Camelia bejan the syntax of the complex sentence

Clauses in a complex sentence are defined in relationship to one another as: - main clauses matrix, superordinate - dependent clauses embedded / subordinate By the form of the verb, clau

THE SYNTAX OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

CAMELIA BEJAN

Editura Credis Bucuresti, 2001

Acest volum este numai pentru uz intern şi este destinat studenţilor Facultăţii de Litere, învăţământ de zi, la distanţa şi cu frecvenţă redusă, care studiază sintaxa frazei prin subordonare

CONTENTS

1 Clause Types……… 3

2 The That Complement Clause……….……… 9

2.1 Reported Speech………21

2.2.The Sequence of Tenses ……… 23

2.3 The subjunctive in that complement clauses……….26

3 The Infinitive Complement Clause……… 28

3.1 Control Predicates……… …… 35

3.2 Nominative / Accusative + Infinitive………36

3.3 Nominative / Accusative + Participle………42

4 The Participle…….………42

5 The Gerund… ……… …55

6 Verbs used either with an –ing clause or with a to-infinitive 61

7 The Relative Clause……… ……… ……77

8 The Indirect questions……….90

9 The Adverbial Clauses……….…… 95

10 Revision of embedded and subordinate clauses………….… 113

Key to exercises……… ……115

Glossary……… … 114

REFERENCES……… 121

CLAUSE TYPES

CLASSIFICATION:

By the number of formal predications sentences are generally classified in:

Simple sentence He heard an explosion

Compound sentence He heard an explosion and phoned the police Complex sentence When he heard an explosion, he phoned the police

Clauses in a complex sentence are defined in relationship to one another as:

- main clauses (matrix, superordinate)

- dependent clauses (embedded / subordinate)

By the form of the verb, clauses in a complex sentence are classified as: finite, non-finite (infinitival, (present / past) participial, gerundial), verbless clauses

I Classify the bracketed clauses as finite or non-finite, and

if non-finite as infinitival, present-participial or participial Identify the type of construction of which the following clauses are an immediate constituent:

past-Model: [NP The girl [sitting in the corner]] is my friend

The bracketed clause is non-finite, present-participial, clause within a NP

1 People [living in London] have many advantages

2 [Why she did it] is a mystery

3 It was unable [to walk]

4 He kept [ringing me up in the middle of the night]

5 The idea [that it might be dangerous] had never occurred to her

6 They are very keen [for her to have a second chance]

7 You’re going to be in trouble [whatever you do]

II Decide whether the following dependent clauses are full clauses, reduced or verbless:

1 Because he was sick, the boy didn’t go to school

2 Although very young, he works as hard as an adult

3 Once a farmer, always a farmer

4 Although hired as a bookkeeper, she also does secretarial work

5 Whether true or false, the story should not have been repeated

6 Since agreed on by the majority, this measure will be carried out

7 If meeting with too many unexpected difficulties, he will abandon the project

III Divide the following complex sentences into main (matrix) clauses and dependent clauses:

Model: She was apprehensive that the injection might be painful

She was apprehensive [ that the injection might be painful]

1 The committee accepted that neither of the two ministers had acted dishonestly

2 They think that it is regrettable that John has left

3 It was concluded that the aircraft was flying at the maximum permitted speed when the leading edge of the wing opened up, ripping the wing apart

4 At one time it was believed that an addict couldn’t quit until she hit bottom and lost everything That’s true for many people but, it turns out, not for everyone

5 It is understood that damage estimated at more than a hundred thousand pounds has been caused to furniture, fittings and equipment in the Embassy building

6 It never entered her head that their divorce would go through without a financial settlement having been made

III Extraposition involves movement of the complement clause and insertion of the expletive pronoun ‘it’ Extrapose the bracketed clauses:

Model: [That she shan’t be here] is more than likely

It is more than likely [that she shan’t be here]

1 [That he had been lying] was obvious to everyone

2 [(For you) to change your mind now] would be a mistake

3 He found [to talk things over with her] a great help

4 [Why he did it] remains unclear

5 [To see them behave like that] makes me mad

6 [That things will be better next year] is hoped

7 [For you to mention it to her] would be a big mistake

THAT COMPLEMENT CLAUSES

I Use brackets to Identify the complement clauses and indicate the syntactic function they fulfill within the complex sentence:

Model: It is unfortunate [ that you were not insured]

main clause embedded that-complement clause

The complement clause functions as a subject for the predicate in the main clause

