperative Mood 207
8.3 The Subjunctive Mood 208
8.4 Grammatical Forms of the Subjunctive Mood 209
8.4.1 Synthetic Forms 209
8.4.2 Analytical Forms 210
8.5 Temporal Characteristics of the Subjunctive Mood 211
8.6 Meaning and Use of the Subjunctive Mood 212
8.6.1 Uses of the Present Subjunctive 212
8.6.2 Uses of the Past Subjunctive 214
9 MODAL VERBS 218
9.1 Semantic Classification of Modal Verbs 218
9.2 Formal Characteristics of Modal Verbs 219
Trang 46 7
9.3 Syntactic Characteristics of Modal Verbs 220
9.4 Possibility 222
9.4.1 Can and Could 222
9.4.2 May and Might 226
9.4.3 Will and Would 230
9.5 Necessity 234
9.5.1 Must 235
9.5.2 Have + to-infinitive 237
9.5.3 Be + to-infinitive 238
9.5.4 Shall 239
9.5.5 Should and ought 240
9.5.6 Need 243
10 VERBALS 245
10.1 The Infinitive 246
10.1.1 Forms of the Infinitive 246
10.1.2 Infinitive Constructions 250
10.1.3 Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive 254
10.2 The Gerund 262
10.2.1 Forms and Uses of the Gerund 262
10.2.2 Syntactic Functions of the Gerund 263
10.3 The Participle 270
10.3.1 Forms of the Participle 270
10.3.2 Constructions with the Participle 270
10.3.3 Functions of the Participles 273
11 ADJECTIVES 280
11.1 Morphological Structure of Adjectives 280
11.2 Semantic Classification of Adjectives 281
11.3 Comparative Constructions with Adjectives 286
11.4 Syntactic Functions of Adjectives 288
11.4.1 Adjectives as Modifiers of Nouns 288
11.4.2 Adjectives Used as Predicatives 290
11.4.3 Adjectives and Nouns 293
11.4.4 Adjective Sentences and Clauses 293
12 ADVERBS 294
12.1 Semantic Characteristics of Adverbs 295
12.2 Morphological Characteristics of Adverbs 299
12.2.1 Word-building Structure 299
12.2.2 Variability (Degrees of Comparison) 304
12.3 Functional Characteristics of Adverbs 306
12.3.1 Interrogative / Relative Adverbs 310
12.3.2 Negative and “Broad Negative” Adverbs 310
12.3.3 Pronominal Adverbs 310
12.3.4 Prepositional Adverbs 311
12.3.5 Deictic and Anaphoric Adverbs 313
13 PREPOSITIONS 315
13.1 Morphological Structure of Prepositions 315
13.2 Meaning of Prepositions 316
13.3 The Prepositional Phrase 320
Part II SYNTAX 324
14 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 324
14.1 Communicative Types of the Simple Sentence 324
14.1.1 Declarative Sentences 325
14.1.2 Interrogative Sentences 325
14.1.3 Exclamatory Sentences 330
14.1.4 Imperative Sentences 331
14.1.5 Negative Sentences 333
14.2 Structural Types of the Simple Sentence 336
14.2.1 Two-member Sentences 336
14.2.2 One-member Sentences 337
14.3 Parts of the Sentence 337
