Nicholas Wade [for New York Times], “Remains Found of Downsized Human Species,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, October 28, 2004.. Gina Kolata, “Dream Drug Too Good to Be True?,” The New York T
Trang 2How do we know this text’s exercises are perfectly adapted
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Trang 3Statistics
Trang 4This page intentionally left blank
Trang 6Looking at the Big Picture
Nancy Pfenning
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Trang 7To Frank, Andreas & Mary, Marina, and Nils
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Trang 9Preface xv
1 Introduction: Variables and Processes in Statistics 1
Types of Variables: Categorical or Quantitative 2
Students Talk Stats:Identifying Types of Variables 3
Handling Data for Two Types of Variables 5
Roles of Variables: Explanatory or Response 7
Statistics as a Four-Stage Process 9
Summary 11 / Exercises 11 PA R T I Data Production 16 2 Sampling: Which Individuals Are Studied 18 Sources of Bias in Sampling: When Selected Individuals Are Not Representative 18
Probability Sampling Plans: Relying on Randomness 20
The Role of Sample Size: Bigger Is Better If the Sample Is Representative 21
From Sample to Population: To What Extent Can We Generalize? 22
Students Talk Stats:Seeking a Representative Sample 23
Summary 25 / Exercises 25 3 Design: How Individuals Are Studied 30 3.1 Various Designs for Studying Variables 30
Identifying Study Design 32
Observational Studies versus Experiments: Who Controls the Variables? 33
Errors in Studies’ Conclusions: The Imperfect Nature of Statistical Studies 35 3.2 Sample Surveys: When Individuals Report Their Own Values 38
Sources of Bias in Sample Surveys 38
3.3 Observational Studies: When Nature Takes Its Course 46
Confounding Variables and Causation 46
Paired or Two-Sample Studies 48
Prospective or Retrospective Studies: Forward or Backward in Time 49
3.4 Experiments: When Researchers Take Control 51
Randomized Controlled Experiments 52
Double-Blind Experiments 53
“Blind” Subjects 53
“Blind” Experimenters 54
Pitfalls in Experimentation 55
Modifications to Randomization 57
Contents
Trang 10viii Contents
Students Talk Stats:Does Watching TV Cause ADHD? Considering
Study Design 63
Summary 63 / Exercises 65 PA R T I I Displaying and Summarizing Data 70 4 Displaying and Summarizing Data for a Single Variable 72 4.1 Single Categorical Variable 72
Summaries and Pie Charts 72
The Role of Sample Size: Why Some Proportions Tell Us More Than Others Do 74
Bar Graphs: Another Way to Visualize Categorical Data 75
Mode and Majority: The Value That Dominates 77
Revisiting Two Types of Bias 77
Students Talk Stats:Biased Sample, Biased Assessment 78
4.2 Single Quantitative Variables and the Shape of a Distribution 82
Thinking about Quantitative Data 83
Stemplots: A Detailed Picture of Number Values 85
Histograms: A More General Picture of Number Values 89
4.3 Center and Spread: What’s Typical for Quantitative Values, and How They Vary 93
Five-Number Summary: Landmark Values for Center and Spread 93
Boxplots: Depicting the Key Number Values 95
Mean and Standard Deviation: Center and Spread in a Nutshell 98
4.4 Normal Distributions: The Shape of Things to Come 108
The 68-95-99.7 Rule for Samples: What’s “Normal” for a Data Set 110
From a Histogram to a Smooth Curve 113
Standardizing Values of Normal Variables: Storing Information in the Letter z 114
Students Talk Stats:When the 68-95-99.7 Rule Does Not Apply 117
“Unstandardizing” z-Scores: Back to Original Units 118
The Normal Table: A Precursor to Software 119
Summary 125 / Exercises 127 5 Displaying and Summarizing Relationships 133 5.1 Relationships between One Categorical and One Quantitative Variable 133
Different Approaches for Different Study Designs 133
Displays 134
Summaries 134
Notation 134
Data from a Two-Sample Design 134
Data from a Several-Sample Design 137
Data from a Paired Design 138
Students Talk Stats:Displaying and Summarizing Paired Data 139
Generalizing from Samples to Populations: The Role of Spreads 141
The Role of Sample Size: When Differences Have More Impact 143
5.2 Relationships between Two Categorical Variables 150
Summaries and Displays: Two-Way Tables, Conditional Percentages, and Bar Graphs 151
The Role of Sample Size: Larger Samples Let Us Rule Out Chance 156
Trang 11Contents ix
Comparing Observed and Expected Counts 156
Confounding Variables and Simpson’s Paradox: Is the Relationship Really There? 157
5.3 Relationships between Two Quantitative Variables 165
Displays and Summaries: Scatterplots, Form, Direction, and Strength 166
Correlation: One Number for Direction and Strength 170
When the Correlation Is 0, ⫹1, or ⫺1 171
Correlation as a Measure of Direction and Strength 173
A Closer Look at Correlation 174
Correlation Is Unaffected by the Roles of Explanatory and Response Variables 175
Correlation Is Unaffected by Units of Measurement 176
Least Squares Regression Line: What We See in a Linear Plot 177
A Closer Look at Least Squares Regression 182
Residuals: Prediction Errors in a Regression 182
Spread s about the Line versus Spread s yabout the Mean Response 183
The Effect of Explanatory and Response Roles on the Regression Line 184 Influential Observations and Outliers 185
Students Talk Stats:How Outliers and Influential Observations Affect a Relationship 186
Sample versus Population: Thinking Beyond the Data at Hand 187
The Role of Sample Size: Larger Samples Get Us Closer to the Truth 188
Time Series: When Time Explains a Response 189
Additional Variables: Confounding Variables, Multiple Regression 191
Students Talk Stats:Confounding in a Relationship between Two Quantitative Variables 191
Summary 204 / Exercises 206 PA R T I I I Probability 224 6 Finding Probabilities 226 6.1 The Meaning of “Probability” and Basic Rules 226
Permissible Probabilities 229
Probabilities Summing to One 229
Probability of “Not” Happening 231
Probability of One “Or” the Other for Non-overlapping Events 231
Probability of One “And” the Other for Two Independent Events 233
6.2 More General Probability Rules and Conditional Probability 238
Probability of One “Or” the Other for Any Two Events 239
Probability of Both One “And” the Other Event Occurring 241
Students Talk Stats:Probability as a Weighted Average of Conditional Probabilities 245
Conditional Probability in Terms of Ordinary Probabilities 246
Checking for Independence 247
Counts Expected If Two Variables Are Independent 250
Summary 256 / Exercises 257 7 Random Variables 267 7.1 Discrete Random Variables 268
Probability Distributions of Discrete Random Variables 269
The Mean of a Random Variable 276
The Standard Deviation of a Random Variable 278
Rules for the Mean and Standard Deviation of a Random Variable 280
Trang 12x Contents
7.2 Binomial Random Variables 291
What Makes a Random Variable “Binomial”? 291
The Mean and Standard Deviation of Sample Proportions 295
Students Talk Stats:Calculating and Interpreting the Mean and Standard Deviation of Count or Proportion 297
The Shape of the Distribution of Counts or Proportions: The Central Limit Theorem 299
7.3 Continuous Random Variables and the Normal Distribution 311
Discrete versus Continuous Distributions 312
When a Random Variable Is Normal 315
The 68-95-99.7 Rule for Normal Random Variables 316
Standardizing and Unstandardizing: From Original Values to z or Vice Versa 319
Estimating z Probabilities with a Sketch of the 68-95-99.7 Rule 319
Nonstandard Normal Probabilities 323
Tails of the Normal Curve: The 90-95-98-99 Rule 326
Students Talk Stats:Means, Standard Deviations, and Below-Average Heights 329
Summary 335 / Exercises 337 8 Sampling Distributions 344 Categorical Variables: The Behavior of Sample Proportions 344
Quantitative Variables: The Behavior of Sample Means 345
8.1 The Behavior of Sample Proportion in Repeated Random Samples 346
Thinking about Proportions from Samples or Populations 346
Center, Spread, and Shape of the Distribution of Sample Proportion 348
8.2 The Behavior of Sample Mean in Repeated Random Samples 356
Thinking about Means from Samples or Populations 356
The Mean of the Distribution of Sample Mean 358
The Standard Deviation of the Distribution of Sample Mean 358
The Shape of the Distribution of Sample Mean: The Central Limit Theorem 360
Center, Spread, and Shape of the Distribution of Sample Mean 360
Normal Probabilities for Sample Means 362
Students Talk Stats:When Normal Approximations Are Appropriate 365
Summary 371 / Exercises 372 PA R T I V Statistical Inference 386 9 Inference for a Single Categorical Variable 388 9.1 Point Estimate and Confidence Interval: A Best Guess and a Range of Plausible Values for Population Proportion 390
Probability versus Confidence: Talking about Random Variables or Parameters 392
95% Confidence Intervals: Building around Our Point Estimate 394
The Role of Sample Size: Closing In on the Truth 398
Confidence at Other Levels 400
Deciding If a Particular Value Is Plausible: An Informal Approach 403
The Meaning of a Confidence Interval: What Exactly Have We Found? 404
Students Talk Stats:Interpreting a Confidence Interval 405
9.2 Hypothesis Test: Is a Proposed Population Proportion Plausible? 413
