Gathering and sharing knowledge challenges in education amid knowledge explosion

In Defense of Eclecticism and Knowledge Management A cursory glance at the titles in this collection may lead one to categorize it as an “eclectic assembly” about knowledge. Such a label, however, would be hitting it squarely on the head. Isn’t humanity’s collective knowledge an eclectic assemblage, and isn’t a truly learned person a person with knowledge in many disciplines? Traditionally, a “Renaissance person” was an individual with astuteness and familiarity in varied disciplines. A contemporary Renaissance person is an eclectic jackofalltrades. Neither knowledge nor eclecticism is undesirable. The essays in this collection are strung together on the thread of “sharing of knowledge”. Sharing, as in imparting knowledge in a formal classroom setting; sharing as in disseminating information to large populations in a society. Teachers, policy makers, and businesspersons are wrestling with two important issues: one, presenting relevant, timely, and useful information to their users and two, placing the information where the users may reach and access it easily. Assuming that “educated decisions” are in the best interest of people in a society, it is important that users of the knowledge, be it students in a classroom, or public at large, have the choice in deciding the value, worth, and usefulness of a particular piece of information before accepting or discarding it. Broadly speaking, the essays in this collection are about creation, dissemination, and results of knowledge sharing efforts. Such a grouping lends itself to three sections: Theoretical framework around knowledge management, the organization of knowledge for formal instruction, and presenting knowledge in a given society. The opening essay by Rehman lays a broad foundation by describing the purpose, place, and importance of managing and sharing knowledge in formal learning settings. He offers practical approaches to planning and imparting instructions. Simplistic as it may seem, Rehman’s recommendations are grounded in research. His arguments appeal equally to logic and common sense. The two papers in Section II report on a society’s attempt at sharing knowledge with its various publics. Marta Koszko discusses and dissects the use of Quick Response bar codes, their display in public places, and users’ reactions to QR codes, smartphones and technological sophistication necessary to make use of such communication. Marta Koszko questions the relevance of recent technological devices that are supposed to help people communicate more effectively and access information more easily. She describes the early attempts of introducing the Quick Response (QR) codes in Poland. The postal stamp lookalike squares have endless functions from carrying a boarding card to scanning and depositing a check into one’s checking account. One can pay a bill by scanning the QR code on a bill or get directions to a museum by scanning the QR code on a poster at a train station. Koszko argues that while it is an extremely useful technology in providing, sharing, and accessing information, it is of little use for someone who is not about to board a plane or pay a bill or visit a museum. Or if a person does not own a device that can scan a QS code and then perform various functions. For such nonusers, the display of QR codes in public places is an intrusion. Such persons may also feel excluded from the communication that is occurring through this new technology. Are the QR codes to improve communication among the providers and the users or is it to exclude certain people from the communication process. She agrees that if one has a proper device one has the information, without it, one is unable to access certain information. She concludes that for some, these devices may be useful, for others these may be unessential. Monika Chomątowska revisits the question of turning cities into metropolises. Reminiscent of żerman expressionist cinema and Żritz Lang’s landmark silent film Metropolis (1927) that presented a futuristic urban dystopia producing dehumanization, totalitarian control, and environmental disaster leading to cataclysmic decline in society, Chomatowska asserts that in the name of “knowledge economy”, some governments and international organisations are pushing for metropolization as the future of the world. As more and more opportunities are shifted from the rural areas to the cities, the quality of life in the rural areas deteriorates. People migrate to the cities in pursuit of employment, education, and healthcare. Such depopulation of the rural areas and the overpopulation in the cities has widened the gap between metropolises and the countryside creating a visible social exclusion that is afflicting both rural and metropolitan populations, and has produced a social underclass in the rapidly growing cities in Asia, Africa, and South America. Offering examples of transformation of European cities such as Barcelona, Glasgow, and Stockholm, she questions the social and economic benefits of metropolization. Just as expressionistic cinema introduced a new form of conflict man versus city in narrative structure. Chomątowska warns us of the deepening of internal disparities in metropolises, of high unemployment among immigrants, hence creating a poor underclass. The lure of a better life in a big city is giving way to a dual city with rich gated communities near slums where the children of poor immigrants attend the worse schools and the poverty becomes heritable. The newcomers from rural areas often lose their cultural values. The moral standards in metropolises are also different from those in traditional societies– e.g. higher divorce rates, consumeristic lifestyle, placing career above family life, and loose sexual contacts have resulted from the creation of metropolitan cities. Careful knowledge management and communication need to be put in place before cities turn into futuristic nightmares.Three essays in Section III are case studies from classrooms where educators and facilitators are facing the challenges of reconciling with cultural values and social issues. Lyon Rathbun is teaching in a violenceridden town on the border between the US and Mexico where gunfire exchanges between the members of the drug cartel and the law enforcement agencies are everyday occurrences; where innocent bystanders risk getting caught in the crossfire and getting killed. It is not easy to teach grammar when the students are preoccupied with guns, or to the students to pay attention to calculus or chemistry when kidnapping and human trafficking are eminent. In such a challenging classroom, Rathbum teaches literature. In a firstperson style, he describes the challenges he faced and how he overcame these. As a personal account, he tells a moving story of how he has taken the reality of the students lives and made it relevant to literature. His narrative is moving and heartwarming. He has added a new dimension to sharing knowledge by building trust between the learner and the teacher. Silvia Emilia Plăcintar offers a fresh perspective on the real mission of teaching to prepare the students so that they can manage (careers, work, life) on their own. She reports on the findings of a crosscultural study of students from China and Romania. Through observation and self reporting, she explains that reflective thinking is carried out differently by people from different cultures. Simply put, different people think and approach problemsolving differently. She analyzes her findings on dimensions such as individualistic versus collectivist cultures, high context versus lowcontext cultures, and independence versus interdependence. Her observations offer new perspectives on two cultures – Chinese and Romanian. She notes that attitudes towards task completion thought process, and willingness to collaborate and interact differ significantly between the Chinese and Romanian adult learners. Despite their cultural differences, she concludes that interaction with their counterparts from another culture, both groups become aware of the shortcomings in their own perspectives and the need to readjust their thinking and interaction to work productively with others. Her findings are conclusion are yet another reminder that as the “global village” emerges, the need for interdependence becomes selfevident.

Knowledge Management and Challenges in Education

Editors, Erika Grodzki and Clarinda Calma

Knowledge Management: Challenges

in Curriculum Design amid Knowledge

Explosion

Section II Acceptance of New Bar Codes (QR codes) in

Poland - Not Just yet

Metropolization in the Age of Knowledge Economy:

Is it Building Bridges or Building Walls?

Section III Piercing the Armor of Indifference: A battle

Fought in a classroom

Cultural Influences on Reflective Thinking

Managing Knowledge Technology in an Educational Context

Section IV

Cultural Knowledge Gaps (Lacunas): Challenges in Cross-Cultural Advertising

Erika Grodzki & Kinga Kowalewska 87

Desirable Personality Traits in Long-Term Partners

In Defense of Eclecticism and Knowledge Management

A cursory glance at the titles in this collection may lead one to categorize it as an “eclectic assembly” about knowledge Such a label, however, would be hitting it squarely on the head Isn’t humanity’s collective knowledge an eclectic assemblage, and isn’t a truly learned person a person with knowledge in many disciplines? Traditionally, a “Renaissance person” was an individual with astuteness and familiarity in varied disciplines A contemporary Renaissance person is an eclectic jack-of-all-trades

Neither knowledge nor eclecticism is undesirable The essays in this collection are strung together

on the thread of “sharing of knowledge” Sharing, as in imparting knowledge in a formal classroom setting; sharing as in disseminating information to large populations in a society

Teachers, policy makers, and businesspersons are wrestling with two important issues: one, presenting relevant, timely, and useful information to their users and two, placing the information where the users may reach and access it easily

Assuming that “educated decisions” are in the best interest of people in a society, it is important that users of the knowledge, be it students in a classroom, or public at large, have the choice in deciding the value, worth, and usefulness of a particular piece of information before accepting or discarding it