14.3.1 The Subject 338
14.3.2 The Predicate 342
14.3.3 Concord 350
14.4 The Secondary Parts of the Sentence 353
14.4.1 The Object 353
14.4.2 The Attribute 360
14.4.3 Apposition 365
14.4.4 The Adverbial Modifier 366
14.4.5 Independent Parts of the Sentence 373
15 THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE 375
15.1 The Compound Sentence 376
15.1.1 Asyndetic Compound Sentences 377
15.1.2 Syndetic Compound Sentences 381
15.1.3 Meaning Relationships in Compound Sentences 381
15.2 The Complex Sentence 386
15.2.1 Subject Clauses 390
15.2.2 Predicative Clauses 394
15.2.3 Object Clauses 396
15.2.4 Attributive Clauses 400
Trang 5Íăñòîÿùỉĩ ó÷ơâíỉí ïðơôíăìíă÷ở ôịÿ ñòóôởòîđ I-III íóðñîđ ôỉịîịî-êỉ÷ơñíỉõ ôăíóịüòơòîđ óíỉđơðñỉòơòîđ ỉ ñîôơðưỉò ñđơôởỉÿ ïî đñờ îñíîđ-íûõ ðăìôơịăì êðăììằỉíỉ ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă Ó÷ơâíỉí ðăññ÷ỉòăí íă òơõ, íòî óươ îâịăôăơò îïðơôơịởíûìỉ íăđûíăìỉ ðăâîòû ñ ÿìûíîì ỉ ñòðờỉòñÿ óñîđơðøởñòđîđằü ñđîỉ ìíăíỉÿ đ îâịăñòỉ ăíêịỉĩñíîĩ êðăììằỉíỉ Öơịü ó÷ơâíỉíă – ôằü đîììîửîñòü ñòóôởòăì ïðăíòỉ÷ơñíỉ îđịăôơòü ñịîửûìỉ êðăììằỉ÷ơñíỉìỉ ñòðóíòóðăìỉ ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă íă îñíîđơ ñîđðờởíûõ âăìîđûõ òỡðơòỉ÷ơñíỉõ ïîịîưởỉĩ, ïðỉíÿòûõ đ ó÷ơâíỉíơ Îñíîđíûì îòịỉ÷ỉờ ôăííîêî ó÷ơâíỉíă îò âîịüøỉíñòđă ỉìơþùỉõñÿ ó÷ơâíỉíîđ ỉ ïîñîâỉĩ ïî êðăììằỉíơ ÿđịÿơòñÿ ơêî îðỉởòỉðîđăííîñòü íă ñỉñòờíîơ ỉìịîưởỉơ êðăììằỉ÷ơñíîêî ìằơðỉăịă, ó÷ỉòûđăþùơơ íăí ơôỉíñòđî ñîôơðưăíỉÿ, ôîðìû ỉ ôóííöỉỉ ðăññìằðỉđăờûõ ÿìûíîđûõ ơôỉíỉö, òăí ỉ ìíîêî÷ỉñịởíûơ îñîâởíîñòỉ ỉõ ðơăịüíîêî ỉñïîịüìîđăíỉÿ
đ ðơ÷ỉ
Ñòðờịởỉờ ñđÿìằü ïðăíòỉ÷ơñíỉĩ íóðñ êðăììằỉíỉ ñ ñîđðờởíîĩ ịỉíêđỉñòỉ÷ơñíîĩ òỡðỉơĩ îấÿñíÿơòñÿ íơòðăôỉöỉîííîơ îïỉñăíỉơ òăíỉõ
÷ăñòơĩ ðơ÷ỉ, íăí ïðỉịăêằơịüíîơ, íăðơ÷ỉơ, ÷ỉñịỉòơịüíîơ, ìơñòîỉìởỉơ
ỉ ìîôăịüíûơ êịăêîịû, òùằơịüíîơ ỉ âîịơơ ïîôðîâíîơ, ÷ờ îậ÷íî, îïỉ-ñăíỉơ ñóùơñòđỉòơịüíûõ ỉ ăðòỉíịơĩ Òăí íăí óïîòðơâịởỉơ ÿìûíîđûõ ơôỉ-íỉö òơñíî ñđÿìăíî ñ òờ ỉịỉ ỉíûì ðơêỉñòðîì ðơ÷ơđîêî îẫởỉÿ, ăđòîðû ñî÷ịỉ íỡâõîôỉìûì óíăìûđằü íăỉâîịơơ ÿñíûơ ñịó÷ăỉ ïðỉíăôịơửîñòỉ ÿìûíîđûõ ơôỉíỉö í îïðơôơịởíîìó íîììóíỉíằỉđíîìó ñòỉịþ
Òăí, íăïðỉìơð, ðăññìằðỉđăþòñÿ ìíîêî÷ỉñịởíûơ êðăììằỉ÷ơñíỉơ, ïðăêìằỉ÷ơñíỉơ ỉ, ÷òî îñîâởíî đăửî, ñîöỉîịỉíêđỉñòỉ÷ơñíỉơ ăñïơíòû ôóííöỉîíỉðîđăíỉÿ ìơñòîỉìởỉĩ, ñîïîñòăđịÿþòñÿ îñîâởíîñòỉ ỉñïîịüìî-đăíỉÿ ÷ỉñịỉòơịüíûõ đ ăíêịỉĩñíîì ỉ ðóññíîì ÿìûíắ, đî ìíîêỉõ
ñịó÷ă-ÿõ ïîô÷ơðíỉđăơòñÿ ðăìịỉ÷ỉơ ìơưôó âðỉòăíñíỉì ỉ ăìơðỉíăíñíỉì đăðỉ-ăíòăìỉ ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă Ïðỉịăêằơịüíûơ ỉ íăðơ÷ỉÿ ïîịó÷ăþò, ñ òî÷íỉ ìðởỉÿ ăđòîðîđ, âîịơơ ăôơíđằíîơ êðăììằỉ÷ơñíîơ îïỉñăíỉơ, îñíîđăííîơ