Three Forms of Alternative Hypothesis: Different Ways to Disagree 416
One-Sided or Two-Sided Alternative Hypothesis 425
Trang 13How Small Is a “Small” P-Value? 429
The Role of Sample Size in Conclusions for Hypothesis Tests 430
When to Reject the Null Hypothesis: Three Contributing Factors 431
Students Talk Stats:Interpreting a P-Value 432
Type I or II Error: What Kind of Mistakes Can We Make? 433
Students Talk Stats:What Type of Error Was Made? 435
Relating Results of Test with Confidence Interval: Two Sides of the Same Coin 435
The Language of Hypothesis Tests: What Exactly Do We Conclude? 436
Students Talk Stats:The Correct Interpretation of a Small P-Value 437
Students Talk Stats:The Correct Interpretation When a P-Value Is Not Small 437
The “Critical Value” Approach: Focusing on the Standard Score 438
Summary 451 / Exercises 454 10 Inference for a Single Quantitative Variable 461 10.1 Inference for a Mean When Population Standard Deviation Is Known or Sample Size Is Large 462
A Confidence Interval for the Population Mean Based on z 464
95% Confidence Intervals with z 465
Students Talk Stats:Confidence Interval for a Mean: Width, Margin of Error, Standard Deviation, and Standard Error 469
Role of Sample Size: Larger Samples, Narrower Intervals 471
Intervals at Other Levels of Confidence with z 472
Interpreting a Confidence Interval for the Mean 473
Students Talk Stats:Correctly Interpreting a Confidence Interval for the Mean 473
A z Hypothesis Test about the Population Mean 474
10.2 Inference for a Mean When the Population Standard Deviation Is Unknown and the Sample Size Is Small 480
A t Confidence Interval for the Population Mean 482
95% Confidence Intervals with t 482
Intervals at Other Levels of Confidence with t 484
A t Hypothesis Test about the Population Mean 486
Students Talk Stats:Practical Application of a t Test 488
10.3 A Closer Look at Inference for Means 491
A One-Sided or Two-Sided Alternative Hypothesis about a Mean 491
The Role of Sample Size and Spread: What Leads to Small P-Values? 493
Type I and II Errors: Mistakes in Conclusions about Means 494
Relating Tests and Confidence Intervals for Means 495
Correct Language in Hypothesis Test Conclusions about a Mean 496
Robustness of Procedures 498
Summary 503 / Exercises 505 11 Inference for Relationships between Categorical and Quantitative Variables 520 11.1 Inference for a Paired Design with t 522
Hypothesis Test in a Paired Design 522
Confidence Interval in a Paired Design 524
11.2 Inference for a Two-Sample Design with t 528
The Two-Sample t Distribution and Test Statistic 528
Hypothesis Test in a Two-Sample Design 530
Confidence Interval in a Two-Sample Design 534
The Pooled Two-Sample t Procedure 536
Students Talk Stats:Ordinary versus Pooled Two-Sample t 537
Contents xi
Trang 14xii Contents
11.3 Inference for a Several-Sample Design with F: Analysis of Variance 543
The F Statistic 545
The F Distribution 550
Solving Several-Sample Problems 552
The ANOVA Table: Organizing What We Know about F 555
The ANOVA Alternative Hypothesis 557
Assumptions of ANOVA 558
Summary 566 Students Talk Stats:Reviewing Relationships between Categorical Explanatory and Quantitative Response Variables 566
Exercises 571 12 Inference for Relationships between Two Categorical Variables 591 12.1 Comparing Proportions with a z Test 592
12.2 Comparing Counts with a Chi-Square Test 598
Relating Chi-Square to z 598
The Table of Expected Counts 599
Comparing Observed to Expected Counts 600
The Chi-Square Distribution 602
The Chi-Square Test 604
Sample Size and Chi-Square Assumptions 604
Summary 613 / Exercises 614 13 Inference for Relationships between Two Quantitative Variables 628 13.1 Inference for Regression: Focus on the Slope of the Regression Line 629
Setting the Stage: Summarizing a Relationship for Sampled Points 630
Distinguishing between Sample and Population Relationships 631
A Model for the Relationship between Two Quantitative Variables in a Population 634
The Distribution of Sample Slope b1 636
The Distribution of Standardized Sample Slope t 637
Hypothesis Test about the Population Slope with t: A Clue about the Relationship 638
Students Talk Stats:No Evidence of a Relationship 643
Confidence Interval for the Slope of the Population Regression Line 644
13.2 Interval Estimates for an Individual or Mean Response 651
Summary 662 / Exercises 664 14 How Statistics Problems Fit into the Big Picture 677 14.1 The Big Picture in Problem Solving 677
Students Talk Stats:Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Tools: Question 1 678
Students Talk Stats:Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Tools: Question 2 679
Students Talk Stats:Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Tools: Question 3 680
Exercises 683
15 Non-parametric Methods (available online)
15.1 The Sign Test as an Alternative to the Paired t Test 15.2 The Rank-Sum Test as an Alternative to the Two-Sample t Test
Wilcoxon rank-sum test
15.3 Summary of Non-parametrics Exercises
Trang 164 Trevor Butterworth, “The Duh Report: Smarties Stay Sober, Narcissists Crave
Fame, Cell Phones Addictive,” STATS, September 15, 2006
5 “Stronger Sunscreens May Increase Exposure, Cancer Risk,” Augusta
Chronicle, August 4, 1999
6 “Teens Most Likely to Have Sex at Home,” USA Today, September 26, 2002.
7 “Living Longer,” The New York Times, September 16, 2007.
8 “Where You Live Can Affect How Long You Live,” NPR Morning Edition,
September 11, 2006
9 “Smoke Out/Teens Get the Message on the Hazards of Tobacco,” Editorial,
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 8, 2004.
Chapter 2
1 Marylynn Uricchio, “Larry Flint,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, October 15, 2001
2 Scripps Survey Research Center at Ohio University, newspoll.org
5 Pricing Strategy Associates, http://www.pricingpsychology.com (accessed
May 3, 2009) Copyright 2004–2007, Marlene Jensen
6 Scripps Survey Research Center at Ohio University, newspoll.org
(accessed May 18, 2003)
7 Linda Wilson Fuoco, “Dogs That Fail the ‘Pinch Test,’ ” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, December 8, 2004.
8 “Couch Potato Nation,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, January 12, 1999.
9 “Written Word Helps Wounds Heal,” BBC News, September 6, 2003.
10 Bob Herbert, “Countdown to Execution No 300,” The New York Times,
March 10, 2003
Endnotes
711
Trang 17Chapter 3
1 Letter to the Editor, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 13, 1997.
2 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 13, 2004.
3 Rita Healy, “Where You Will Live the Longest,” Health & Science, Time,
September 12, 2006
4 “‘Get Tough’ Programs for Youths Critized,” The Boston Globe,
October 16, 2004
5 Pittsburgh Post Gazette, November 17, 2004.
6 Emily F Oster, “Witchcraft, Weather and Economic Growth in Renaissance
Europe,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Winter 2004, posted
9 “Stress Found in Returning Soldiers,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 1, 2004.
10 [personal experience of the author, Glacier National Park, approx 2000.]
11 Robert Frost, “Happiness Makes Up in Height for What It Lacks in Length,”
1942 Albert Camus, unsourced
12 Anita Srikameswaran, “Survey Find County Enjoys Good Health,” Pittsburgh
15 Edison/Mitofsky, United States General Exit Poll, November 2, 2004.
16 Edison/Mitofsky, United States General Exit Poll, November 2, 2004.
17 “Majority Support for Gun Control; Majority Support Continuation of
National Firearms Registry,” Environics Research Group, February 21, 2003
18 “Phantom Illness,” The Augusta Chronicle, November 1, 2004.
19 “Moderate Walking Helps the Mind Stay Sharper,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
September 22, 2004
20 “Couch Potato Nation,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, January 12, 1999.
21 “Study Forced Orphans to Stutter,” Seattle Times, June 11, 2001.
22 Anahad O’Connor, “The Claim: Bee Stings Can Be Treated by Scraping Out
Stingers,” The New York Times, May 30, 2006.
23 David Biello, “Washing Hands Reduces Moral Taint,” Scientific American,
September 7, 2006
24 Bob Herbert, “Countdown to Execution No 300,” The New York Times,
March 10, 2003
25 Sandra Blakeslee, “Study Offers Surprise on Working of Body’s Clock,” The
New York Times, January 16, 1998.
26 “Piano Lessons Boost Math Scores,” Personal MD, March 18, 1999.
27 “When Your Hair’s a Real Mess, Your Self-Esteem is Much Less,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, January 26, 2000.
712 Endnotes
Trang 1828 Carey Hamilton, “How Healthy Is Our State for Kids? Study Will Tell,” The
Salt Lake Tribune, September 30, 2005.
29 Juliet Eilperin, “Study of Pesticides and Children Stirs Protests,” Washington
Post, October 30, 2004.
30 “Watching TV May Hurt Toddlers’ Attention Spans,” msnbc, April 5, 2004.
31 “Watching TV May Hurt Toddlers’ Attention Spans,” msnbc, April 5, 2004.
32 “Family Dinners Benefit Teens,” Briefs, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
August 26, 1997
33 “Don’t Count Out Prostitutes,” The Philadelphia Inquirer, October 10, 2000.
34 “High Heels Can Drive You Literally Crazy,” The Citizen, July 25, 2005.