Broadly speaking, the essays in this collection are about creation, dissemination, and results of knowledge sharing efforts Such a grouping lends itself to three sections: Theoretical framework around knowledge management, the organization of knowledge for formal instruction, and presenting knowledge in a given society

The opening essay by Rehman lays a broad foundation by describing the purpose, place, and importance of managing and sharing knowledge in formal learning settings He offers practical approaches to planning and imparting instructions Simplistic as it may seem, Rehman’s recommendations are grounded in research His arguments appeal equally to logic and common sense

The two papers in Section II report on a society’s attempt at sharing knowledge with its various publics Marta Koszko discusses and dissects the use of Quick Response bar codes, their display

in public places, and users’ reactions to QR codes, smartphones and technological sophistication necessary to make use of such communication

Marta Koszko questions the relevance of recent technological devices that are supposed to help people communicate more effectively and access information more easily She describes the early

attempts of introducing the Quick Response (QR) codes in Poland The postal stamp look-alike squares have endless functions from carrying a boarding card to scanning and depositing a check into one’s checking account One can pay a bill by scanning the QR code on a bill or get directions

to a museum by scanning the QR code on a poster at a train station Koszko argues that while it is

an extremely useful technology in providing, sharing, and accessing information, it is of little use for someone who is not about to board a plane or pay a bill or visit a museum Or if a person does not own a device that can scan a QS code and then perform various functions For such non-users, the display of QR codes in public places is an intrusion Such persons may also feel excluded from the communication that is occurring through this new technology Are the QR codes to improve communication among the providers and the users or is it to exclude certain people from the communication process She agrees that if one has a proper device one has the information, without it, one is unable to access certain information She concludes that for some, these devices may be useful, for others these may be unessential

Monika Chomątowska revisits the question of turning cities into metropolises Reminiscent of żerman expressionist cinema and Żritz Lang’s landmark silent film Metropolis (1927) that presented a futuristic urban dystopia producing dehumanization, totalitarian control, and environmental disaster leading to cataclysmic decline in society, Chomatowska asserts that in the name of “knowledge economy”, some governments and international organisations are pushing for metropolization as the future of the world As more and more opportunities are shifted from the rural areas to the cities, the quality of life in the rural areas deteriorates People migrate to the cities in pursuit of employment, education, and healthcare Such depopulation of the rural areas and the overpopulation in the cities has widened the gap between metropolises and the countryside creating a visible social exclusion that is afflicting both rural and metropolitan populations, and has produced a social underclass in the rapidly growing cities in Asia, Africa, and South America

Offering examples of transformation of European cities such as Barcelona, Glasgow, and Stockholm, she questions the social and economic benefits of metropolization Just as

expressionistic cinema introduced a new form of conflict -man versus city- in narrative structure

Chomątowska warns us of the deepening of internal disparities in metropolises, of high unemployment among immigrants, hence creating a poor underclass The lure of a better life in a big city is giving way to a dual city with rich gated communities near slums where the children of poor immigrants attend the worse schools and the poverty becomes heritable The newcomers from rural areas often lose their cultural values The moral standards in metropolises are also different from those in traditional societies– e.g higher divorce rates, consumeristic lifestyle, placing career above family life, and loose sexual contacts have resulted from the creation of metropolitan cities Careful knowledge management and communication need to be put in place before cities turn into futuristic nightmares

Three essays in Section III are case studies from classrooms where educators and facilitators are facing the challenges of reconciling with cultural values and social issues

Lyon Rathbun is teaching in a violence-ridden town on the border between the US and Mexico where gunfire exchanges between the members of the drug cartel and the law enforcement agencies are everyday occurrences; where innocent bystanders risk getting caught in the crossfire and getting killed It is not easy to teach grammar when the students are preoccupied with guns,

or to the students to pay attention to calculus or chemistry when kidnapping and human trafficking are eminent In such a challenging classroom, Rathbum teaches literature

In a first-person style, he describes the challenges he faced and how he overcame these As a personal account, he tells a moving story of how he has taken the "reality" of the students' lives and made it relevant to literature His narrative is moving and heart-warming He has added a new dimension to sharing knowledge by building trust between the learner and the teacher

Silvia Emilia Plăcintar offers a fresh perspective on the real mission of teaching - to prepare the students so that they can manage (careers, work, life) on their own She reports on the findings of

a cross-cultural study of students from China and Romania Through observation and reporting, she explains that reflective thinking is carried out differently by people from different cultures Simply put, different people think and approach problem-solving differently She analyzes her findings on dimensions such as individualistic versus collectivist cultures, high-context versus low-context cultures, and independence versus interdependence Her observations offer new perspectives on two cultures – Chinese and Romanian

self-She notes that attitudes towards task completion thought process, and willingness to collaborate and interact differ significantly between the Chinese and Romanian adult learners Despite their cultural differences, she concludes that interaction with their counterparts from another culture, both groups become aware of the shortcomings in their own perspectives and the need to readjust their thinking and interaction to work productively with others Her findings are conclusion are yet another reminder that as the “global village” emerges, the need for interdependence becomes self-evident

Lucyna Wilinkiewicz-Górniak focuses on specifics of identifying a need and designing instruction

to satisfy that need in a Business program at a university in Poland Although immersed in a theoretical framework, her approach and application are practical and useful to the extent that teachers around the globe may find her method and approach flexible enough to be adaptable in many cultures She notes that many of today’s learners are digital natives while the teachers might still be exploring digital horizons as digital immigrants Still, the two share a common path lighted

by the promise of knowledge management – generating, storing and sharing knowledge She also reports on the differences in attitudes and perceptions of teachers and learners She, nevertheless,

finds more similarities than differences Her optimistic conclusion: “… technology has become

an indispensable element in the educational process”

Two essays in Section IV address cultural differences and values Applying the Lacuna theory to international advertising, Erika Grodzki and Kinga Kowalewska, point to the challenges of incorporating cultural values in creating appealing advertisement copy and images Comparing ads for beer in the US and Poland, Grodzki and Kowalewska demonstrate that since different traits and values are seen as important in the two countries, incorporate images and text highlighting these important values in their ads Consequently, American beer ads stress notions of self-reliance, independence, and the outdoors while the Polish ads for beer make references to tradition, strength, and family

These authors also caution the reader of the limitations an outsider has when witnessing different cultures Newcomers (visitors, strangers, foreigners) are unable to detect many of the linguistic, behavioral, and ideological idiosyncrasies in a new culture leaving the outsiders at a disadvantage and gaps in their understanding and knowledge of the new culture Their essay is a signpost reminding us that people’s impressions of a foreign culture are far from complete if limited to their own observations and interpretations For a fuller understanding, one needs assistance from the indigenous

The final essay by Rehman takes us full circle He describes how knowledge is managed (gathered, evaluated and used) in mate selection For most people, mate selection is a serious matter and people try to obtain as much information as possible about the other person before reaching a selection decision

Different cultures place different weights and values on different personality traits in mate selection Some traits such as earning potential, emotional stability, ability to bear children as are seen as more desirable, other traits such as lack of ambition, indecisiveness, and being self-centered are perceived as less desirable Focusing on the Hispanic-American culture, Rehman argues that three variables play an important role in long-term partner selection These variables are gender, age, and perceived relationship status He concludes that even though most people get married, men and women do not look for the same traits in their partners There might be some truth, after all, to the notion that men are from Mars and women are from Venus However, creatures on both planets are desperately grappling for quality information, i.e., the need for knowledge management

Editors

Section I

Knowledge management: Challenges in curriculum design amid knowledge explosion

Sharaf Rehman

Abstract

This essay focuses on three areas Firstly, it describes the changing role of universities and the faculty, secondly, it defines knowledge management within the academic context, and thirdly, it describes the application of knowledge management in curriculum design

Keywords: Knowledge acquisition, Knowledge management, Changing role of a

university, Curriculum design

Academe in Transition

Among the numerous changes that have ensued in the process of transition from the agricultural age to the digital age, one is that of function and role of the universities The preliminary purpose of universities was to provide instruction in philosophy, logic, rhetoric, ethics, and religion Young men (and some women) that attended these institutions came from affluent families and as such these young learners were not likely

to seek gainful employments at the end of their university education Universities were,

in the true sense of the term, in knowledge management business Universities saw themselves as beacons of enlightenment and insight, not suppliers of diplomas that serve

as union cards for various professions

The working classes that needed and sought jobs learned their trade or craft through the process of apprenticeship Members of these lower classes did not attend universities They went to trade schools or technical institutes It is apparent that in our present time the initial purpose of the universities has become faded if not been forgotten