íă ñờăíòỉíî-ñỉíòăíñỉ÷ơñíỉõ õăðăíòơðỉñòỉíắ ýòỉõ ÷ăñòơĩ ðơ÷ỉ Ïðỉ îïỉñăíỉỉ ñỉñòờû ìîôăịüíûõ êịăêîịîđ đ ăíêịỉĩñíîì ÿìûíơ ăđòîðû îïỉ-ðăþòñÿ íă òăíỉơ ïîíÿòỉÿ, íăí «đíóòðởíÿÿ» ỉ «đíơøíÿÿ» ìîôăịüíîñòü
ỉ íă îñîâởíîñòỉ óïîòðơâịởỉÿ êịăêîịîđ đ «ôơñíðỉïòỉđíûõ» ỉ «íðơằỉđ-íûõ» íîíòơíñòắ Ăđòîðû îòôăþò ôăíü òðăôỉöỉỉ, đíịþ÷ăÿ (ïðăđôă, ñ îêî-đîðíîĩ) ñî÷ơòăíỉÿ íơíîòîðûõ ìîôăịüíûõ êịăêîịîđ ñ ỉíôỉíỉòỉđîì đ ñî-ñòăđ ñîñịăêằơịüíîêî íăíịîíởỉÿ
Îòôơịüíûơ êịăđû îòđîôÿòñÿ îẫờó îïỉñăíỉþ êịăêîịă ỉ ơêî íằơêîðỉĩ: đỉôîđðờởíîĩ ñỉñòờû, ìăịîêă ỉ íăíịîíởỉÿ Êịăêîịû íịăññỉôỉöỉðóþòñÿ íăí ïî ñờăíòỉ÷ơñíỉì, òăí ỉ ïî ñỉíòăíñỉ÷ơñíỉì îñíîđăíỉÿì, ïðỉ÷ờ îñî-âîơ đíỉìăíỉơ óôơịÿơòñÿ ñïơöỉôỉíơ êịăêîịüíîêî óïðăđịởỉÿ đ ăíêịỉĩñíîì ÿìûíơ Íơịỉ÷íûơ ôîðìû êịăêîịă ỉ ỉõ óïîòðơâịởỉơ, đñơêôă đûìûđăþùơơ ïîíÿòíîơ ìằðóôíởỉơ ó ñòóôởòîđ, òăíươ ìăíỉìăþò đ ó÷ơâíỉíơ îòôơịüíóþ
15.2.5 Adverbial Clauses 409
15.2.6 Parenthetical Clauses 431
15.2.7 Vocative Clauses 434
15.3 The Compound-Complex Sentence 434
E X E R C I S E S MORPHOLOGY 439
1 Nouns 439
2 Articles 444
3 Pronouns 465
4 Numerals 472
5 Verbs 475
6 Tense and Aspect 477
7 The Passive Voice 496
8 Mood and Modality 506
9 Modal Verbs 529
10 Verbals 539
10.1 The Infinitive 539
10.2 The Gerund 558
10.3 The Participle 575
11 Adjectives 588
12 Adverbs 591
13 Prepositions 595
SYNTAX 600
14 The Simple Sentence 600
15 The Multiple Sentence 610
15.1 The Compound Sentence 610
15.2 The Complex Sentence 613
15.3 The Compound-complex Sentence 634
Trang 6Morphology Syntax
êịăđó Ỉì ñịóươâíûõ ÷ăñòơĩ ðơ÷ỉ îòôơịüíî ðăññìằðỉđăþòñÿ òîịüíî
ïðơô-ịîêỉ; ñîþìû đíịþ÷ởû đ îïỉñăíỉơ ñịîửîêî ïðơôịîưởỉÿ, ă ÷ăñòỉöû —
đ ðăìôơị, ïîñđÿùởíûĩ íăðơ÷ỉÿì
Îñîâîơ đíỉìăíỉơ óôơịÿơòñÿ ñòðóíòóðơ ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ïðơôịîưởỉÿ:
ðăñ-ñìằðỉđăþòñÿ ñïîñîậ ïîñòðîởỉÿ ðăìịỉ÷íûõ íîììóíỉíằỉđíûõ òỉïîđ
ïðîñòîêî ïðơôịîưởỉÿ, ôîðìû îòðỉöăíỉÿ, îïỉñûđăþòñÿ òỉïû ỉ ñïîñîậ
đûðăưởỉÿ êịăđíûõ ỉ đòîðîñòớởíûõ ÷ịởîđ ïðơôịîưởỉÿ;
óòî÷íÿþò-ñÿ íðỉòơðỉỉ đûôơịởỉÿ ðăìịỉ÷íûõ òỉïîđ ñịîửîñî÷ỉíởíîêî ỉ
ñịîửî-ïîô÷ỉíởíîêî ïðơôịîưởỉĩ, ïîôðîâíî îïỉñûđăþòñÿ îñîâởíîñòỉ ỉõ
îðêă-íỉìăöỉỉ ỉ óïîòðơâịởỉÿ
Đìơñòơ ñ òờ, òăì, êôơ ýòî ậịî đîììîửî, ăđòîðû đîìôơðưỉđăịỉñü îò
ïðỉđịơ÷ởỉÿ øỉðîíỉõ òỡðơòỉ÷ơñíỉõ îâîñíîđăíỉĩ ỉ íăôơþòñÿ, ÷òî
íỡâ-õîôỉìûơ ịỉíêđỉñòỉ÷ơñíỉơ ñđơôởỉÿ ñòóôởòû ïîịó÷ăþò ỉì ịơíöỉĩ ïî
òơ-îðơòỉ÷ơñíîĩ êðăììằỉíơ ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă
Ïðỉíỉìăÿ đî đíỉìăíỉơ, ÷òî ó÷ơâíỉí ïðơôíăìíă÷ở ôịÿ ỉñïîịüìîđăíỉÿ,
đ îñíîđíîì, đ ðóññíîÿìû÷íîĩ ñðơôơ, ăđòîðû ñî÷ịỉ íỡâõîôỉìûì đî
ìíî-êỉõ ñịó÷ăÿõ ỉñïîịüìîđằü ðóññíỉơ ñîîòđơòñòđỉÿ ôịÿ îấÿñíởỉÿ
êðăììă-òỉ÷ơñíỉõ ÿđịởỉĩ ăíêịỉĩñíîêî ÿìûíă Ỉìịîưởỉơ ìằơðỉăịă