35 “Breast Milk Benefit,” The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 9, 1998.
36 Fox Chase Pediatric, “Breast-Feeding Benefits Bolstered,” January 23, 2001.
37 Quaker Oats Company, Quaker Oats Oatmeal Product Label, 1999.
38 “Normal Teenagers are Not Ticking Time Bombs,” news-medical.net,
September 10, 2004
Chapter 4
1 Chris Conway, “The DNA 200,” The New York Times, May 20, 2007.
2 David Carr, “New York Fiction, by the Numbers,” The New York Times,
June 1, 2004
3 Marilyn vos Savant, “Ask Marilyn,” by Parade Magazine, February 29, 2004.
4 “Lab Still Most Popular Dog,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 18, 2004.
5 “Office Workers Give Away Passwords for a Chocolate Bar!,” M2 Presswire,
April, 2004, BNET (online)
6 “Study Indicates Racial Disparity in Traffic Stops,” The Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, April 22, 2002.
7 Eric Nagoumey, “A Big Professional Headache,” The New York Times,
December 2, 2003
8 “Study: TV Shows Tend to be Bi-coastal,” USA Today, November 22, 2004.
9 Michael Roy and Nicholas Christenfeld, “Do Dogs Resemble Their Owners?”
Chance Magazine, March 31, 2004.
10 Matthew Wald, “F.A.A Reviews Rules on Passenger Weight After Crash,”
The New York Times, January 28, 2003.
11 “Colleges Still Unsure How to Use New SAT,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
February 25, 2007
12 Fogel, Robert W., and Stanley L Engerman New Orleans Slave Sale Sample,
1804–1862 [Computer file] Compiled by Robert W Fogel and Stanley L
Engerman, University of Rochester ICPSR07423–v2 Ann Arbor, MI:
Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Researcher [product and
distributor]
13 Johnston, Lloyd D., Jerald G Bachman, Patrick M O’Malley, and John E.
Schulenberg Monitoring the Future: A Continuing Study of American Youth
(8th and 10th Grade Surveys), 2004 [Computer file] Conducted by University of
Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Survey Research Center ICPSR04263-v1
Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research
Endnotes 713
Trang 1914 Geoff Koch, “Study Confirms Dogs Can Sense Seizures,” The Dallas Morning
News, June 28, 2004.
15 Johnston, Lloyd D., Jerald G Bachman, Patrick M O’Malley, and John E.
Schulenberg Monitoring the Future: A Continuing Study of American Youth(8th and 10th Grade Surveys), 2004 [Computer file] Conducted by University
of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Survey Research Center
ICPSR04263-v1 Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political andSocial Research
16 Anahad O’Connor, “In Michigan, a Milestone for a Mouse Methuselah,” April
19 Nicholas Wade [for New York Times], “Remains Found of Downsized Human
Species,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, October 28, 2004.
20 J Trinkaus, “Compliance with the Item Limit of the Food Supermarket
Express Checkout Lane: An Informal Look,” Psychological Reports, 73, no 1
(August 1993): 105–6
21 Mark Sherman [credited to Associated Press], “Caesarian Deliveries Hit U.S.
Record,” The Seattle Times, November 24, 2004.
22 “Antarctic Birds Use Scent to Find Their Mates,” USA Today, October 29,
2004 [credited to Associated Press]
23 Wines, Michael, and Sharon Lafraniere,“Hollowed Generation: Plunge in Life
Expectancy; Hut by Hut, AIDS Steals Life in a Southern Africa Town,” The
New York Times, November 28, 2004.
24 Deborah Solomon, “The Science of Second-Guessing,” interview, New York
Times, December 12, 2004.
25 Anthony Walton, “Review of ‘The State Boys Rebellion’ by Michael
D’Antonio,” The New York Times, June 27, 2004.
26 Gollop, J B., and W H Marshall “A Guide for Aging Duck Broods in the
Field, Mississippi Flyway Council Technical Section,” p 14 Northern PrairieWildlife Research Center Home Page, 1954
Chapter 5
1 “Study: Chewing Gum and CDs May Help Students Master Dental Anatomy,”
Global Health Nexus, NYU College of Dentistry, Winter 2004
2 Luther Carpenter, “Job Redistribution a la Francaise,” Dissent Magazine
(online)
3 Lyric Wallwork Winik, “Films and hormones,” Parade Magazine,
October 10, 2004
4 “Link Between Caffeine Consumption and High Blood Pressure Found in
Adolescents,” PsychCentral, April 29, 2004.
5 “Oh, Deer!,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 21, 2004.
6 Gina Kolata, “Dream Drug Too Good to Be True?,” The New York Times,
reported in The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 5, 2004.
714 Endnotes
Trang 207 “Wrinkle Fighter Could Help Reduce Excessive Sweating” [attributed to The
Associated Press], Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 8, 2004.
8 Clifford Krauss, “Canada’s View on Social Issues is Opening Rifts with the
U.S.,” The New York Times, December 2, 2003.
9 Justin Bachman, “This & That: You Do What?!?,” The Pittsburgh
12 “Tight Ties Could Damage Eyesight,” BBC News (online), July 28, 2003.
13 “Study: Anti-Seizure Drug Reduces Drinking in Bipolar Alcoholics,” Bipolar
Central (online), January 6, 2005.
14 Eduardo Porter, “Values Gap: Where Playboy and ‘Will and Grace’ Reign,”
November 21, 2004
15 Giron, D., D Dunn, I Hardy, and M Strand, “Aggression by Polyembryonic
Wasp Soldiers Correlates with Kinship but not Resource Competition,”
Nature, 430 (5 August 2004): 676–79.
16 Jaime Holguin, “How to Talk to Dying Children,” CBS News (online),
September 15, 2004 [attributed to Associated Press]
17 “Pounds and Penance,” The Guardian, January 15, 2001.
18 Christopher Snowbeck, “Perspiration, Not Procreation,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, July 7, 2002.
19 “Life by the Numbers: What Do Americans Like?” [attributed to Associated
Press], St Petersburg Times (online), December 8, 2004.
20 “Life by the Numbers: What Do Americans Like?” [attributed to Associated
Press], St Petersburg Times (online), (accessed December 8, 2004).
21 Dan Lewerenz, “Exercise Beats Calcium at Boosting Girls’ Bones,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette [attributed to Associated Press], June 15, 2004.
22 Lee Bowman, “Too Few z’s May Result in Too Many Pounds,” Scripps
Howard News Service, www.sitnews.us, December 7, 2004
23 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Puget Sound Butter Clams Length v.
Width,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
24 Lawrence Walsh, “A Complete Guide to the Region’s Slopes,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, November 14, 2004.
25 Michael Janofsky, “E.P.A Cuts Pollution Levels with Refinery Settlements,”
The New York Times, October 10, 2004.
26 Barbara White Stack, “Law to Increase Adoptions Results in More Orphans,”
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, reported on seattlepi.com (accessed January 3, 2005).
27 Nick Wadhams, The Associated Press, “Cars Becoming Weapon of Choice,”
reported in Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, January 13, 2005.
28 Emily F Oster, “Witchcraft, Weather and Economic Growth in Renaissance
Europe,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Winter 2004, posted March 30,
2004
29 Richard Bernstein, “Modern German Duty: The Obligation to Play,” The New
York Times, July 2, 2003.
Endnotes 715
Trang 2130 Stacey Hirsh, “Sitting Is a Spreading Occupational Hazard,” The Baltimore
Sun, April 15, 2004.
31 Hal R Varian, “Studies Find That for Men, It Pays to Be Married,”
International Herald Tribune, July 30, 2004.
32 Witte, Griff, and Nell Henderson, “Wealth Gap Widens for Blacks, Hispanics,”
The Washington Post, October 18, 2004.
33 “Busting the Nursery Rhymes,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 30, 2004.
34 Donald G McNeil Jr., “Large Study on Mental Illness Finds Global
Prevalence,” The New York Times, June 2, 2004.
35 Piperno, D., E Weiss, I Holst, and D Nadel, “Processing of Wild Cereal
Grains in the Upper Palaeolithic Revealed by Starch Grain Analysis,”
Nature, 430 (5 August 2004): 670–73.
36 C Brown, “The Information Trail of the ‘Freshman 15’––A Systematic
Review of a Health Myth within the Research and Popular Literature,” Health
Information Libraries Journal, 25, no 1 (March 2008): 1–12.
37 John Heilprin, “Coral Reefs Less Healthy Now than 2 Years Ago,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, December 7, 2004.
38 Hibell, B., B Andersson, T Bjarnason, A Kokkevi, M Morgan, and
A Narusk, “The European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Drugs(ESPAD),” 1995 Report
39 Trinkaus, J., “An Informal Look at Use of Bakery Department Tongs and
Tissues,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, December 1998.
40 Mackenzie Carpenter, “Study Links Teen Sex, Suggestive TV Fare,”
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette [Reported in the Cleveland Plain Dealer],
September 9, 2004
41 “The Best & Worst of Everything: Our Annual Year-End Roundup,” Parade
Magazine, December 26, 2004.
42 McKeganey, N., J Norrie, “Association Between Illegal Drugs and Weapon
Carrying in Young People in Scotland: Schools’ Survey,” British Medical
Journal, 320 (April 8, 2000): 982–84.
43 Eric Nagourney, “Prevention: Harder Water and Longer Lives,” The New York
Times, January 27, 2004.