As societies moved from aristocratic cultures to egalitarian and industrialized nations the need for formal training in professions such as medicine, law, engineering, and farming became necessary Initially, the responsibility of preparing the skilled professionals in these areas was assumed by trade schools As late as 1920, universities in the United States taught poetry not pottery, ethics not electronics, and mathematics not mechanical engineering Our institutions of higher education no longer have such luxury; today our universities' smorgasbord offers college credit for the auto repair, break dancing, surfing, French pastry, and managing small businesses

Economic reality for most university students of today is such that they are going to need and look for jobs in specific trades As a result, they seem to have no use, appetite or

“Information is not knowledge.” - Albert Einstein

patience for the arts, philosophy, and literature Students come to the institutions of higher education, not for enlightenment but to prepare for trades

Henceforward, the universities have transformed into trade schools, and professors are dubbed as trainers, facilitators, and mentors Focus is no longer Plato’s Republic or Homer's Iliad but the corporate cultures of Google and Microsoft; heroes of the Greek mythology have been replaced by Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, Martha Stewart, Paula Dean, and Donald Trump The faculty members that can teach the “in-demand” skills are retained and rewarded

The shift is neither good nor bad It is what the global economy dictates Species living in water learned to swim or they died out; species living on land learned to walk and run or got consumed by bigger and stronger creatures Big business runs the global economies; the educational institutions produce the workforce for these corporations Survival is still the name of the game

Will the trend reverse? Unlikely Will there be a time when knowledge for its own sake is viewed as valuable? It's doubtful The current thinking of a typical university student is: How does any particular set of courses help me in obtaining and/or retaining a job? And this is the tail that has wagged the institutions of higher learning The new mission of the universities is to produce employable individuals Universities are ranked in terms of their graduation rates and average starting salaries of their graduates Read as: an understanding of megapixels is valued more than appreciating the Mona Lisa

Although the universities do not openly admit in their mission statements, but more and more of the institutions are being run as businesses Terms such as Total Quality Management, Lean Operations, Rightsizing, Outsourcing, and Meeting the Customers' Needs are no longer uncommon among the university administrators Students are seen

as paying customers and efforts of recruiting students are beginning to resemble the battles for larger market shares fought by the likes of soft drink makers, automobile producers, cosmetic industry, insurance companies and financial institutions Businesses that cease to be profitable, are shut down Many of the liberal arts universities in the United States are facing shutdowns

Universities have begun to make claims that they are offering the best value for the investment (tuition dollars); the return on investment is promised in comparison tables and charts with starting salaries of their recent graduates Faculty are hired, promoted and retained using criteria that add value to a campus This is done either through research and publishing potential or a track record for attracting grants and external

Institutions that can produce employable individuals are seen as the right schools to attend

funding to an institution Faculty's priorities have shifted from teaching to publishing and seeking outside funds While these changes are taking place on campuses, the human knowledge base is increasing exponentially It is estimated to double every five years

Knowledge Management

Knowledge Management (KM) is a term that came into vogue in the 1990s Consulting companies that offered to assist the business institutions in gathering, acquiring, disseminating, and protecting their corporate knowledge, devised it The two decades, the 1970s and the 1980s were a testing time for corporate America American auto industry, steel industry, earth-moving equipment manufacturing and many other industries suffered great losses

During the era of mergers and acquisitions, from 1975 to 1990, the businesses were not only concerned about losing market shares but were also worried about losing a vast body

of knowledge and expertise that was likely to vanish with the disappearance of the baby boomers due to retirements and passing on Corporations felt that since the older employees acquired their experience and knowledge while working for the company, the company had the right to it The problem was extracting the knowledge from the older employees and passing it on to the next generation

Knowledge management consultants offered solutions for transfer of knowledge and plans for developing reward systems for the older employees for sharing their expertise and experience

An early definition by Davenport (1994) is still widely used: "Knowledge management is the process of capturing, distributing, and effectively using knowledge."

Others have expanded and elaborated on the concept One of the most frequently cited is

by Duhon, (1998):

"Knowledge management is a discipline that promotes an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, evaluating, retrieving, and sharing all of an enterprise's information assets These assets may include databases, documents, policies, procedures, and previously un-captured expertise and experience in individual workers." – The Gartner Group –

These and many other definitions share strong organizational / business orientation Knowledge management has primarily been about managing the knowledge of and within

Knowledge management is the process of creating, organizing,

storing and sharing important information

organizations Borrowing from and blending many definitions, this author proposes a definition that might be more suited to educational institutions

This definition stresses two concepts - determining what is important and how to go about sharing it

Importance Within a formal learning-teaching environment, this is based on what our

learners need to know, why would they need it, where might they find it, and how might they retrieve it The importance of any set of knowledge can be determined by using a filtering process Sometimes this is referred to as the selection process (O’Dell & Hubert, 2011) and can be reduced to a simple model - The 3- “W”s Model The three “W”s stand for What, Why and When

The “what” aspect of the model is used to determine the content of a syllabus for a course

or the curriculum for an academic program This is also referred to as “Just the right stuff” approach Since higher education and teaching have become synonymous with skills for performance at a job, the following questions may guide a knowledge planner in identifying such “right stuff”

It is becoming increasingly important to prepare the learners for tomorrow, and for the developments that are on the horizon than telling them what used to be available in the past This is not to undermine history; we cannot know ourselves unless we know our history However, if pointed to the appropriate books and sources, the learners can carry out such self-discovery on their own

What Why

When

Three ‘W’s Model (Rehman, 2014)

1 What skills/sets of knowledge do the learners need to perform their jobs?

2 Do I need to teach them the information or will they acquire it over time On their own?

3 Can I direct them to where they can learn these skills on their own?

The “why” aspect of the model focuses on making knowledge relevant to specific learners

In an age where instant gratification is preferred over delayed rewards, the learner wants

to know:

What’s in it for me - today?

Guiding questions are:

What is the immediate benefit to the learners?

What maybe the long-term benefit to the learners?

The knowledge that is perceived as “useful” is attended to and retained People listen to

us if and when we have a solution for their immediate problem or their future problems Knowledge has to be specific to the learner’s needs

The third “W” of the model addresses the question – when to teach or offer any knowledge? When are people the most teachable? When they are facing a problem Most people and organizations operate on a reactive model, i.e., deal with the problem when it arises While the proactive approach would suggest planning and anticipating in advance,

or taking precautions so that the problem would not arise

When should we present the knowledge so that it is used and not ignored or forgotten? For this, we may us e “just-in-time” (JIT) approach - an inventory management system that was first employed by the Japanese The idea behind JIT is that instead of warehousing supplies or parts and tying money in storing the materials, one should have the materials delivered exactly when they will be needed By providing the information when a learner is going to need it, chances are that it will be attended to, remembered, and put to use If the same information is given, say, a month ahead of time, it may not

be considered important and thus may not be retained Information coming too late is obviously of no use The mantra is: Just enough, just for them, just in time

Knowledge stems from data and information Often we confuse data, information, and knowledge These three are not interchangeable

Data is specific information or figure For example:

Information is organized data

Knowledge is for the future, not the past

Data is not knowledge, not even close.