ỉịịþñòðỉ-ðóơòñÿ ìíîêî÷ỉñịởíûìỉ ïðỉìơðăìỉ, đìÿòûìỉ ïðơỉìóùơñòđởíî ỉì
îðỉ-êỉíăịüíûõ ỉñòî÷íỉíîđ ỉ ôờîíñòðỉðóþùỉìỉ îñîâởíîñòỉ óïîòðơâịởỉÿ
òơõ ỉịỉ ỉíûõ ÿìûíîđûõ ơôỉíỉö đ ñîđðờởíîĩ ăíêịỉĩñíîĩ ðơ÷ỉ
Îẫăÿ ïðăíòỉ÷ơñíăÿ íăïðăđịởíîñòü ó÷ơâíỉíă ïîìđîịỉịă đíịþ÷ỉòü
đ ơêî ñîôơðưăíỉơ îòôơịüíóþ ÷ăñòü, đ íîòîðîĩ ïðỉđîôÿòñÿ óïðăửởỉÿ ïî
đñờ îïỉñăííûì đ ó÷ơâíỉíơ ðăìôơịăì ăíêịỉĩñíîĩ êðăììằỉíỉ
Ăđòîðû đûðăưăþò âịăêîôăðíîñòü ðơöởìởòăì ôîíòîðó
ôỉịîịîêỉ÷ơñ-íỉõ íẳí Ò Ï Òðơòüÿíîđîĩ ỉ íăíôỉôằó ôỉịîịîêỉ÷ơñôỉịîịîêỉ÷ơñ-íỉõ íẳí Î Ơ
Ôỉ-ịỉìîíîđîĩ ìă öởíûơ ñîđơòû ỉ ìăìơ÷ăíỉÿ, ìíîêỉơ ỉì íîòîðûõ ậịỉ
ó÷-òởû ïðỉ îíîí÷ằơịüíîĩ ïîôêîòîđíơ ðóíîïỉñỉ í ïơ÷ằỉ Îòđơòñòđởíûơ
ðơôăíòîðû ó÷ơâíỉíă âịăêîôăðíû îôíîìó ỉì ăđòîðîđ – Ơ Ê Õîìÿíîđîĩ —
ìă îẫóþ ỉôơþ ñîìôăíỉÿ ïîôîâíîêî ó÷ơâíỉíă ỉ ïîìîùü đ íîîðôỉíăöỉỉ
òđîð÷ơñíỉõ óñỉịỉĩ đñơêî ăđòîðñíîêî íîịịơíòỉđă Îñîâăÿ âịăêîôăðíîñòü —
íăøờó ăíêịỉĩñíîìó íîịịơêơ, Ïỉòơðó Ôữóíìó, đìÿđøờó íă ñơâÿ òðóô
Trang 7Later, classical grammar tended to include nouns in the limited
sense of the word, noun-pronouns, such as I, they, noun-numerals, such
as three in three of us, and gerunds, under the common designation
noun-words as opposed to adjective-words and verbs.
1.1 DEFINITION
As any part of speech, the noun, or substantive, is established onthe basis of semantic (notional), morphological, and syntactic crite-ria Thus, nouns have been notionally defined as names of things,persons and places This semantic definition is clearly inadequatebecause it excludes, for example, a number of words which denoteabstract ideas but behave grammatically and morphologically in the
same way as names of things: occupation, friendship, movement,
ex-istence, etc In more general terms, the noun may be taken to be
a name of something that is viewed as substance or an object.The morphological characteristics of nouns include two catego-
ries: the category of number (singular and plural) though some nouns
may lack either the singular or the plural form; and the category of
case (common and genitive) The grammatical category of gender is
now considered extinct for it is hardly ever expressed by cal means
grammati-The syntactic properties of nouns can be subdivided into two types:their methods of combining with other words, and their functions inthe sentence Nouns combine with other words to produce noun phrases
Trang 814 15
units of measurement, society, language, etc.: metre, hour, dollar; the individual parts of a whole: part, element, atom, piece, drop; abstractions thought of as separate wholes: family, word, idea,
scheme.