44 Eric Nagourney, “Power of Smell––Flavonoids Counter Reactive Oxygen in
Body The Stronger an Onion Tastes, the More Likely It Is to Help Fight
Cancer and Other Diseases, Scientists at Cornell Have Found,” The Telegraph
of Calcutta, India, November 1, 2004.
45 Genaro C Armas [Associated Press], “Life by the Numbers,”
SouthCoastTODAY.com, May 19, 2009
46 “African AIDS Patients More Diligent in Taking Medicine Than in U.S.,”
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 3, 2003.
47 “Warming Reducing Rice Yields,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 5, 2004.
48 “Drop in Temperatures Could Lower Ticket Prices, Too,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, January 13, 2005.
49 James Brooke, “Golfing Mongolia: A 2.3-Million-Yard par 11,880,” The New
York Times, July 4, 2004.
50 Paula Reed Ward, “PA Hunting Season Claimed 3 Lives,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, December 12, 2004.
716 Endnotes
Trang 22Chapter 6
1 Brewer, P., and C Wilcox, “Same-Sex Marriage and Civil Unions,” Public
Opinion Quarterly, 69, no 4 (2005): 599–616.
2 John Houle, Cornerstone Communications Group, “Health & Safety Survey,”
American Nurses Association online, September 2001
3 “Asides,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 4, 2004.
4 McKeganey, N., J Norrie, “Association Between Illegal Drugs and Weapon
Carrying in Young People in Scotland: Schools’Survey,” British Medical
Journal, 320 (April 8, 2000): 982–84.
5 Byron Spice, “How Not to Catch a Spy: Use a Lie Detector,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, October 9, 2002.
6 “Sweating the Details,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 27, 2004.
7 “Ultrasound Improves Stroke Blood Clot Clearance,” Future Pundit online
news, November 18, 2004
8 Dale Lawrence Pearlman, MD, “A Simple Treatment for Head Lice: Dry-On,
Suffocation-Based Pediculicide,” Pediatrics Online Journal, September 1,
2004
9 John Houle, Cornerstone Communications Group, “Health & Safety Survey,”
American Nurses Association online, September 2001
10 Xenia Montenegro, “Lifestyles, Dating and Romance: A Study of Midlife
Singles,” AARP Knowledge Management, September 2003.
11 “Taunts Cut Girls More than Sticks or Stones,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
November 12, 2003
12 David Carr, “New York Fiction, By the Numbers,” The New York Times,
June 1, 2004
13 R Trueb, “Association Between Smoking and Hair Loss: Another Opportunity
for Health Education Against Smoking?,” Dermatology, 206 (2003): 189–91.
14 “Fewer Drinks–––Fewer Gray Hairs,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
February 20, 2008
15 “Home Pregnancy Tests Reviewed,” Bandolier Journal (online), June 1999.
Chapter 7
1 Johnston, Lloyd D., Jerald G Bachman, Patrick M O’Malley, and John E.
Schulenberg, Monitoring the Future: A Continuing Study of American Youth
(8th- and 10th-Grade Surveys), 2004 [Computer file] Conducted by
University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Survey Research Center
ICPSR04263-v1 Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and
Social Research [producer and distributor], 2005–12–15
doi:10.3886/ICPSR04263
2 Axinn, William G., Arland Thornton, Jennifer S Barber, Susan A Murphy,
Dirgha Ghimire, Thomas Fricke, Stephen Matthews, Dharma Dangol, Lisa
Pearce, Ann Biddlecom, Sundar Shrehtha, and Douglas Massey, Chitwan
Valley [Nepal] Family Study: Changing Social Contexts and Family
Formation [Computer file] ICPSR04538-v3 Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university
Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2009–05–13
doi:10.3886/ICPSR04538
Endnotes 717
Trang 233 Axinn, William G., Arland Thornton, Jennifer S Barber, Susan A Murphy,
Dirgha Ghimire, Thomas Fricke, Stephen Matthews, Dharma Dangol, LisaPearce, Ann Biddlecom, Sundar Shrehtha, and Douglas Massey, ChitwanValley [Nepal] Family Study: Changing Social Contexts and FamilyFormation [Computer file] ICPSR04538-v3 Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-universityConsortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2009–05–13.doi:10.3886/ICPSR04538
4 Johnston, Lloyd D., Jerald G Bachman, Patrick M O’Malley, and John E.
Schulenberg, Monitoring the Future: A Continuing Study of American Youth(8th- and 10th-Grade Surveys), 2004 [Computer file] Conducted by
University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Survey Research Center.ICPSR04263-v1 Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political andSocial Research [producer and distributor], 2005-12-15
doi:10.3886/ICPSR04263
5 Grand Canyon National Park Northern Arizona Tourism Study, April 2005.
6 Maggie Fox, “Half of Bankruptcy Due to Medical Bills––U.S Study,”
Reuters, February 2, 2005
7 Habler, H J., W Janig, M Krummel, and O A Peters, “Reflex Patterns in
Postganglionic Neurons Supplying Skin and Skeletal Muscle of the Rat
Hindlimb,” Journal of Neurophysiology, Vol 72, Issue 5 2222–2236.
8 “Tall Enough?,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 4, 2003.
9 Axinn, William G., Arland Thornton, Jennifer S Barber, Susan A Murphy,
Dirgha Ghimire, Thomas Fricke, Stephen Matthews, Dharma Dangol, LisaPearce, Ann Biddlecom, Sundar Shrehtha, and Douglas Massey, ChitwanValley [Nepal] Family Study: Changing Social Contexts and FamilyFormation [Computer file] ICPSR04538-v3 Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-universityConsortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2009–05–13.doi:10.3886/ICPSR04538
Chapter 8
1 Veronica Torrejon, “U.S Teens share Parents’ Religion, Survey Finds,” The
Los Angeles Times, February 26, 2005.
2 Veronica Torrejon, “U.S Teens Share Parents’ Religion, Survey Finds,” The
Los Angeles Times, February 26, 2005.
3 Skrbinsek, A., and A Bath, “Attitudes of Rural and Urban Public Toward
Wolves in Croatia,” Conservation and Management of Wolves in Croatia,
2005
4 “Criminal Pasts Cited for Many City School Bus Drivers,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, November 19, 2003.
5 L.A Johnson, “Passing Along (or Recycling) Unwanted Gifts Can Be Fraught
with Peril,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 25, 2004.
6 Boy, E N Bruce, and H Delgado, “Birth Weight and Exposure to Kitchen
Wood Smoke During Pregnancy in Rural Guatemala,” Environmental Health
Perspectives, no 1 (January 2002): 109–14.
718 Endnotes
Trang 243 “The Comfort of a Familiar Scent,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 1, 2005.
4 Robert Barr [Associated Press], “Princess Diana Remembered,” reported on an
ABC Action News website (accessed August 31, 2007)
5 Trockel, Mickey, Michael Barnes, and Dennis Egget, “Health Related
Variables and Academic Performance among First-Year College Students:
Implications for Sleep and Other Behaviors,” Journal of American College
Health, 49, no 3 (2000): 125–31.
6 Daniel J DeNoon, “Sleep Face Down for Lower Blood Pressure,” WebMD
Health News, October 11, 2004.
7 Kirton, A., E Wirrell, J Zhang, and L Hamiwka, “Seizure-Alerting and
-Response Behaviors in Dogs Living with Epileptic Children,” Neurology, 62
(2004): 2303–5
8 John Hanna [Associated Press], “Topeka Voters Reject Ordinance Repeal,
Anti-Discrimination Law Will Stand,” reported online in Common Ground
Common Sense, March 1, 2005.
9 “What Readers Think About Reading–––a 1999 Survey,” The Bookseller,
November 19, 1999; reported online by the National Reading Campaign
10 “A Friendly Word Is the Best Way of Turning a Book into a Bestseller,”
Independent, March 3, 2005; reported online by the National Reading
Campaign
11 Statement of Dr Kathleen McChesney, Office of Media Relations, United
States Conference of Catholic Bishops, February 18, 2005
12 “13th Annual ‘Attitudes in the American Workplace’ Poll conducted by Harris
Interactive for The Marlin Company Results,” 2007
13 “Antibiotic Resistance Puzzle,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 18, 2004.
14 L.A Johnson, “Passing Along (or Recycling) Unwanted Gifts Can Be Fraught
with Peril,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 25, 2004.
15 S Kazakova et al., “A Clone of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus
Among Professional Football Players,” New England Journal of Medicine,
352 (February 3, 2005): 468–75
16 Livingstone, M S., and B R Conway, “Was Rembrandt Stereoblind?” New
England Journal of Medicine, 351 (September 16, 2004): 1264.
17 “Hospital Chiefs Wary of Mandate on Error Reports,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
March 16, 2005
18 Ben Feller [Associated Press], “Survey: Most Young Adults Value College;
Nonetheless, Many Fall Short of Getting There or Graduating,” February 8,
Trang 2521 Maxim Kelly, “Rude Health: Sound Warning on Your Lungs,” The Sunday
Business Post Online, June 26, 2005.
22 “Contraception Shots Work in Male Monkeys,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
November 12, 2004
23 “Obesity Rampant in NFL, Study Says,” The Daughtry Times [Associated
Press], March 1, 2005
24 “Kids Overdo Headache Meds,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 15, 2004.