• 25 conference attendees at the 6th Communication Arts Conference

• 1000 Żine Arts students at New York Art Institute

• Johan Polanski, the rector of New York Art Institute

Now the data make more sense

Knowledge builds on information to give it context Johan Polanski is the rector of New York Art institute that has 1000 Fine Arts students This is the 6th annual conference of Communication Arts being held at the Institute

The key difference between information and knowledge is that information adds meaning

to data Knowledge gives one the power to make decisions, take action, and accomplish tasks

Koenig (2012) suggests that there are three types of knowledge: explicit, implicit, and tacit

Explicit knowledge is set out in tangible form It is the kind of knowledge that one can show, tell, share and teach to others through written or oral communication; For instance,

a textbook in accounting, a university’s course catalog, a company’s policy manual, and instructions for using a GPS device Explicit knowledge is quantifiable It is more tangible

Implicit knowledge is not set out in tangible form but could be made explicit Learning to ride a bicycle or learning to swim are examples of such knowledge acquisition This is the learning complex information in an incidental manner, without becoming aware of what has been learned Drawing inferences and making deductions are also examples of implicit knowledge

Ta cit knowledge is in “one’s head” and is extremely difficult to convert into tangible form

- the type of knowledge that is difficult to write down, visualize, or transfer from one person to another

Tacit knowledge is not so easy to measure It includes things we come to know through experience Sometimes we are unaware of our tacit knowledge For instance, in some cultures friendships and socializing are important in building business relationships An experienced businessperson knows that a certain client is not going to sign the deal unless

he or she plays golf with the client We acquire such bits of acumen through experience However, there is no guarantee that socializing with the clients will always render identical results Some other common examples of tacit knowledge are:

• Aesthetic Sense

“We can know more than we can tell.” - Michael Polanyi

Knowledge Management Process

Several models have been proposed by different scholars in the field Dataware Technologies Inc (1998), focusing on a particular problem for a specific business, offered

a seven-step model with the following steps:

• Step 1: Identifying the Business Problem

• Step 2: Preparing for Change

• Step 3: Creating the Team

• Step 4: Performing the Knowledge Audit

• Step 5: Defining the Key Features

• Step 6: Building Blocks for Knowledge Management

• Step 7: Linking Knowledge to People

Simmons (2013) broadened the model’s application by adding evaluation and assessment

as an extra step offering an eight-step process These were:

• Step 1: Establish Knowledge Management Program Objectives

• Step 2: Prepare for Change

• Step 3: Define High-Level Process

• Step 4: Determine and Prioritize Technology Needs

• Step 5: Assess Current State

• Step 6: Build a Knowledge Management Implementation Roadmap

• Step 7: Implementation

• Step 8: Measure and Improve the Knowledge Management Program

This author proposes a four-step process that may serve the needs of educators and trainers The four steps are creating, capturing, organizing, and sharing

1 Creating This step includes activities such as learning about the existing

knowledge of the learners, researching their needs, adding new learning

materials to existing ones, and developing an instructional strategy

2 Capturing Harvesting existing knowledge, modifying it to the needs of the

learners

3 Organizing Categorizing the information and storing it for easy retrieval

4 Sharing Communicating to the learners about the learning strategy, teaching, and disseminating to the appropriate learners/users

The above model relies on an understanding of the what, why, and when for completing the first two steps The third step, organizing, also assumes that the knowledge will be organized in a systematic matter, i.e., progressing from simple to complex, from identification and categorization to analysis and synthesis Equally important are the location of the information and the mode in which it is made available

The technology used for organizing and storing the information has to be synchronous with the technology and resources available to the learners

The best-developed materials are of little value if the learners are unable to afford these Similarly, if the knowledge is placed on the Internet that is either inaccessible or incompatible, the effort is in vain Invariably, sharing and usage would lead to feedback that may guide revisions for the next go-round

A growing body of literature in knowledge management suggests that it is not a trend (Ponzi & Koenig, 2012) It is here to stay, and for good reasons Knowledge is power and

it gives one competitive advantage The world is rapidly turning into a competitive environment – not just in business but also in academe Trainers and teachers will be well served if they were to adapt any one of the variations on knowledge management

2 Capturing

1 Creating 3 Organizing

4 Sharing Knowledge Management: A four-step process (Rehman, 2014)

Knowledge Management and Curriculum Development

As educators and trainers, educational institutions are constantly creating, collection, repackaging, and selling knowledge In our current economy, the first step for higher education institutions out to be the gathering of information about the kinds of job opportunities that will be available to the students It is clear that many of the jobs of yesteryears are going to disappear or be performed by robots and computers Universities should gather information about the sets of knowledge, skills, and talents that are going

to be needed in the job market Such knowledge would determine the ‘what’ and the

‘when’ of curriculum content

The society in general and the universities, in particular, have to accept the fact that a vast majority of American students are coming to universities for job preparation, not intellectual curiosity Core curricula attempt to integrate some content from the liberal arts, humanities, and fine arts, however, as specific knowledge within each discipline continues to grow, the liberal arts education is going to be squeezed out of the General Education Core

The task for the higher education institutions is not only to attract and retain students but also to prepare them for the job market The challenge is to offer a curriculum that offers

a good balance between needed job skills, social skills, and people skills

Knowledge management can help an educational institution is several ways

It helps transform data into information As mentioned earlier, data or numbers mean very little; it is placing these in a proper and useful context that turns them into information Information can then be turned into knowledge

Tracking and recording data can prevent knowledge loss Reports and documents prepared by teams or individuals, if not cataloged, organized, and stored, will be lost

If and when two teams are working on somewhat similar projects, there may be a duplication of effort Effective Knowledge management will detect such duplication, allow for information sharing resulting in increased efficiency

An active knowledge management plan encourages sharing of information – such open sharing benefits everyone in an organization This also ensures that the knowledge will

be used

Knowledge does not improve by itself It needs constant updating, deleting and adding Old statistical data is of little use So are sales figures from ten years ago, or student performance records For such data to be useful, these have to be compared with more recent data to detect any trends, changes, or fluctuations

At the end of the process cycle (sharing stage), as one conducts evaluations and assessments, one can measure the success of an effort

Knowledge has to be improved, challenged, and increased constantly, or

it vanishes

Peter Drucker

It is fair to say that knowledge drives higher education and training Knowledge is not only a product that we develop and offer our students, we also use it in decision making, developing strategy, and communication with our stakeholder

Surprisingly, resistance to knowledge management in businesses as well as academe comes from inside Commonly knowledge management faces two challenges First, many people are unwilling to share knowledge They may feel that their professional advantage

is based on their experience and knowledge By sharing their expertise they may lose their edge The second reason for people’s unwillingness comes from their fear that what they have to offer or share may not be seen as valuable and, hence, sharing may cause them embarrassment Such resistance, especially in competitive environments, cultures, and organizations is no easy to overcome However, once the value of sharing knowledge and knowledge management is made evident, organizations can establish systems that reward knowledge sharing through financial compensation, recognitions, and promotion Organizations can also make a gradual shift from a competitive culture to a collaborative culture where everyone shares and all information is available to all In such cases, the expertise is established through sharing and bringing knowledge to others This is an established fact that in organizations, teams and groups produce better results that individuals

More and more, organizations are rewarding their senior members for sharing their expertise before retiring Universities can do the same by encouraging their senior faculty

to mentor younger faculty members, and alumni and seniors to share their knowledge with the younger students This can also take the form of mentoring Research indicates that students find it easier to learn from each other than from their professors (2013) Students mentoring other students serve two important functions The older students feel involved; the younger students feel valued Both of these result in students staying in college and completing their programs

It would serve the academic community well to rethink course content in light of knowledge management and sharing Such an approach is more likely to create a culture

of collaboration rather than competitiveness When knowledge is easily accessed and shared, it encourages cooperation and creativity; people feel empowered On our campuses with students and faculty from diverse cultures and backgrounds, such sharing could only lead to increased mutual respect and understanding

References

Davenport, Thomas H (1994) Saving IT's soul: Human-centered information

management Harvard Business Review, March-April, 72 (2) pp 119-131

Duarte, G & Miller, E (2014) Mentoring diverse populations Ronkonkoma, NY: Linus

Publications

Duhon, B (1998), It's all in our heads Inform, September, 12 (8)

Durham, M (2004) Three critical roles for knowledge management workspaces In

M.E.D Koenig & T K Srikantaiah (Eds.), Knowledge management: Lessons learned: What works and what doesn't (pp 23-36) Medford NJ: Information Today, for the

American Society for Information Science and Technology

Koenig, M.E.D (2012) What is KM: Knowledge management explained Retrieved from http://www.kmworld.com/Articles/Editorial/What-Is- /What-is-KM-Knowledge- Management-Explained-82405.aspx?iframe=true&width=90%&height=90%

McInerney, C M and Koenig, M E D., (2011), Knowledge Management (KM) processes

in Organizations: Theoretical Foundations and Practice, Morgan and Claypool

O’Dell, C & Hubert, C (2011) The New Edge in Knowledge Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &

Sons

Ponzi L., & Koenig, M (2002) Knowledge Management: Another management fad?