Nouns normally used as non-count include the names of:
solid substances and materials: earth, bread, rice, cotton, nylon; liquids, gases, etc.: water, oil, tea, air, oxygen, steam, smoke; many abstractions: equality, honesty, ignorance, peace, safety.
Cutting across the grammatical count/non-count distinction there
is a semantic division into concrete (material) and abstract
(immate-rial) nouns, though concrete nouns are mainly count and abstractmainly non-count
1.3 MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
OF THE NOUN
According to their morphological structure nouns fall into three
groups: simple nouns, derivative nouns and compound nouns.
1 Simple nouns consist of only the root which very often
coin-cides with the word; the usual or most favoured phonetic shape is one
single stressed syllable: bus, bear, land, glass, wife, etc Simple nouns
are undecomposable, having neither suffixes nor prefixes
2 Derivative nouns have affixes (prefixes or suffixes or both):
worker, kindness, brotherhood, misdemeanour, ingratitude, etc.
Some word-building suffixes are unambiguous, i.e a word taining one of them is sure to belong to the class of nouns; among
con-them is the suffix -ity in scarcity, necessity, peculiarity, monstrosity,
etc Other suffixes are ambiguous: the morpheme is not in itself ficient to point to a particular part of speech but leaves some roomfor a choice which has to be made by other criteria Thus, the suffix
suf ment leaves open the choice between noun and verb (instrument —
to instrument, implement — to implement), while the suffix -ful can
form a noun (handful, spoonful, mouthful) or an adjective (useful,
beau-tiful, careful).
Productive noun-forming suffixes are:
-er: worker, writer, builder, joiner;
-ness: tenderness, redness, madness;
-ist: novelist, dramatist, columnist;
-ism: heroism, capitalism, nationalism;
-ess: actress, waitress, hostess.
As head of a noun phrase, a noun combines with determiners (the
boy; these few books), a preceding adjective (large room), or
occa-sionally with a following adjective (time immemorial), with a
preced-ing noun in either the common case (iron bar) or in the genitive case
(father’s room) Occasionally a noun may combine with a following or
preceding adverb (the man there; the then president) It may also
combine with prepositions (in a house) and it may be postmodified by
a prepositional phrase (the roof of a house) or a relative clause (the
man I met yesterday) In a sentence a noun (noun phrase) may
func-tion as subject, object, predicative, attribute or adverbial modifier; it
is also used as vocative (direct address)
1.2 SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION
OF NOUNS
There exist various classifications of nouns based on different
principles For practical reasons the author follows the classification
of S Greenbaum, R Quirk (A Student’s Grammar of the English
Language London, 1990).
Semantically, all nouns fall under two main groups: proper nouns
and common nouns; both proper and common nouns may refer to
some-thing animate or inanimate
1 A proper noun is the name of someone or something that is
usu-ally thought of as unique: Peter, London, England.
2 A common noun is a name given either to an example or a class
of things or notions: table, flower, air, water, idea.
The distinction into count nouns and non-count (mass) is
funda-mental in English Nouns typically used as count include the class
names of:
persons, animals, plants, etc.: friend, cat, bird, rose;
concrete objects having shape: ball, car, hat, house;
Trang 9The bungalow was very silent.
The rain had ceased and the night was starry.
Mary shook her head.
There was not a cloud in the sky.
2 The function of the object is also typical of the noun as the
sub-stance word:
He read the letter slowly and carefully.
I have to show Dr Fench his room.
She turned and looked at Guy.
modifier and vocative, although performed by the noun with equal
ease, are not immediately characteristic of its substantive quality assuch It should be noted that, while performing these non-substan-tive functions, the noun differs from the other parts of speech used
in similar sentence positions
As predicatives, nouns are preceded by link verbs:
He is a doctor.
She turned out a perfect hostess.
As attributes, they are followed by other nouns or preceded by a
preposition:
He was a country doctor.
She wore a large straw hat.
The tune was coming from behind the closed doors of Mr ry’s bedroom.
Cur-Will you give me a sheet of paper?
The letter from her sister reassured her.