25 “Full Moon Exerts No Pull on Frequency of Epileptic Seizures,” Bio-Medicine
(online), May 25, 2004
26 “Half of Moms Are Unaware of Children Having Sex,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, September 5, 2002.
27 Sandra G Boodman, “New Rules for Safer Surgery,” The Washington Post,
[reported in Post-Gazette Now], July 13, 2004.
28 “Antibiotic Resistance Puzzle,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 18, 2004.
29 Young, Donn, and Erinn Hade, “Holidays, Birthdays, and Postponement of
Cancer Death,” The Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA),
292, no 24 (December 22/29, 2004)
30 “Study Proves Number Bias in UK Lottery,” usamega.com [Archived lottery
news website] (accessed December 11, 2004)
31 Daniel J DeNoon, “Dairy Food No Magic Bullet for Weight Loss,” Fox News
(online), Friday, November 19, 2004
32 Byron Spice, “How Not to Catch a Spy: Use a Lie Detector,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, October 9, 2002.
33 “Amgen Will Stop Providing Parkinson’s Drug,” AP Online, February 13,
2005
34 Roy, Michael, and Nicholas Christenfeld, “Do Dogs Resemble Their
Owners?,” Chance Magazine, March 31, 2004.
35 “Federal Intervention in Schiavo Case Prompts Broad Public Disapproval,”
ABC News (online), Monday, March 21, 2005
36 “Antibiotic Resistance Puzzle,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 18, 2004.
37 Jean Koppen,“Medical Uses of Marijuana: Opinions of U.S Residents 45+,”
AARP Policy & Research, December 2004.
38 “2004 a Bad Year for the Grizzly Bear,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
December 20, 2004
39 Nick Santangelo, “Courtship in the Monogamous Convict Cichlid; What Are
Individuals Saying to Rejected and Selected Mates?” Animal Behaviour, 68,
no 1, (January 2005): 143–49
40 Nick Santangelo, “Courtship in the Monogamous Convict Cichlid; What Are
Individuals Saying to Rejected and Selected Mates?” Animal Behaviour, 68,
no 1, (January 2005): 143–49
41 Chio, A., G Benzi, M Dossenal, R Mutani, and G Mora, “Severely Increased
Risk of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Among Italian Professional Football
Players,” Brain, January 5, 2005.
42 Persons, Matthew, and George Uetz, “Sexual Cannibalism and Mate Choice
Decisions in Wolf Spiders: Influence of Male Size and Secondary Sexual
Characters,” Animal Behavior, 69, no 1 (January 2005): 83–94.
720 Endnotes
Trang 2643 “Poll: U.S May Be Ready for Female President,” Foxnews.com [Associated
Press], February 23, 2005
44 “New Transplant Protocol Improves Survival Rate,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
December 13, 2004
45 Livingstone, M S., and B R Conway, “Was Rembrandt Stereoblind?” New
England Journal of Medicine, 351 (September 16, 2004): 1264–65.
46 “Radiation Risk Overstated,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 16, 2005.
47 Linda Lyons, Education and Youth Editor, “Oh, Boy: Americans Still Prefer
Sons,” Gallup, September 23, 2003.
48 Lacy, Naomi, Audrey Paulman, Matthew Reuter, and Bruce Lovejoy, “Why
We Don’t Come: Patient Perceptions on No-Shows,” Annals of Family
Medicine, 2, no 6, (November/December 2004): 541–45.
Chapter 10
1 Lopez, P., D Hawlena, V Polo, and J Martin, “Sources of Individual
Shy-Bold Variations in Antipredator Behaviour of Male Iberian Rock Lizards,”
Animal Behavior, 69 (January 2005): 1–9.
2 Durham, Yvonne, Matthew Roelofs, and Stephen Standifird, “eBay’s
Buy-It-Now Function: Who, When, and How,” Topics in Economic Analysis & Policy,
4, no 1 (2004)
3 Kaminski, Juliane, Julia Riedel, Josep Call, and Michael Tomasello,
“Domestic Goats, Capra Hircus, Follow Gaze Direction and Social Cues in an
Object Choice Task,” Animal Behavior, 69, no 1 (January 2005): 11–18.
4 Kahneman, Daniel, Alan Krueger, David Schkade, Norbert Schwarz, and
Arthur Stone, “A Survey Method for Characterizing Daily Life Experience:
The Day Reconstruction Method,” Science, 306, no 5702 (December 3,
2004): 1776–80
5 Popp, David, Ted Juhl, and Daniel Johnson, “Time in Purgatory: Examining
the Grant Lag for U.S Patent Applications,” The Berkeley Electronic Press, 4,
no 1 (2004)
6 Oster, Sharon, and Fiona Scott Morton, “Behavioral Biases Meet the Market:
The Case of Magazine Subscription Prices,” The Berkeley Electronic Press, 5,
no 1 (2005)
7 Da Silva, I., and S Larson, “Predicting Reproduction in Captive Sea Otters,”
Zoo Biology, 24, no 1, (2005): 73–81.
8 Håkan J Holm, “Can Economic Theory Explain Piracy Behavior?” Berkeley
Electronic Press, 3, no 1 (2003)
9 Håkan J Holm, “Can Economic Theory Explain Piracy Behavior?” Berkeley
Electronic Press, 3, no 1 (2003)
10 Harvey, N C., J D Dankovchik, C M Kuehler, et al., “Egg Size, Fertility,
Hatchability, and Chick Survivability in Captive California Condors
(Gymnogyps californianus),” Zoo Biology, 23 (2004): 489–500.
11 Popp, David, Ted Juhl, and Daniel Johnson, “Time In Purgatory: Examining
the Grant Lag for U.S Patent Applications,” The Berkeley Electronic Press, 4,
no 1 (2004)
Endnotes 721
Trang 2712 Olivares, Orlando, “An Analysis of the Study-Time Grade Association,”
Radical Pedagogy (2002).
13 Zwolan, T A., P R Kileny, and S A Telian, “Self-Report of Cochlear Implant
Use and Satisfaction by Prelingually Deafened Adults,” Ear & Hearing, 17,
no 3 (June 1996): 198–210
14 Dansinger, Michael, Joi Augustin Gleason, John Griffith, Harry Selker, and
Ernst Schaefer, “Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and
Zone Diets for Weight Loss and Heart Disease Risk Reduction,” Journal of the
American Medical Association (JAMA) 293, no 1 (2005): 43–53.
15 Caruso, Anthony, Wojtek Chodzko-Zajko, Debra Bidinger, and Ronald
Sommers, “Adults Who Stutter: Responses to Cognitive Stress,” Journal of
Speech and Hearing Research, 37 (August 1994): 746–754.
16 Caruso, Anthony, Wojtek Chodzko-Zajko, Debra Bidinger, and Ronald
Sommers, “Adults Who Stutter: Responses to Cognitive Stress,” Journal of
Speech and Hearing Research, 37 (August 1994): 746–754.
17 Robeck, T R., S L Monfort, P P Calle, J L Dunn, E Jensen, J R Boehm,
S Young, and S T Clark, “Reproduction, Growth and Development in
Captive Beluga,” Zoo Biology, 24, no 1 (2005): 29–49.
18 Clauss, M., C Polster, E Kienzle, H Wiesner, K Baumgartner, F von Houwald,
W Streich, and E Dierenfeld, “Energy and Mineral Nutrition and Water Intake in
the Captive Indian Rhinoceros,” Zoo Biology, 24 (2005): 1–14.
Chapter 11
1 Caruso, Anthony, Wojtek Chodzko-Zajko, Debra Bidinger, and Ronald
Sommers, “Adults Who Stutter: Responses to Cognitive Stress,” Journal of
Speech and Hearing Research, 37 (August 1994): 746–754.
2 Kaminski, Juliane, Julia Riedel, Josep Call, and Michael Tomasello,
“Domestic Goats, Capra Hircus, Follow Gaze Direction and Social Cues in an
Object Choice Task,” Animal Behavior, 69, no 1 (January 2005): 11–18.
3 Hull, Joseph and Greg Langkamp, “Lake Washington Bacteria Counts,”
Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
4 Hull, Joseph and Greg Langkamp, “Lead v Zinc Concentrations in Spokane
River Fish,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
5 Faith Mehmet Kislal, “Psychiatric Symptoms of Adolescents with Physical
Complaints Admitted to an Adolescence Unit,” Clinical Pediatrics, 44, no 2
(2005): 121–130
6 Orlando J Olivares, “An Analysis of the Study-Time Grade Association,”
Radical Pedagogy (2002).
7 Hull, Joseph and Greg Langkamp, “Lead Concentrations in Spokane River
Dish,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
8 Barger et al, “Extended Work Shifts and the Risk of Motor Vehicle Crashes
Among Interns,” The New England Journal of Medicine, 352 (January 13,
2005): 125–133
9 Christakis, D., F Zimmerman, D DiGiuseppe, and C McCarty, “Early
television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children,”
Pediatrics, 113, no 4 (April 2004).
722 Endnotes
Trang 2810 “Science Lifts ‘Mummy’s Curse,’” BBC News World Edition, December 20,
2002
11 Hull, Joseph and Greg Langkamp, “Leachable Lead Concentrations in CRTs”
Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
12 Hull, Joseph and Greg Langkamp, “Leachable Lead Concentrations in CRTs”
Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
13 Galloway, A., Y Lee, and L Birch, “Predictors and Consequences of Food
Neophobia and Pickiness in Young Girls,” Journal of American Dietary
Association, 103, no 6 (June 2003): 692–98.