Information Research, 8(1) Retrieved from 1/paper145.html

http://informationr.net/ir/8-Section II

Acceptance of New Bar Codes (QR codes) in Poland - Not Just yet

Marta Koszko

Abstract

To function in a gadget-oriented society, following the latest technologies is inevitable Not being up-to-date with the advanced devices and their applications may place one with those perceived as ignorant or technologically illiterate Quick Response (QR) codes that have infiltrated Poland are one such innovation These new barcodes serve various communicative purposes, e.g these stamp-like squares hold information about

a product, a service, or a location While this technology has been a success in many other European countries, for Poland, enriching public space with QR codes does not appear to be practical The aim of the study was to gauge the people’s attitude towards the placement and usefulness of the QR codes in presenting different sorts of information The focus was to determine whether QR codes improved communication and access to information The responses revealed that QR codes were not seen as essential in all contexts and their presence might have led to the information exclusion

of people who did not own the devices with a barcode scanner application For this reason, some may declare the new codes as a communication failure At least for now, the QR codes could be placed "between communicative support and hindrance"

Keywords: Technology, QR codes, Communication, Information Exclusion, Public

Space

Introduction

Many years ago, discussions around the notion of space and communication focused mainly on the interactions between the elements of space, space users, and how these communicators and space were intertwined Since telephones and personal computers providing access to the Internet were confined to homes and office and were rarely used

in open urban space, these were left out of the dialogue about public urban space With the rapid technological advances in communication and theories and practices about the use of public space, a new insight and models have surfaced to address and adjust to the changing urban reality For example, locative media projects – street games – combine three elements: (1) location of a user, (2) “electronic world of information and the system

of interaction”, and (3) the concept of augmented reality (Drakopoulou, 2013, p 4)

It seems that functioning in the present day urban space reality requires more than just the basic communicative skills from the average space user The production of urban space is based on devices such as mobile phones, smartphones, Google Glass, and other similar applications that allow for scanning, screening, tracking, navigating, and retrieving information The question becomes: Is a simple space user supported or burdened by these gadgets and their applications in the urban space?

When discussing technological advancements people often wonder whether so many devices are necessary Many may conclude that instead of being helpful in communication, these may be a hindrance in communication Therefore, the question arises what influence the latest technologies can have in granting or hindering access to information from the public space

This paper aims to scrutinize a specific technological innovation – the QR codes and their informative/communicative functions The main issues addressed are:

• Do the QR codes improve communication? If so, how?

• Do the QR codes improve access to information?

• Can their presence lead to information exclusion?

QR codes and urban space

QR code – Quick Response Code - are “ a form of two-dimensional (2D) barcode”, or

“camera-readable hypertext tags that eliminate the need to type in a long URL on a mobile device” (Aguila & Breen, 2011, p.1) The idea is not new as the QR codes started around

1994 Since the older barcodes were limited in capacity, a new bar code that was capable

of holding more data was introduced The older barcode could store a dozen numeric pieces of data; the QR codes are capable of storing up to 7,089 numeric pieces of data (Aguila & Breen, 2011, p.1)

O’Hara and Kindberg (2007) suggest that QR codes are a kind of connection between physical places and the content QR codes can, therefore, be seen as a link between an abstract image of space and space users

As a means to store information, the QRs should also be treated as a medium for storing and transmitting information McLuhan (1964) argued that consumers not only related

to but also became dependent on technologies In the present day, may have posited that

by gaining access to many technological devices (smartphones, tablets, Google Glass), the users may become dependent on these devices to the extent that these gadgets begin to shape our behavior, relationships, and interactions with other people Despite the benefits of these devices, it is also likely that some people could misuse or abuse these

gadgets (e.g widely discussed privacy concerns with Google Glass or the controversies over tracking of people with the use of smartphones)

In his notion of the "global village", McLuhan (1964) reasoned that as people become connected, they also become interdependent McLuhan's village was connected through television and movies - visual media independent of text and literacy The village did not include all corners of the globe Nowadays, the media (especially the social media) are capable of connecting the greater number of people around the world However, it still cannot be assumed that technological advancements reach every corner of the world - especially in lesser-advanced counties In analyzing access to devices and their applications, one even finds huge discrepancies in the seemingly technologically developed countries in Western and Central Europe

More and more, QR codes have been incorporated into public urban space By analyzing their location, it is possible to identify the function they may serve in communication between space and city dwellers Public urban space can be defined here as all public spaces – shops, streets and all locations and products that are used in the urban space

The use of technologies in the urban space is borrowed from the concept of space by Lefebvre (1991) Negotiating urban space includes spatial practices such as linking separate places together as in connecting the existing roads, representations of space through city maps, and representational spaces that come from sensory and mental appropriations of space (Lefebvre 1991) This is followed by the notion of human interaction through devices connecting people creating “information space” (Drakopoulou 2013, p 2) This suggests that people, their devices, and space not only coexist; these must coexist As a result, QR codes have become an indispensable element

of the medium-space-people network

When taking into consideration QR codes one often thinks about simple scanning and receiving information QR codes are a lot more In a somewhat controversial example, QR codes are placed on gravestones in some cemeteries in the UK Scanning these codes may redirect to the websites with biographies, images, and films of the deceased (Kasperski, 2012)

In some countries, QR codes have become indispensable in the area of shopping Tesco introduced online shops in Korea, where shopping could be done while waiting for the train in an underground station By scanning the codes of products that were displayed

on big posters on the walls of the underground stations, the consumers made their

selections, and selected goods were delivered at home ("Tesco builds," 2011) A similar initiative has been proposed at Gatwick airport in the UK (Kostiner, 2012)

Recently, a similar proposal surfaced in Poland for the Centrum underground station in Warsaw An online shop Frisco.pl placed a huge poster with the pictures of products, each with its QR code By scanning the codes, consumers could buy particular goods and these would be delivered to their homes (Jasionek, 2013) However, while the Korean example proved extremely successful, the Polish initiative faced some initial criticism

Slowly, the number of QR codes in the public space is on the rise in Poland and more and more people can see them However, due to their newness, peoples' attitude towards them may be rather diversified

Survey

The study addresses three main questions:

• Do the QR codes improve communication? If so, how?

• Do the QR codes improve access to information?

• Can their presence lead to information exclusion?

The survey relies on qualitative content analysis and a survey for quantitative analysis

A Content analysis

Twelve categories of QR codes were chosen for analysis, as presented in Table 1 below The omnipresence of OR codes in the public space would make the analysis much too broad for the capacity of this paper Hence, only most common categories were chosen The main aim of this part of the survey was to identify the categories of QR codes and then analyze their content and usefulness

The first general analysis of the information included in QR codes (based on the chosen

12 categories) leads to the following initial conclusions:

 Very often information provided in QR code is the same as where it was placed (garment label, drug packaging, bus stops) – there appears duplication of information;

 Some codes provide additional information available only after scanning, hence, when being in the possession of a specific device;

 Human factor (interaction) can be less significant than as it used to be in the past, people can be replaced by devices and QR codes, so no interaction is necessary (Komputronik IT shop)

Table 1 QR codes in the public space – general

Placement Content

address, sum)

Clothes /garment labels Washing instructions; information about latest

collections, accessories Food products (sugar, vegetables) Recipes

Magazines, Newspapers Link to a web page

Posters in the underground stations (shopping) Information about groceries and prices, possibility

to buy online

Art galleries information about an object Information about an object

disappeared)

Shops (Komputronik IT shop) – price labels Price labels information about the product, its

usage, and functioning, price

The research was carried out among university students Technological innovations are more often first adopted by younger generations, hence, it was assumed that young people, students, are well familiar with latest technologies and are their passionate users Altogether 39 students participated in a survey All of them were university students who were pursuing 1st (35 students) or 2nd degree (4 students) Therefore, they were all below