In noun + noun structures, the first noun-attribute is normally gular in form even if it has a plural meaning: a shoe shop (a shop that sells shoes), a horse race (a race for horses), a trouser pocket (a pocket
sin-in a pair of trousers) In most noun + noun structures, the masin-in stress
is on the first syllable: `mineral water, a `history book However, there are many exceptions: a garden `chair, a fruit `pie, etc Some nouns, however, have the plural -s even when they are used attributively to modify other nouns: a clothes shop, a customs officer, a savings de-
partment In general, the use of plural modifiers is becoming more
common in British English American English often has singular formswhere British has plurals:
a greetings card a greeting card
a drinks cabinet a drink cabinet the arrivals hall the arrival hall
Unproductive suffixes are:
-hood: childhood, manhood;
-ance: importance, arrogance;
-dom: kingdom, freedom;
-ence: reference, dependence;
-ship: friendship, relationship;
There exists a correspondence between the lexico-grammatical
meaning of suffixes and certain subclasses of nouns Some suffixes
mark abstract nouns: -age, -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency, -dom, -hood,
-ation, -ment, -ness, etc while others distinguish personal nouns: -an,
-arian, -er, -or, -ician, -ist, etc Feminine suffixes may be classed as a
subgroup of personal noun suffixes; these are few and non-frequent:
-ess (duchess), -ine (heroine), -ette (coquette).
3 Compound nouns are the words consisting of at least two stems
which occur in the language as free forms They usually have one
main stress; the meaning of a compound is very often idiomatic in
character, so that the meaning of the whole is not a mere sum of its
elements The main types of compound nouns are:
a) nouns with a stem modified by another noun stem; this is a most
productive type (sunbeam, snowball, film-star);
b) nouns consisting of a verb stem and a noun stem; verbals often
occur as the first element (searchlight, reading-hall, dining-room);
c) nouns consisting of an adjective stem and a noun stem
(black-board, blackmail, bluestocking);
d) a very large and productive group of nouns derived from verbs
with postpositives, or more rarely, with adverbs (blackout,
break-down, make-up, set-back).
There are no clear rules to tell when the compound noun is
writ-ten as a single word, with a hyphen or as two (or more) words Most
grammar books state that a good modern dictionary is the only
1 Most common syntactic function of nouns is that of the subject
of the sentence, since the referent of the subject is the person or
thing immediately named:
Trang 1018 19
Count nouns denote objects that can be counted, while non-countnouns are names of objects that cannot be counted Count nouns like
bottle, chair, man, word, remark refer to individual countable
enti-ties that cannot be viewed as an undifferentiated, indivisible mass
Non-count nouns like grass, warmth, humour denote, by contrast, an
undifferentiated mass or continuum Formally, the two classes areclearly distinguished Count nouns may occur in the singular with
the indefinite article or one and may have a separate plural form which may be preceded by How many or by a numeral higher than
one: How many pets have you got? — Two cats, three dogs and a guinea-pig Mass nouns may occur with no article or with the indef-
inite quantifier some They cannot be preceded by one, they cannot have a separate plural form, but they can be preceded by How much:
How much petrol does this car use?
The semantic difference between the two classes is clear enoughtoo Count nouns “individuate”, i.e they indicate individual specimens;mass nouns refer to a quantity that is not individuated in this way1.Some nouns, e.g cake, fish, stone belong to both classes, combin- ing the characteristics of count and non-count nouns Thus, stone can
be viewed as the non-count material constituting the entity — a stone —which can be picked up from a pile of stones and individually thrown.Nouns with dual class membership often manifest considerabledifference in meaning; this corresponds broadly to concreteness orparticularization in the count usage and abstractness or generaliza-tion in the non-count usage
Names of substances can also function as count nouns, singular andplural, when they refer to a kind of substance or a part of a whole, as in
Buy me a coffee (i e a cup of coffee), Buy me a beer (i.e a glass of beer)
Expressions like two coffees, two butters are considered to be informal.
Almost all mass nouns can be made into count nouns if a unit of
measurement is implied (three beers, please) or we’re talking about
sorts or types
1 The noun weather, normally non-count, takes a plural form in go out in all
weath-ers Money, normally mass, takes a plural form moneys in legal language, with the
meaning “sums of money”.
With toponyms, there is a tendency to use proper nouns, not
adjec-tives, attributively: Paris girls, California wines.
The noun is also used as an appositive, which is a special kind of
attribute used to characterize* or explain the word modified by
giv-ing the person or thgiv-ing another name The appositive can be close:
Uncle Roger, Aunt Molly, Doctor Crocus, Professor Brown, or loose:
This is Anthony Brewster, an Englishman.
As adverbial modifiers, nouns are chiefly parts of prepositional
phrases:
She sat quietly at the table, a little dazed.
After dinner we had coffee in the library.
The noun is also the regular form of direct address, or vocative;
this is an independent element of the sentence structure used to get
someone’s attention:
Andrew, where are you?
How do you do, Miss Wigg.
Common nouns in address take no article:
Good night, mother.
Operator, could you put through a call to New York, please?
1.5 GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
OF THE NOUN
The Modern English noun has two grammatical categories —
num-ber and case; it does not have the category of grammatical gender.