14 Kelly DiNardo, “Ask the Nutritionist; The Return of the Grapefruit Diet?,”
BNET Health Publications (online), September 2004.
15 S Silberstein, “Update on Migraine Headache: Treatment,” posted on
Medscape Today, 2002.
16 Lopez, P., D Hawlena, V Polo, and J Martin, “Sources of Individual
Shy-Bold Variations in Antipredator Behaviour of Male Iberian Rock Lizards,”
Animal Behavior, 69 (January 2005): 1–9.
17 Lopez, P., D Hawlena, V Polo, and J Martin, “Sources of Individual
Shy-Bold Variations in Antipredator Behaviour of Male Iberian Rock Lizards,”
Animal Behavior, 69 (January 2005): 1–9.
18 “Hurricane Love Songs,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 15, 2004.
19 Michael Hopkin, “ID Bands May Harm Penguins,” BioEd Online,
May 19, 2004
20 Smith, M., E Franz, S Joy, and K Whitehead, “Superior Performance of
Blind Compared with Sighted Individuals on Bimanual Estimations of Object
Size,” Psychological Science, 16, no 1, January 2005.
21 Hull, Joseph and Greg Langkamp “Puget Sound Butter Clams Length v.
Width,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
22 Dan Fitzpatrick, “Weighty Matter Pits Passengers Against Airlines,”
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 13, 2005.
23 Machado, C., M S Wolfe, and I Kleinberg, “2749 Initial Examination of a
CaviStat(r)-Containing Dentifrice on Caries Development in Venezuelan
Children,” 81st General Session of the International Association for Dental
Research (June 25–28, 2003)
24 Christakis, D., F Zimmerman, D DiGiuseppe, and C McCarty, “Early
Television Exposure and Subsequent Attentional Problems in Children,”
Pediatrics 113, no 4 (April 2004)
25 Christakis, D., F Zimmerman, D DiGiuseppe, and C McCarty, “Early
Television Exposure and Subsequent Attentional Problems in Children,”
Pediatrics 113, no 4 (April 2004).
26 “Child Cancer Survivors Found Happy as Others,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
February 7, 2005
27 L.E James, “Meeting Mr Farmer versus Meeting a Farmer: Specific Effects
of Aging on Learning Proper Names, Psychology and Aging, 19, no 3
(September 2004): 515–22
28 Aldrich, E., P Arcidiacono, and J Vigdor, “Do People Value Racial
Diversity?” The Berkeley Electronic Press, 5, no 1 (February 8, 2005).
29 Donald G McNeil Jr., “Large Study on Mental Illness Finds Global
Prevalence” The New York Times, June 2, 2004.
Endnotes 723
Trang 2930 Clauss, M., C Polster, E Kienzle, H Wiesner, K Baumgartner, F von
Houwald, W Streich, and E Dierenfeld, “Energy and Mineral Nutrition and
Water Intake in the Captive Indian Rhinoceros,” Zoo Biology, 24, no 1 (2005):
1–14
31 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Columbia River Velocities,” Quantitative
Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
32 Lopez, P., D Hawlena, V Polo, and J Martin, “Sources of Individual
Shy-Bold Variations in Antipredator Behaviour of Male Iberian Rock Lizards,”
Animal Behavior, 69 (January 2005): 1–9.
33 Jones, K., T Smith, and S Ketring, “An Exploration of Sexual Coercion at
First Sexual Intercourse,” Journal of Integrative Psychology, 5 (2004): 1–9.
34 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Lead v Zinc Concentrations in Spokane
River Fish,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
35 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Lead v Zinc Concentrations in Spokane
River Fish,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
36 Begg, C., K Begg, J Du Toit, and M Mills, “Spatial Organization of the
Honey Badger Mellivora Capensis in the Southern Kalahari: Home-Range
Size and Movement Patterns,” Journal of Zoology (May 5, 2004).
37 Kaminski, Juliane, Julia Riedel, Josep Call, and Michael Tomasello,
“Domestic Goats, Capra Hircus, Follow Gaze Direction and Social Cues in an
Object Choice Task,” Animal Behavior, 69, no 1 (January 2005): 11.
Chapter 12
1 “Wrinkle Fighter Could Help Reduce Excessive Sweating” [attributed to the
Associated Press], Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 8, 2004.
2 “Chopsticks May Cause Arthritis,” TVNZ online, October 25, 2003.
3 Lindsey Tanner [Associated Press], “Study: Asking Teens About Suicide
Doesn’t Lead Them to Take Their Lives,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 6,
2005
4 Lindsey Tanner [Associated Press], “Large Doses of Vitamin E Could Be
Risky,” The Washington Post, March 16, 2005.
5 “Why Booze and Smokes Go Together,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 6,
2004
6 Tait, A., T Voepel-Lewis, Shobha Malviya, and S Philipson, “Improving the
Readability and Processability of a Pediatric Informed Consent Document,”
archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159, no 4 (April 2005).
7 Kravitz, R., R Epstein, M Feldman, C Franz, R Azari, M Wilkes, L Hinton,
and P Franks, “Influence of Patients’ Requests for Direct-to-Consumer
Advertised Antidepressants,” Journal of the American Medical Association
[JAMA] 293, no 16 (April 27, 2005).
8 “Mouth Piercings May Cause Gums to Recede,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
April 5, 2005
9 “Painkillers’ Safety Doubts,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 19, 2005.
10 Torres, R., and A Velando, “Male Preference for Female Foot Colour in the
Socially Monogamous Blue-footed Booby,” Animal Behaviour, 69, no 1
(January 2005)
724 Endnotes
Trang 3011 Goel, M., E McCarthy, R Phillips, and C Wee, “Obesity Among U.S.
Immigrant Subgroups by Duration of Residence,” Journal of the American
Medical Association, 292, no 23 (December 15, 2004).
12 Hubert B Herring, “Instead of Reading This, Maybe You Should Take a Nap,”
The New York Times, April 10, 2005.
13 Nicholas D Kristof, “God and Evolution” (was “God and Evolution: An
Inclination to Faith May Be in Our Genes”), The New York Times,
February 12, 2005
14 “Firm Believers More Likely to Be Flabby, Purdue Study Finds,” Purdue
News, March 1998.
15 Ceci Connolly, “Virginity Pledgers Still Take Sex Risks,” The Washington
Post, reported in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 19, 2005.
16 Jaime Holguin, “How to Talk to Dying Children,” CBS News (online),
September 15, 2004
17 “Random Student Drug Testing Works,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 4,
2005
18 “Don’t Believe the Hype,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 4, 2005.
19 “Men and the Frantic Life,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 4, 2005.
20 “Prostate Survival Studied,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 4, 2005.
21 “Drug War Turned Toward Marijuana in ’90s,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
May 4, 2005
22 Benedict Carey, “Mental Illness Risk Rises After Death of a Child,” The New
York Times [published in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette], March 24, 2005.
23 Lindsey Tanner [Associated Press], “Large Doses of Vitamin E Could Be
Risky,” The Washington Post, March 16, 2005.
24 “Pfizer Bares Belated Celebrex Study,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 1,
2005
25 “Ugly Kids Get Less Attention from Parents,” The Medical News (online),
April 12, 2005
26 Okur, E., I Yildirim, B Aydogan, and M Akif Kilic, “Outcome of Surgery for
Crooked Nose: An Objective Method of Evaluation,” Aesthetic Plastic
Surgery, 28, no 4 (July–August 2004): 203–7.
27 Hipkins, K., B Materna, S Payne, and L Kirsch, “Family Lead Poisoning
Associated with Occupational Exposure,” Clinical Pediatrics, 43, no 9
(November–December 2004): 845–49
28 Cannon, C., E Braunwald, C McCabe, J Grayston, B Muhlestein, R.
Giugliano, R Cairns, and A Skene, “Antibiotic Treatment of Chlamydia
Pneumoniae After Acute Coronary Syndrome,” New England Journal of
Medicine, 352 (April 21, 2005): 1646–54.
29 J Trinkaus, “An Informal Look at Use of Bakery Department Tongs and
Tissues,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, December 1998.
30 Giron, D., D Dunn, I Hardy, and M Strand, “Aggression by Polyembryonic
Wasp Soldiers Correlates with Kinship but Not Resource Competition,”
Nature, 430 (August 5, 2004): 676–79.
31 “Study: Anti-Seizure Drug Reduces Drinking in Bipolar Alcoholics.” Bipolar
Central (online), January 4, 2005.
Endnotes 725
Trang 3132 “Acupuncture Eases Postoperative Nausea,” HealthDayNews, September 22,
2004
33 Read, Daniel, and George Loewenstein, “Diversification Bias: Explaining
the Discrepancy in Variety Seeking Between Combined and Separated
Choices,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, I, no 1 (1995): 34–49.
34 Read, Daniel, and George Loewenstein, “Diversification Bias: Explaining the
Discrepancy in Variety Seeking Between Combined and Separated Choices,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology, I, no 1 (1995): 34–49.
35 McKeganey, N., and J Norrie, “Association Between Illegal Drugs and
Weapon Carrying in Young People in Scotland: Schools’ Survey,” British
Medical Journal, 320 (April 8, 2000): 982–84.