30 years old

Table 2 Demographic information about the participants

Questionnaire Findings

The first content questions (questions 3-5) concerned identification of a QR code term, the next one the graphic symbol and how QR codes are read They have revealed that considering young people well-familiar with latest technologies, may be quite far-fetched

as a survey showed an almost equal number of those who know what a QR code is and those who do not know them (Yes – 21; No – 18) Generally, it seems that people, who know what the QR code is, also know how it functions, so it is not just the knowledge of a graphic symbol Some of the definitions which respondents provided are quite similar to those provided by the scholars: “2 dimensional bar code, invented by the Japanese”, “a modern bar code which after being scanned with the devices such as smartphones allows

us to get additional information on a given topic”, “encoded information in a black and white square” Participants also proved they know how QR codes function

Some respondents stated they do not know what the QR code is, they were still able to recognize the symbol and define it (15 out of 18) Maybe not all of them could associate it with a term “QR code” but they could connect it with products, scanning and obtaining information Additionally, it has been revealed (question 5) that many of the respondents know how to read the encoded information Hence, generally, it can be concluded that the

majority of respondents have some knowledge about this form of encoding and spreading the information

Question 6 and 9 were the main and most significant parts of the questionnaire as they were designed to assess the usefulness of QR codes 9 already identified categories were assessed by the participants For each of these categories, the respondents were to answer whether additional information encoded in QR code in a given context is useful (question 6) The exception was the last category, as they were asked if using QR codes for doing shopping in the underground station is useful (question 9)

Although different categories of QR codes have been presented, they all have been analyzed in reference to the research question posed: how and whether QR codes improve communication, access to information, if they can lead to information exclusion Therefore, the answers will not be presented for each category separately The results are divided into Yes/No (useful or useless) explanations while the quantitative results for categories are presented in Table 3

Table 3 The assessment of the usefulness of QR codes in particular

 “makes traveling easier” or “it would facilitate communication/traveling around the city” (bus timetable coded in QR code)

 “you can search for recipes without the need to look through culinary book or the Internet” or “you can quickly find an idea what to make for dinner and all necessary products” (labels on products with recipes encoded in a QR code)

 “customer is aware of the origins of a product” or “saves stickers, paper, foil/wrapper”, “in case of problem it is easier to identify the product” (information about product origins encoded in QR code, e.g vegetables)

 “we can learn fast in what temperature we should wash clothes” or “it can be the source of a good idea” (QR code on a garment - information about washing program, advice on accessories)

 “leaflets are often lost and you cannot check how to dose a drug” or “important information and we should have access to it”, “make life easier, mobility” (information about producer and dosing of a drug - QR code on drug packaging)

 “it is safer”, “makes life easier”, “it would be wonderful to make a transfer having all data in one place” (bills with OR codes)

 “helps in purchasing particular products”, “useful but as an additional information, not as a replacement”, “I know what I’m buying” (additional information about product usage on labels with price – Komputronik IT shop)

 “easy to broaden our knowledge about an interesting topic”, “you don’t have to browse thousands of information before finding the right one”, “it is more convenient to use a link in QR code than to rewrite it from a newspaper” (link to URL with additional information in a newspaper/magazine)

 “easy and fast way of doing shopping”, “you don’t have to carry heavy bags”, “every technological innovation makes us happy, if I have time I can play with it if I’m in

a hurry I prefer a traditional way” (Żrisco shopping in the underground station)

These answers show that similar to many technological innovations the QR codes too can

be perceived as a positive phenomenon, which confirms first two assumptions

Drawbacks of QR codes

Negative responses, however, point to the possible drawbacks and limitations of the QR codes

 “checking the code requires additional time”, “not everyone can scan it”,

“traditional one is better”, “there are other applications such as ‘jak do jadę?’ (“how can I get there”) ” (bus timetable coded in a QR code)

 “low awareness in Poland”, “code may contain an advert” (labels on products with recipes encoded in QR code)

 “you can find such information in a shop, next to a product”, “information should

be accessible to everyone and visible in the shop”, “not everyone can scan it” (information about product origins encoded in QR code, e.g vegetables)

 “you don’t always have a smartphone with you to check this information”, “useless information, we know what accessories we need”, “nobody reads such information” (QR code on a garment - information about washing program, advice

on accessories)

 a lot of emphasis given to elderly people – “it isn’t convenient for elderly people”,

“majority of people who buy drugs are old, they don’t have appropriate devices” (information about producer and dosing of a drug, QR code on drug packaging)

 emphasis on confidentiality and safety – “data is too confidential” , “dangerous, somebody can break into the account”, “not always there is a possibility to scan a code”, “hacking threat” (bills with OR codes)

 “traditional way is sufficient”, “there won’t always be possibility to read such a code”, “too complicated and time-consuming”, “you can ask sales assistant for more information” (additional information about product usage on labels with price – Komputronik)

 “too complicated, the Internet is abundant in websites, pop-up windows, additional code does not save time in this case”, “it isn’t convenient for elderly people and QR code next to traditional information is useless” (link to URL with additional information in a newspaper/magazine)

 “it is easy to make mistakes, it’s difficult to cancel the product”, “not everyone is in the p ossession of a device which can scan the codes”, “I wouldn’t trust such shopping”, “it’s always better to see a product and see if it is not faulty” (Żrisco shopping in underground station)

Two additional open questions (7 and 8) produced a few very interesting observations The first one concerned additional information that participants would expect after scanning the code These included: a price of a product, location of a shop, promotions, discounts, expiry dates, adverts, usage tips, important information which help in buying

a product or functioning in the city e.g at the bus stops; additional information about a product

Most of these requirements are commercial in their nature, and probably this is what people associate QR codes with most often Some suggestions also refer to functioning in the urban space It should, however, be indicated that expected additional information does not refer to any non-commercial aspects, such as historic-informative function (e.g information next to monuments)

The second question focused on the suggestions concerning the placement of a code The opinions drifted from the commercial aspect, more towards cultural and organizational ones and included: museums, theatres, information about exhibitions, plays, films, help

in sightseeing the city – codes with information next to monuments, interesting places in the city, touristic places, information boards, restaurants and cafes (menu, price list); school/university – information about duty hours of tutors, on a tram, bus, plane tickets,

in a hospital – information about doctors’ duties, telephone numbers; books/dictionaries,

it would redirect the reader to electronic versions; cosmetics These suggestions indicated that there may be the need for having brief, constant and personal access to cultural information, even more than to commercial ones, which are often at hand and omnipresent Question 10 was supposed to provide the general opinion about the QR codes It consisted of 8 brief and general points presented in Table 4 below

Table 4 General opinions about QR codes

QR codes are necessary 6

QR codes are not necessary 7

QR codes are helpful in gaining

I don’t scan the codes because: 6

It takes too much time 2

I don’t have a device 8

QR codes require specific devices, and if

we don’t have them we will not get

information written in codes

18

QR codes restrict access to information

e.g for elderly people (lack of

knowledge of how to operate a device)

18

smartphone

Discussion and conclusions

Technological innovations and advancements are indispensable elements of the present day reality They serve various purposes and may evoke a great number of reactions The conducted research focused on three aspects concerning the QR codes

The first one assumed that QR codes improve communication This assumption cannot

be unanimously confirmed Communication was understood in this question as a transfer

of information on a mass scale When the variety of contexts in which QR codes appear is considered, it can be said that they certainly facilitate communication process – being constantly available Transfer of information is fast but sometimes time-consuming Therefore, many people may face a dilemma whether using QR codes scanner is worth additional time Especially that QR codes may provide unnecessary information, which is already available without scanning (duplication of information) However, the need to place QR codes in more places has been indicated e.g in cultural/organizational contexts, hence the communicative potential of QR code is clearly noticed

The second question focused on whether QR codes can improve access to information The survey cannot provide unanimous answers to this question as well QR codes allow for fast access to information and very often provide additional information However, even the most advanced technologies may be perceived as too burdensome Using them requires additional activity Moreover, gaining access to information for many years has been associated with the interpersonal aspect When QR codes are applied, any contact with other people who could provide necessary information can be avoided This could concern for instance sales assistants, tour guides, pharmacists, gardeners etc Another important argument, which is closely related to shopping and QR codes, emphasizes the avoidance of personal experience A customer cannot touch a product that for many people is not only a matter of health safety but simple pleasure