1.5.1 The Category of Number
The English number system comprises singular, which denotes one
thing, person, idea, etc., and plural, which denotes more than one thing,
person, idea, etc Semantically, as some linguists point out, the
ques-tion of enumeraques-tion does not seem to be a very important one More
important is, perhaps, the need to distinguish between individual (or
discrete) and mass (or non-discrete) objects This is a distinction
that English makes quite clearly by means of the category of
count-ability, with the noun classes of countables and uncountables, or count
and mass
* In British English, the sound [a Iz] at the end of many verbs may be spelt -ise or
-ize: realise/realize, emphasise/emphasize, characterise/characterize In American
English -ize is the preferred spelling.
experi-She has had a good deal ofexperience in this kind ofwork
She was a beauty in her youth She had beauty in her youth.Will you give me a light, please? All plants need light
Trang 11[tru:Ts] or [tru:Dz] The voiceless [s] in house becomes [z] in the
plu-ral: houses [hauzIz]
Some plural forms create significant spelling difficulties
1 When a noun ends in the letter -y preceded by a consonant letter,
-y is changed into -i and -es is added: country — countries, fly — flies,
enemy — enemies, cry — cries Proper names retain -y in the plural
form: Mary — Marys, Kennedy — the Kennedys.
If the final -y is preceded by a vowel it remains unchanged and only -s is added: day — days, key — keys.
2 When a noun ends in -s, -ss, -ch and -x, the inflection -es is
add-ed: bus — buses, class — classes, bush — bushes, bench — benches,
watch — watches, box — boxes.
3 -es is also added to nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant:
echo — echoes, potato — potatoes, hero — heroes, Negro — Negroes, tomato — tomatoes, torpedo — torpedoes, veto — vetoes.
Piano, photo, solo, kilo have plurals in -s: pianos, photos, solos, kilos.
With some nouns plurals ending in -os and -oes are equally ble: cargo — cargos/cargoes It also applies to archipelago, banjo, buffalo, commando, tornado, volcano.
possi-When the final -o is preceded by a vowel, only -s is added:
cu-ckoo — cucu-ckoos, radio — radios.
voiced plurals spelt -ves: calf, elf, half, knife, life, loaf, self, sheaf,
shelf, thief, wife, wolf, e g half — halves [hA:vz].
Voiceless plurals are found with: belief, chief, proof, roof, safe, e.g
chief — chiefs [tSi:fs]
Both voiced and voiceless plurals are possible with: dwarf,
hand-kerchief, hoof, scarf, wharf, e g hoof — hooves, hoofs.
Irregular Plural
A number of nouns form their plural by means of vowel mutation:
foot — feet, goose — geese, tooth — teeth, man — men, woman — women, louse — lice, mouse — mice.
The plural ending -men occurs in words like: fireman — firemen,
gentleman — gentlemen, Englishman — Englishmen These do not
form pairs in pronunciation distinguishing between singular and
plu-ral, while with woman — women the pronunciation differs in both syllables: [`wum«n] — [`wImIn]
The plural is regular in: Germans, Romans, etc and personal names like the Bowmans, the Freemans.
The -en plural occurs in three nouns: ox — oxen, child — children (with vowel change [`tSaIld] — [`tSIldr«n]), brother — brethren (not
blood relations but fellow members of a religious society)
Similarly, count nouns that refer to animals may function as mass
nouns to indicate the meat; we find not merely familiar usages such
as chicken, rabbit, fish but can also freely form mass nouns elephant,
crocodile, etc to refer to the meat In many cases this type of
distinc-tion between count and mass is achieved by separate lexical items:
(a) sheep — (some) mutton, (a) calf — (some) veal, (a) pig — (some)
pork A word normally used as a count noun, i e onion can be used as
a mass noun when it refers to the substance which the thing is
com-posed of, as in This soup tastes of onion.
There are corresponding count nouns for some non-count nouns:
1.5.1.1 Variable Nouns
Regular Plural
English count nouns have two forms, singular and plural The vast
majority of nouns occur with either singular or plural number, and
normally have a plural form which is built up by means of the
inflec-tion, or ending, -s: room — rooms, motel — motels, jeep — jeeps, or
-es: ax — axes, bench — benches This is the regular plural.