36 William Hathaway, “Painless Heart Attacks More Lethal,” The Hartford
Courant, reported in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 17, 2004.
37 Steven Kull, “Misperceptions, the Media, and the Iraq War,” Program on
International Policy Attitudes (PIPA), October 2, 2003.
38 “Stuck for Life: Will Today’s Hottest Names Stay That Way?” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, May 10, 2005.
Chapter 13
1 “GOP Warns Democrats They’ll Face Probes, Too,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
April 29, 2005
2 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Biometrics of Douglas Fir,” Quantitative
Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
3 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Puget Sound Butter Clams Length v.
Width,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
4 “Real Estate Rent, Vacancy Rates Don’t Always Tell the Story,” Pittsburgh
9 Ole J Benedictow, “The Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History,”
New England Journal of Medicine, 352 (March 2005): 1054–55.
10 “City Assessments Found Out of Line,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 25,
2005
11 “Environmental Mercury, Autism Linked by New Research,” BNET (online)
Environment News Service, March 2005.
12 Leskin, G., S Woodward, H Young, and J Sheikh, “Sleep Disturbances in the
Vietnam Generation: Findings from a Nationally Representative Sample of
Male Vietnam Veterans,” Journal of Psychiatric Research, 36, no 6
(November–December 2002): 449–452
726 Endnotes
Trang 3213 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Electric Power Plant C02Output versus
Energy Input,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
14 Adam Liptak, “Inmate’s Rising I.Q Score Could Mean His Death,” The New
York Times, February 6, 2005.
15 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Columbia River Velocity Versus Depths,”
Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
16 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Lead v Zinc Concentrations in Spokane
River Fish,” Quantitative Environmental Learning Project (QELP)
17 Gricar, J., K Cufer, P Oven, and U Schmitt, “Differentiation of Terminal
Latewood Tracheids in Silver Fir Trees During Autumn,” Annals of Botany,
95, no 6 (May 2005)
18 Kaminski, Juliane, Julia Riedel, Josep Call, and Michael Tomasello,
“Domestic Goats, Capra Hircus, Follow Gaze Direction and Social Cues in an
Object Choice Task,” Animal Behavior, 69, no 1 (January 2005): 11–18.
19 Hull, Joseph, and Greg Langkamp, “Characteristics of Selected Streams Along
the West Side of the Sacramento Valley,” Quantitative Environmental
Learning Project (QELP)
Chapter 14
1 Abigail Sullivan Moore, “Blackboard: Grades; Gimme an A (I insist!),” The
New York Times, April 25, 2004.
2 Bill Hendrick [Cox News Service], “Boozy Bees May Offer Clues About
Pickled People,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 15, 2004.
3 Persons, Matthew, and George Uetz, “Sexual Cannibalism and Mate
Choice Decisions in Wolf Spiders: Influence of Male Size and Secondary
Sexual Characters,” Animal Behavior, 69, no 1 (January 2005): 83–94.
4 J Trinkaus, “Compliance with the Item Limit of the Food Supermarket
Express Checkout Lane: An Informal Look,” Psychological Reports, 73, no 1,
(August 1993): 105–6
5 Jaime Holguin, “How to Talk to Dying Children,” CBS News (online),
September 15, 2004
6 “What’s In a Name? Studies Find That Afrocentric Names Often Incur a Bias,”
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 25, 2003.
7 “Ugly Kids Get Less Attention from Parents,” The Medical News (online),
April 12, 2005
8 “Mouth Piercings May Cause Gums to Recede,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
April 5, 2005
9 Dan Lewerenz, “Exercise Beats Calcium at Boosting Girls’ Bones,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette [attributed to Associated Press], June 15, 2004.
10 John Houle, Cornerstone Communications Group, “Health & Safety Survey,”
American Nurses Association online, September 2001
11 “Drop in Temperatures Could Lower Ticket Prices, Too,” Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette, January 13, 2005.
12 Roy, Michael, and Nicholas Christenfeld, “Do Dogs Resemble Their
Owners?” Chance Magazine, March 31, 2004.
Endnotes 727
Trang 3313 Xenia Montenegro, “Lifestyles, Dating and Romance: A Study of Midlife
Singles,” AARP Knowledge Management, September 2003.
14 Personal MD, “Piano Lessons Boost Math Scores.” March 18, 1999.
15 Nicholas Wade [for New York Times], “Remains Found of Downsized Human
Species,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, October 28, 2004.
728 Endnotes
Trang 34versus histogram, 89Bayes Theorem, 246before-and-after study, 58bell-shaped distribution, 85, 109,125
bias, 16–17, 19, 25, 38–43,77–78, 125
nonresponse, 25selection, 19biased
sample, 16–17, 83, 350, 352,
363, 422, 554–555study design, 16–17summary, 83–84big picture, 9–10, 11, 17, 71,
224, 386–387, 638,662–663, 677–682bimodal, 85
binomial random variable,291–307, 336, 348, 451blind
experimenter, 53, 54–55, 65subject, 53–54, 65
blocking (in experiment), 57–58,65
boxplot, 85, 95–98, 125side-by-side, 134, 136–138,
142, 204, 531–538
C
c (number of columns), 600–602,
613categorical variable, 2–5, 11, 38,
70, 72–78, 125, 150–160,
312, 344–345, 388–405,413–453
summarizing, 5–6causation, 7, 33, 46–48, 59, 64,
143, 150, 157–160census, 6, 11, 346, 386center of distribution, 84,93–103, 270
of sample mean, 357–358,360–361
of sample proportion, 347,346–353
Central Limit Theorem, 299–307,
345, 363, 364, 370chi-square
degrees of freedom, 602–604distribution, 311, 602–604,613–614
1 degree of freedom, 603
2 degrees of freedom, 604
4 degrees of freedom, 603statistic, 157, 601–602,606–608, 613–614test, 591, 598–608, 613–614
X2notation for chi-squarerandom variable, 592closed question, 38, 64cluster sample, 20, 25complements (law of), 231, 256component (of chi-square), 600–601, 613conditional
percentage or proportion,
152, 204probability, 241–247, 256rule, 246
confidence (versus probability),392–393, 404–405, 452,473
confidence interval, 326, 387,
389, 390–405
in ANOVA, 554, 570for difference between means,534–536, 570
Index
729
Trang 35730 Index
confidence interval, continued
for mean of differences,
F, 551, 568, 569
denominator, 545, 546, 548,551–552, 555
numerator, 545, 546, 548,551–552, 555
dependent, 233events, 233–236, 241–246,247–250, 293–294,298–299
variables, 250design, 16–17, 30–65biased, 16–17paired, 48–49, 58, 134,138–140, 204, 522–525several-sample, 134, 137–138,
522, 543–559two-sample, 48–49, 134–136,
522, 528–538unbiased, 16–17direction (of relationship),166–167, 205negative, 166positive, 166discrete random variable,268–285, 312–315, 335disjoint events, 232
distribution, 82chi-square, 311, 613–614
F, 311, 522, 543–559, 568,
569normal, 126, 335–337probability, 269–275sampling, 224–225, 344–372
of sample mean, 356–366
of sample proportion,346–353
8 degrees of freedom,483–484
in regression, 637–638two-sample, 522
z, 311, 319–330, 336–337,
503–504double-blind experiment, 53–55
E
ecological validity, 56Empirical Rule, 110–113,
115–116, 117 See also
68–95–99.7 Ruleequally likely outcomes, 227–228,
239, 256, 269, 346error (in conclusions), 35–36, 64,
245, 433–435, 494–495Type I, 35, 433–435, 452,494–495
Type II, 35, 433–435, 452,494–495
error (variation)standard, 395Sum of Squares (SSE), 548, 555estimate, 16
estimator (unbiased), 336, 390event, 226–227, 270
independent, 256nonoverlapping, 231–232expected
count, 156–157, 250–251,600–602
table, 156, 205,599–600, 613value, 156–157, 278experiment, 31, 33–34, 51–59,
64, 155blocking, 57–58, 65controlled, 52double-blind, 53–55ecological validity, 56Hawthorne effect, 55–56impractical, 57
lack of realism, 65noncompliance, 56, 65randomized controlled,52–53, 65
unethical, 57experimenterblind, 53effect, 53, 54–55explanatory variable, 7–9, 11,
135, 151, 168, 204–205extrapolation, 180–181, 205–206
F
F
distribution, 311, 522, 543–559, 568statistic, 545–559, 568, 569test, 545
factor, 52five-number summary, 93–95,
126, 204
Trang 36events, 233–236, 247–251variables, 250–251Independent “And”
(multiplication) Rule,233–236, 238–239, 256,269
inference, 9–10, 11, 73, 83, 155,
156, 224, 311, 386–663influential observation, 185–187,206
intercept (of regression line), 180–181, 205
for population, 187–188, 205,631–634
for sample, 180, 187–188IQR (interquartile range), 94–95,126