The last assumption stated that the presence of QR codes could lead to information exclusion This question could center on being or not being in the possession of a smartphone or another device with a code scanner application The simple answer would

be if you have a proper device you have information if you do not have it you cannot access certain information This is, however, simplification This assumption seems to be the most difficult to assess QR codes, hence information encoded in them, are usually at hand It is, however, available only to those in the possession of a device with the specific application

The majority of the respondents do not scan the codes because they do not have a device, they can notice the usefulness of QR codes (23/39) However, they are kept away from this information Another group of society, which should be taken into consideration, is elderly people They have limited access to information encoded in a QR code There may appear the opinions that they do not need additional information about food, clothes, maybe only information about drugs is significant However, such attitude proves that they are more likely to be excluded from public life and technology creates the world inaccessible to them While it could be agreed that commercial information may not be so important, cultural/organizational information could be very beneficial, valuable and certainly desired by them

At the time of this writing, QR codes are spreading and filling empty spaces in the public space As a technological innovation, they cannot be however admired and unanimously desired due to limitations they pose Hence, they can be treated as the tool that can both support communication in the society but also significantly hinders it

References

Aguila, A., & Breen, D (2011) Unlocking perspective with Quick Response Codes The

hunt for media literacy in the city Proceedings of the Media Ecology Association, 12,

Jasionek, K (2013, November 5) Frisco.pl: zakupy na stacji metra (Frisco.pl:

e-shopping at the underground station - own translation) Komputer Swiat Retrieved

from:

stacji-metra.aspx

http://www.komputerswiat.pl/nowosci/wydarzenia/2013/45/friscopl-e-zakupy-na-Kasperski, M (2012, September 10) Nagrobki z kodami QR Znak naszych czasów? (Gravestones with QR codes The sign of our times? - own translation) Komputer Swiat Retrieved from:

znak-naszych-czasow.aspx

http://www.komputerswiat.pl/nowosci/wydarzenia/2012/37/nagrobki-z-kodami-qr-Kostiner, K.(2012) Tesco Launches UK’s Żirst Virtual Supermarket at Gatwick Airport Retrieved from: http://www.airport-int.com/news/tesco-launches-uks-first-virtual- supermarket-at-gatwick-airport.html

Lefebvre, H (1991) The production of space Oxford: Basil Blackwell

McLuhan, M (1964) Understanding media: The extensions of man London:

Routledge

O'Hara, K., & Kindberg, T (2007) Understanding user engagement with barcoded signs

in the 'Coast' location-based experience Journal of Location Based Services, 1(4),

256-273

Tesco builds virtual shops for Korean commuters (2011, June 27) The Telegraph

Retrieved from:

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/8601147/Tesco-builds-virtual-shops-for-Korean-commuters.html

Metropolization in the Age of Knowledge Economy: Is it Building Bridges or Building Walls?

Monika Chomątowska

Abstract

The aim of the article is to discuss the assumption that development of metropolises can

be harmful for their neighboring areas Unfortunately, some governments and international organizations support the development of the metropolis, claiming it is the future of the world Metropolization is considered the best proposition for the spatial development to accommodate the knowledge economy As a result, one witnesses the process of the broad migration to the metropolises, especially by young people, causing the depopulation of rural areas, and the widening of the gap between metropolises and the countryside Such migration and visible social exclusion seem to afflict both rural and metropolitan populations

What has evolved in the big cities is a social underclass that is noticeable especially in Asia, Africa and South America Sometimes one hears about green metropolises, but such dreams cannot come true in poor countries In Poland, the support for big cities and multiplication of the problems outside the centers is noticeable The Polish government believes that metropolises will stimulate the growth of the rural areas but,

in fact, one observes a brain drain This author suggests that governments should decide

if they support metropolises or want to create a more balanced space development to diminish social differences and provide all citizens with the equal opportunity for personal development without a coercion of migration to a metropolis Smaller towns

or cities have a positive influence on the countryside, however, the diffusion effects of metropolises seems to be a beautiful fairy tale and metropolises are a quasi –world

Keywords: Metropolization, Sustainable development, Environment, Emigration,

Slums, Spatial development

Introduction

Ecology is more than nature When we consider ecology in its wider sense, that is to say, people and their environment, we should include dimensions such as natural, social, economic, and spiritual in our discussions of environments in which we live Nowadays people spent less time being close to nature Instead, they tend to crowd themselves in concrete, glass and metal prisons called metropolises These super-size cities deny the

people of any permanent contact with nature Such a contact is limited to the time of vacations or occasional jogging Is this a desirable or a profitable arrangement for us? As anything else, development of big cities has advantages and disadvantages This author wants to debate the very idea of the spatial development based on the thesis that metropolises help create positive changes in the economic environment of the people

It is argued that in the times of globalization and knowledge economy where the emphasis

is on the intellectual capital instead of material resources, the most practical approach is

to support the flourishing of the bigger cities with better-developed regions, i.e., metropolises that would serve as the engines for development This notion is rooted in the polarization –diffusion theory of spatial development Such a model suggests that supporting metropolises and the economically strongest cities and regions will eventually improve living standards for the people in the rural areas The regional surroundings should reach the higher level because of the long –term diffusion mechanisms and interactions between the developed areas and their neighborhood Malisiewicz, (2013) demonstrates the inadequacy of that model in the development of the metropolitan cities

G Myrdal in his theory of regional development (Churski, n.d.) noticed the existence of development pools, where industrial activity was often concentrated Such places were characterized by faster economic growth profiting from the economy of scale and brain drain, thus widening the regional differences and throwing rural areas into stagnation.)

Myrdal has named two possible effects connected with the existence of development pools: spread or positive effects of the metropolis directed outside the development pool, and backwash or negative effects connected with the outflow of the human capital from the rural area to the development pool Others have suggested that

(1) the expansion of development pools and diffusion processes have a much stronger influence on the rural areas than polarization effects,

(2) functional connections determine the positive or negative effects of the urbanization process,

(3) the hierarchic differences among growth areas play an important role in the possible diffusion,

(4) the positive or negative effects of the polarization model are connected with the socioeconomic situation of the rural areas,

(5) the endogenous resources in peripheral areas have to be brought into play for their optimal use to prevent their divergence and dependence from growth areas and give a chance for their independent progress,

(6) the existence of the cheap labor in the growth of peripheral areas stimulates its development and

(7) the public economic policy may diminish the negative effects of polarization and create the functional connections between stagnation and growth regions (Churski, n.d.)

In principle, all of the above theories point to the possible appearance of the positive and negative effects of the spatial polarization If a state accepts the polarization –diffusion model, it presumes that diffusion will occur and that development will spill out on to the less developed regions Many governments, as well as a recent by the World Bank, share the notion that metropolises are “lights of the world” (2009) Development Report, 2009) Metropolitan authorities also opt to such a development model, which seems to

be profitable for the metropolises (Adamowicz, 2012)

The classical, neoclassical, Keynesian and Marxist theories hold that the natural state of the economy and the goal of all economical processes is a balance A theoretical survey of the polarization –diffusion model suggests that growth through inequality and polarization opposes the mainstream economic theories

The main thesis of that work is to answer, if and to what extent, the polarization –diffusion model is adequate in the development of metropolises To answer such a question, it is necessary to revoke some definitions of the term “metropolis” and compare these with the definitions of the term “town”

Etymologically, metropolis m eans “the mother city” and was used to describe the founding town of a colony (Jałowiecki, 1999) Later, the term came to describe economic and political capitals or the cities with a population of 100 000 inhabitants or more More recently, Soldatos chara cterized a metropolis having ten features (Jałowiecki, 1999) These are:

 Intensive international relations

 Import and export of consumer goods as well as production factors

 Investments and manpower

 Locating international corporations and their branches

 Diplomatic agencies

 International schools and universities

 Direct international connections, especially airports;

 Developed transport, tourism and services infrastructure targeted for foreign clients