In pronunciation, the voiceless [s] is added to any base (singular
form) ending in any voiceless sound except a sibilant: desks [desks],
cats [kQts], jeeps [dZI:ps]
The voiced [z] is added to any base ending in any voiced sound
except a sibilant: boys [bIz], friends [frendz], dogs [dgz]
The syllable [Iz] is added to any base ending in a sibilant: buses
[bÃsIz], matches [mQtSIz], judges [dZÃdZIz], bushes [buSIz]
Singular nouns ending in the voiceless fricative -th have a
regu-lar plural form if there is a consonant before the -th: length — lengths
[leNTs], birth — births [b«:Ts] If a vowel precedes the -th, the plural
is often regular too, as in cloth — cloths [klTs], death — deaths
[deTs], faith — faiths [feITs]; however, in a few cases a voiced
frica-tive [D] in the plural is followed by [z]: mouth — mouths [mauDz],
path — paths [pA:Dz] In several cases there are both [s] and [z]
plu-rals: bath, oath, sheath, truth, wreath, youth, e g truth — truths
Trang 1222 23
ular -s plural in everyday language and to restrict the foreign plural
to scientific contexts
1 Latin nouns in -us.
The foreign plural in -i pronounced as [aI] or [i:] only: stimulus —
stimuli (also bacillus, locus, nucleus).
Only regular plural (-uses): bonus — bonuses (also campus,
cho-rus, circus, genius, vicho-rus, etc.).
Both plurals: cactus — cacti/cactuses (also focus, fungus,
nucle-us, radinucle-us, terminnucle-us, syllabus).
The plural forms of corpus and genus are corpora and genera.
2 Latin nouns in -um.
Usually foreign plural in -a, pronounced [«]: curriculum — curricula (also addendum, bacterium, erratum, stratum).
Only regular plural: forum — forums (also stadium, ultimatum) Both plurals, normally regular: aquarium, medium, memorandum,
symposium The plurals media (with reference to press and radio)
and strata (with reference to society) are sometimes used informally
as singular The technical singular datum is rather rare while data is used both as a mass noun and as count noun plural: The results of the
experiment are still uncertain: there is/are not enough data yet.
3 Latin nouns in -a.
Only foreign plural in -ae pronounced as [aI] or [i:]: alumna —
alum-nae (also alga, larva).
Only regular plural form in -s: antenna, formula, nebula, vertebra,
dogma.
Formulas is being increasingly adopted, with formulae [-i:]
re-served for scientific contexts; antennas prevails in general use and electronics with antennae [-i:] in biology.
4 Nouns of Greek origin may also have foreign plurals only:
ba-sis — bases, analyba-sis — analyses (also axis, criba-sis, diagnoba-sis, ellipba-sis, parenthesis, thesis), phenomenon — phenomena, criterion — criteria
or regular plurals: demon — demons, electron — electrons
Informal-ly, criteria and phenomena are sometimes used as singulars.
origi-nal plural, e.g bureau — bureaux, tableau — tableaux (also plateau,
portmanteau), beside the commoner -s but the plurals are mainly
pro-nounced as regular [z], irrespective of spelling
1.5.1.2 Invariable Nouns
Unlike variable nouns occurring with both singular and pluralnumber, invariable nouns are used only in the singular or only in the
plural The singular uncountable nouns, usually referred to as
singu-The noun penny has two plural forms: pennies when referring to
individual coins and pence2 which survives only to indicate a total
amount as in The fare is now tenpence Tenpence may refer to one
silver coin or to ten individual pennies, i.e coins worth a penny each
Zero Plural
Some nouns have identical forms for both singular and plural Thus,
there is no separate plural form for nouns denoting certain animals,
birds and fish: deer, grouse, mackerel, plaice, salmon, sheep, trout.
Thus, it is possible to say That is a deer, a sheep, etc or These are
deer, sheep, etc.:
This sheep looks small.
All these sheep are mine.
Both regular and zero plural is used with antelope, reindeer, fish,
flounder, herring The zero plural is more common in contexts of
hunt-ing (We caught only a few fish), whereas the regular plural form is
used to denote different individuals or species: the fishes of the
Medi-terranean.
The Plural of Compound Nouns
Compounds consisting of two or more elements form the plural in
various ways The most usual one is to make the final element plural:
bookcase — bookcases, grown-up — grown-ups, by —
stand-bys, boy friend — boy friends.
So also: assistant director — assistant directors, fountain pen —
foun-tain pens, breakdown — breakdowns, pullover — pullovers, headache —
headaches, take-off — take-offs, forget-me-not — forget-me-nots, etc.
In a number of compounds the first element is made plural:
passer-by — passers-passer-by, runner-up — runners-up, court martial — courts
martial, notary public — notaries public, man-of-war — men-of-war,
mother-in-law — mothers-in-law, but also mother-in-laws informally.
When the first component is man or woman, the plural is expressed
in both the first and last element: manservant — menservants,
wom-an doctor — women doctors, gentlemwom-an farmer — gentlemen farmers,
woman driver — women drivers but: lady driver — lady drivers.
The first component is always singular in: man-holes,
woman-hat-ers, where emphasis is on holes and haters rather than on man and
woman.
Foreign Plurals
Foreign plurals occur in a number of words borrowed from Latin,
Greek, French etc., though there is a strong tendency to use the
reg-2 Pence has also become a singular noun.