1.5 ⫻ IQR Rule, 96–97, 126
L
lack of realism, 55–56, 65law of complements, 231, 256least squares regression line, 177–187, 205
for population, 631, 662linear relationship, 166, 177, 628–629, 662
logistic regression, 133long-run set of observedoutcomes, 227–228, 256,273–274
lurking variable, 46
M
majority, 77, 125margin of error, 393–405, 451matched pairs, 48
of F distribution, 549–550
of population, 114, 126, 204,
276, 356–366, 461–504
of random variable, 271–272,276–278, 280–285, 335response in regression,634–635
of sample, 98–101, 114, 126,
204, 267, 276, 316, 345,356–366, 461–504
of sample means, 356–358,370–371, 464–465
of sample proportions,295–299, 307, 316, 345,
minority, 77mode, 77, 125
(mu) 70, 114 See also mean of
population; mean ofrandom variable
y(population mean response),634–635, 662
multiple comparisons, 522multiple regression, 192, 206multiple tests, 494
multiplication rule, 235–236 See
also “And” Rule
multiplier
in confidence interval, 395,
452, 465for mean response (regression), 652
for one-sample t, 482–485 for paired t, 524
for population slope, 644, 663
for two-sample t, 534
in prediction interval (forindividual response), 652multi-stage sample, 20, 25mutually exclusive, 232
N
negative direction, 166, 169–170noncompliance, 56, 65
nonoverlapping events, 231–232Nonoverlapping “Or” (addition)Rule, 231–232, 238–239,
256, 269nonparametric, 681nonresponse bias, 19, 23–24, 25normal, 85
approximation, 305–307,
345, 348, 360, 365–366,395–396, 451, 453, 466,
482, 525, 528, 558,604–605, 614, 636
Trang 37cut-off for small, 429–430
for one-sided or two-sided
alternative, 418, 426–427,
452, 504, 523, 530, 639,
662
pairedstudy design, 48–49, 58, 64,133–134, 138–140, 204,522–525
t, 522–525, 569
parameter, 70–71, 73, 114, 125,
225, 226, 228, 345, 346,
356, 521, 591peak (in time series), 189percentage, 5, 11, 70, 72, 125percentile, 94
perfect relationship, 171–173permissible probability, 229, 256,270–271
pie chart, 72–74, 125placebo, 53
effect, 53, 65point estimate, 389for intercept, 634for population mean, 463for population proportion, 3390–392, 451
for slope, 634point of averages, 180pooled
276, 356–366, 461–504proportion, 74, 125, 156,
204, 225, 346–353,388–405, 413–453slope, 187–188, 205standard deviation, 114, 126,
204, 461positive direction, 166practical significance, 430–431,493
predicted response (in regression),
182, 663prediction interval, 651–657,663
probabilityconditional, 241–247, 256rule, 246
distribution, 269–285,291–307, 311–330histogram, 270–285,291–307, 311–330, 335permissible, 229, 270–271rules, 226–236, 246, 335–337sampling plan, 20–22
subjective, 227–228, 256
versus confidence, 392–393,
452, 473probability (chance), 225,226–256, 344probability (process), 9–10, 11,
155, 224–372, 415, 416probability (science), 9–10, 11,
20, 267problem-solving, 677–682production (of data), 9–10,16–65, 143, 158, 224,
350, 414, 416, 677–682proportion, 5, 11, 70, 72, 125,291
binomialmean of, 295, 336standard deviation of, 295–299, 336conditional, 152, 204population, 74, 156, 204,346–353, 388–405,413–453
sample, 74, 156, 204, 267,346–353, 388–405,413–453
mean of, 295standard deviation of,295–299
prospective study, 32–33, 34,49–50, 64
Q
Q1(first quartile), 94–95,125–126
Q3(third quartile), 94–95,125–126
qualitative variable, 2quantitative variable, 2–5, 11, 70,82–91, 93–103, 125, 312,356–366, 461–504,628–663
summarizing, 5–6quartiles, 94–95, 125–126, 134question
bias and, 39–43closed, 38–39open, 38–39
R
r (correlation), 170–176,
205–206, 628, 641–643,663
as estimate for populationcorrelation, 634
r (number of rows), 600–602,
613
Trang 38observed (in regression), 182
predicted (in regression), 182
125, 141–143, 228,267–268
biased, 16–17, 83, 350, 352,363
cluster, 20, 25convenience, 19, 25haphazard, 18, 25, 64intercept, 187–188mean, 98–101, 114, 126, 204,
225, 267, 276, 316, 345,356–366, 461–504group (in ANOVA), 545mean of, 356–366,371–372, 464–465standard deviation of,358–359, 360, 362,371–372, 464–465standard error of, 480–481multistage, 20, 25
proportion, 74, 125, 156,
204, 225, 267, 316,346–353, 388–405,413–453
mean of, 295–299, 307,348–349, 371–372standard deviation of,295–299, 307, 349,371–372, 392standard error of, 395random, 20, 83, 225, 296,350
representative, 16–17, 23,52–53, 56, 71, 83, 125,389
self-selected, 19, 25simple random, 20–24size, 21–22, 25, 36, 143, 156,
169, 188–189, 204, 291,
298, 299–303, 336,346–348, 351–352,359–360, 361, 396–400,430–431, 451, 452, 453,
468, 469–471, 493–494,503–504, 533–534,
549–550, 592, 604–608,641
group (in ANOVA), 545slope, 187–188
standard error of, 636–637standard deviation, 101–103,
126, 204, 278, 461stratified, 20, 25, 57survey, 31, 33, 38–43, 64systematic, 20–21, 25unbiased, 16–17, 25volunteer, 19, 25, 53sampling, 17, 18–24distribution, 225, 344–372
of sample mean, 356–366
of sample proportion,346–353
of sample slope, 629–635frame, 19, 25
with replacement, 233–234,241–242
without replacement, 20,233–234, 241–242,293–294, 298–299, 336,
348, 396, 452scatterplot, 166–178, 205,629–645, 651–657selection bias, 19
self-selected sample, 19, 25several-sample study design, 134,137–138, 522, 543–559shape of distribution, 82–91,100–101, 269, 270, 335chi-square, 604, 613
F, 546–547
of sample count, 299–307,336
of sample mean, 357–358,360–361, 362–363,371–372
of sample proportion,299–307, 336, 346–353
of sample slope, 636–637side-by-side boxplots, 134,136–138, 142, 204,531–538
spreads, 141–143, 531
(sigma), 114 See also standard
deviation of population;standard deviation ofrandom variable
estimated with s, 469
in regression, 631–632, 635,
637, 662significant (statistically), 155,430–431
simple random sample, 20, 25
Trang 39chi-square, 601–602,606–608, 613–614
F, 545–559, 568, 569 t
paired, 522–525
in regression, 640, 662–663for single mean, 480–481,503
two-sample, 530, 568test, 416, 556
z
for single mean, 503for single proportion, 453for two proportions,593–595
statistical inference, 9, 11, 73, 83,
155, 156, 224, 311,386–663, 677–682statistically significant, 430–431statistics, as four-stage process,9–10
statistics (science), 5, 226stemplot, 85–89, 125stratified sample, 20, 25, 57strength (of relationship), 166, 168–169, 205
versus strength of evidence,641–643
study design, 16–17, 30–65subject (in experiment), 51–52blind, 53–54
subjective probability, 227–228,256
sum of squareserror (SSE), 548, 555group (SSG), 547, 555Sum-to-One Rule, 229–230, 256,270–271, 314, 335summarizing, 70–206categorical variables, 5–6quantitative variables, 5–6survey (sample), 31, 33, 38–43,64
symmetric, 85, 125systematic sample, 20–21, 25
T
t
confidence intervalpaired, 524–525two-sample, 534–536distribution, 311, 464,480–489, 503–504, 522
3 degrees of freedom, 492
6 degrees of freedom,481–482
8 degrees of freedom,483–484
in regression, 637–638two-sample, 522paired, 522–525, 568confidence interval,524–525
statisticfor single mean, 480–481,503
in regression, 640, 662–663paired, 522–525
two-sample, 530, 568two-sample
confidence interval,534–536
distribution, 522statistic, 530, 568table
ANOVA, 555–556
of expected counts, 156, 599–602, 613normal, 119, 318, 319, 336two-way, 151–155, 204,238–251
tails (of normal curve), 112–113,
126, 326–330, 337,363–364, 371, 372,400–401, 472test statistic, 416, 556time series, 189–190, 206plot, 189, 206
treatment, 52trend (in time series), 189trough (in time series), 189truncating (in stemplot), 88–89,125
two-samplestudy design, 48–49, 64,134–136, 522, 528–538
t distribution, 522
t statistic, 528–530, 568, 569
pooled, 536–538, 569two-sided alternative, 418,425–429
two-way table, 151–155, 204,238–251
Types I and II Error, 35, 433–435,
452, 494–495
U
unbiasedestimator, 296, 336, 358, 390,463
sample, 16–17, 25, 73
734 Index
Trang 40numerical, 2qualitative, 2quantitative, 2–5, 11, 70,82–91, 93–103, 125, 312,356–366, 461–504,628–663
summarizing, 5–6random, 224–225, 267–337,
345, 346, 358 See also
random variablerelationship, 2, 7–9, 17, 33,
70, 133, 150–160,165–192, 204–206,
520–522 See also
relationship (betweenvariables)
response, 7–9, 11, 135, 151,
168, 204–205roles, 7–9, 11, 158, 167, 225,605
effect on correlation,
175, 206effect on regression line, 184–185, 206
type, 2–9, 225, 230
variance, 101volunteer sample, 19, 25, 53
68–95–99.7 Rule, 115–116,
117, 126, 319–323, 326,336–337
statisticfor single mean, 503for single proportion, 453for two proportions,593–595
test, about two proportions,592–595, 613
z-score, 114–119, 126, 403, 428
Index 735