 International media agencies and

 Intensive contacts between the municipal authority and their partners abroad

There is a distinction between a metropolis and a classical city A town in older days, the middle ages, or during the early industrial era formed a system (Gorzelak, 2008) Such a system consisted of the space with strictly circled boundaries and elements with specific relationships to the town A town had its own authorities and complex contacts with its surroundings (Gorzelak, 2008)

Żrom the traditional sociological perspective, a city was as “a dense, distinguishable from the environment, individualized, having its formed center, settlement unit inhabited by non –agricultural population which produces material goods, services and values, reproduces its ability to work and social life and by that means particularly intensively influences on its environment, as well as, is being influenced by that surroundings” (Malinowski, 1992)

Generally, a metropolis is a city with a population of at least 1 million inhabitants, as well

as well-developed services, potential for innovation and uniqueness of the place (Jałowiecki, 1999) What distinguishes metropolises from other cities are their quality features – the best-developed infrastructure, higher services sector and uniqueness of the place (Stokowski et al 2012)

Compared to a city, a metropolis is not defined by the spatially isolated system that it creates but by its quality features Hence, a metropolis has no precise borders because its architecture sprawls outside the administrative boundaries, i.e., is not monocentric and belongs to ex –urban environment (Szczepański & Kozielska, 2008) żottdiener suggests that using the term city for metropolis is a logical mistake because metropolis has no central area, which organizes the social life (Szczepański & Kozielska, 2008) A center of

a metropolis is only a place where specialized services are being provided The genesis of

a metropolis is strictly connected with the process of globalization and fast technological development Because of globalization bet ween the world’s biggest cities developed collaboration and competition that led to creating the city network rather than centralized unites (Smętkowski et al, 2012) and such a process was accelerated and simplified by the technological revolution

Apart from the terms “metropolis” and “city” there is another commonly used word–

“Metropolization” Jałowiecki (1999) claims that metropolization means the process of transformation of urban space, which changes the relationships between the central city

and its direct surroundings, thus, weakening or even rupturing the economic ties with the surroundings and replacing previous connections with local environment by relations with other metropolis located on the same or another continent An economic partner of one metropolis becomes another metropolis situated thousands of kilometers away Metropolises are sometimes defined only by that feature – having strong relations with other metropolises and weak connections with the local environment (Jałowiecki, 1999) One can say that for instance, London has more in common with Shanghai than with Slough

Even a superficial look at the definitions of the metropolis and the process of metropolization leads to the conclusion that applying the polarization –diffusion model of spatial development to metropolises is misleading For example, Boudeville highlighted the importance of functional connections between the city and its surroundings to obtain positive polarization effects If the regional environment did not act as a supply network,

it would be difficult (according to the spatial development theories) to find arguments for the positive influence of the metropolises on the stagnation areas, i.e., the process of metropolization weakens the relationships between the metropolis and its local surroundings Such a notion is confirmed by a group of Polish academics who have published the results of their re searches in 2012(Smętkowski, et al, 2012) These researchers first studied the relationships between metropolises and regions theoretically This was followed by case studies of Barcelona, Glasgow, Stockholm, Toulouse and Warsaw relying on the statistical data from ESPON 2004, 2006 and 2007 The results confirmed the thesis that gaps between metropolises and their regional surroundings have been deepening This contradicts the idea of self –acting economic growth diffusion To compare the level of metropolitan areas and their regional hinterlands development, the academics based on GDP per capita, the following formula was used:

Wzr=(GDP per capita(MA))/(GDP per capita(RH) )- 1

MA is metropolitan area and RH, regional hinterland

The studies conducted in EU show that the biggest differences are in the capital regions

of Central Eastern Europe and that these differences are still growing The most noticeable growth of disparities occurs in Central Eastern Europe, Baltic Sea countries,

UK, Scandinavian countries and Greece The decreases of differences have been noticed only in Germany, Austria and Portugal In the case of Portugal, it may be due to a statistical effect associated with the specific territorial units division In 55 regions, the growth of differences has been noticed while the decrease has been observed only in 28 regions When the 19 most stable regions are excluded from the analysis, in the remaining

42 units the differences were higher and only in 22, these were lower (Smętkowski et al, 2012) Focusing on the real metropolises with the population of at least 1 million inhabitants, the deepening of differences is more frequent (Smętkowski et al, 2012) Summing up, the process of metropolization accompanies the growth of differences between met ropolises and their regional hinterlands (Smętkowski et al, 2012) When the causes of the regional internal diversity are studied, one notices that the differences are higher if the population is located mainly in a central city with no other large city, and if the economic structure and the level of unemployment in a metropolitan area and regional hinterland differs significantly (Smętkowski et al, 2012) It is debatable if the level of unemployment is a cause or an effect of diversity The similarity of the economic structure appears to be an important and relevant factor (Smętkowski et al, 2012)

In the case of Barcelona, the city losses in competition with Madrid, where many well – qualified young people migrate (Smętkowski et al, 2012) Madrid is a beta metropolis, meaning that it is smaller and weaker than the alfa metropolises – the ten biggest and the most important all over the world Barcelona belongs in gamma metropolises (the third league) (Smętkowski et al, 2012) This example shows that not only the regional hinterland may suffer from the growth of metropolis but also other metropolises, which cannot compete against the strongest one Barcelona’s trade is mainly international Exchange with regional surroundings is insignificant, even though the functional relationship with Catalonia is strong (Smętkowski et al, 2012)

Additionally, the central communications connections impede the growth of the areas situated far away from the main roads (Smętkowski et al, 2012) Such a tunnel effect often coexists with the development of the metropolises The key transport nodes connect only

a few places, mostly the main cities or towns thus forming an empty zone (Jałowiecki, 1999) For example, the are no railway stations in between the transport nodes However, the situation of Catalonia is not black and white – as a result of suburbanization, many towns located close to Barcelona, have a higher GDP per capita than the metropolis itself and the gaps in Catalonia are generally small (Smętkowski et al, 2012)

The case of Glasgow confirms the domination of metropolis in the whole region The diffusion effects are rather small The metropolitan area of Glasgow is self – sufficient and its relationships with the region are limited to the contacts with the nearest neighborhood (Smętkowski et al, 2012) żlasgow is an important labor market for regional employees The creation of workplaces is undoubtedly the positive factor However, the local entrepreneurs grumble that the financial support which gets to Glasgow should be transmitted to minor cities and en able to create workplaces there (Smętkowski et al,

2012) In addition, many local firms are unable to win in the completion with bigger ones from Glasgow The forecasts indicate the differences in Glasgow region will deepen The municipal authorities will rather build a cooperation network with Edinburgh than with regional hinterlands (Smętkowski et al, 2012)

The most likely scenario for Sweden is the deepening of the disparities In the Stockholm region, the tunnel effect is significant (Smętkowski et al, 2012) The case of Toulouse is

an exception with a positive diffusion effect The Toulouse regional hinterlands benefit from the development of the metropolis that is not only an effect of the natural diffusion but also of the well –conducted public policy, however, even there the most peripherally situated villages have suffered depopulation and development disparities (Smętkowski et

al, 2012)

The example of Toulouse shows that the implementation of proper public policy may decrease the negative impact of metropolises The authorities of Toulouse region conducted the multi –level public policy (Smętkowski et al, 2012) Żirstly, on the state level, the policies support the development of the poles de compètitivitè (clusters created

to build regional specialization with coordination and complementarity between regions)

In the Midi –Pyrènèes region, specialization focuses on aviation, research in agro–food industry, and cancer

Secondly, realizing the limitations of the polarization –diffusion model, the authorities have supported the potential of smaller cities and their functional connections with metropolises to create better conditions for diffusion The higher education centers and universities are being created in the smaller cities to improve the human capital in the region and prevent the mass –migration to the metropolises The special latitudes of economic activity (the zones where special facilities for entrepreneurs are created) are located outside the metropolitan area

Warsaw seems to be the most significant case of deepening differences between a metropolis and its regional hinterland It is a result of the lack of similarity between the economic structure in the capital of Poland and in Masovia region The economy of Masovia region is mainly de pendent on agriculture (Smętkowski et al, 2012) while Warsaw aspires to become a European metropolis with a well –developed service economy The Masovia region is the richest spatial unit in Poland and yet some of the poor villages surrounding the city are deprived of sanitation