A

1 It is regrettable that John has left

2 The point is that we are leaving now

3 It occurred to me that she might be lying

4 The rumour that prices were going to rise led to a rush on the shops

5 I am quite hopeful that I’ll get the job

6 We were all amazed that the city could charge so much for a parking ticket

7 I must say, it doesn’t really surprise me that the company went bankrupt

8 It was astonishing that Sally could manage to do two jobs and still have time for a social life

9 There is startling new evidence that the hole in the ozone layer may be much worse than was at first thought

10 Many women are conscious that they are being exploited

11 I appreciate that you’ve had more than your fair share of bad luck recently

12 Doesn’t it worry you that Stephen spends so much time away from home ?

13 You can rest assured that there are no additives in his food

14 I helped you to get this job so it’s important to me that you make

a success of it

15 Remind your father that we have visitors tonight

16 It is a scandal that the racket was allowed to go undetected so long

17 It turned out that nobody remembered the address

18 Police chiefs are confident that the case will be solved soon

3 Two of the fundamental bases of British justice are that no one should be forced to incriminate himself and that neither should he face trial twice

4 Many passengers complained that once they emerged from the train, there were no emergency personnel to greet them

5 He was to be priest, so, she thought, it could not be that he was interested in her

6 The kids have loved him for years while their cynical elders sneered that he was just a pretty face

7 Mr Lightman wrote that there had been a number of misapplications of funds and breaches of duty

8 Like Clinton, he is gambling that a recovering economy will swell the government’s coffers

9 The fact remains that you can produce steel much more cheaply here than you can in Germany or the rest of the European Community

10 I decided to give up because I can no longer ignore the fact that it

is bad for my health

11 David admitted to the clerk that he had been at the scene and had lent the other youth a knife to get into cars

12 The story goes that the dish was invented by Kaiser Franz Joseph’s cook, who had promised to make his master something delicious to tempt his jaded appetite

13 It never clicked that I was homeless until I had been on the streets

16 I noticed that he was soaking wet, and for the first time it dawned

on me that he had come down across the fields from the hill

17 It says a lot for her culinary art that so many of her recipes have stood the test of time

18 The president boasted that it would be by far the biggest service program in American history

19 At first it was feared that a bomb had caused the blast but now it appears that the explosion may have been triggered accidentally

20 However, the article points out that trade with Britain’s European partners has risen considerably since 1973

II Build up the basic sentences out of the following pseudo-cleft sentences:

Model: [What John resents] is [that you refuse to discuss the matter]

This pseudo-cleft sentence has been derived from:

John resents [CP that you refuse to discuss the matter]

1 What worried me was that the dog kept growling

2 What is even more worrying is that many countries are developing their own nuclear weapons

3 What we are sure of is that it’s a boy

4 What is most likely is that Susan said she would be late

5 What he informed me of was that they were willing to work overtime

6 What they should be reminded of is that the paper is due on Friday

7 What the critics failed to understand is that his art was not sacrificed to popularity

Note: A pseudo-cleft sentence has the following structure:

relative clause + BE + that-complement clause

[What … ] is [that ……]

[What he knows] is [that she has found out the truth]

It appears as a result of the reordering of the constituents of a complex sentence of the type:

main clause + that complement clause functioning as DO

He knows [that she has found out the truth]

III There are instances when the complementiser can be omitted and other cases when it must be preserved Comment on the use of the complementiser that keeping

in mind the following clues:

Omit ‘that’ in informal English after:

a basic (informal) verbs: say, think, notice, etc

b quote clause with the main clause within or at the end

c after the phrasal modals: would just as soon, would sooner, (would rather)

Preserve ‘that’ in formal English:

a after formal or less frequent verbs: demand, estimate, brag

b when the that-clause is separated from the main clause by a PP,

AdvP or subordinate clause

Model: This, I admit, is still an open question

This example is an instance of quote clause with the main clause within the that-complement clause

1 With all the revision you’ve done, I’m sure you’ll pass your exams

2 Most students know good jobs are hard to find

3 Everyone knows she’s been having an affair with Tom

4 I’ll come back for that, I promise

5 They reckon the French team’s better than ours

6 As Mc Cabe says, now it’s up to the industry to prove him wrong

7 He had, as he predicted, immediately assumed a non-executive chairmanship

8 He figured he’d better get out of the building before the cops arrived

9 When I saw what a lousy driver he was, I figured he was probably not the best person to learn from

10 I really feel you would be happier in a different job

11 Naomi feels that she has not made much progress in her studies, but actually she’s doing very well

12 It is estimated that up to a million people around the country suffer from various forms of asthma

13 I think you all know the song I’m going to sing

14 Most people think that war is a terrible thing

15 Both sides firmly believe that a peace settlement is now possible

16 Raising taxes may be unpopular, but we believe it’s the right thing to do

17 The map says there’s six of them

18 My aunt, it grieves me to say, gets things confused

19 Most of what he’s marked on the print-out has behind it the opinion: I would rather that the broadcasters had not said that

20 Who knows if I’ll still be running in 1998 I am not saying I will but I won’t rule it out either

21 I think he made a tactical blunder by announcing it so far ahead

of time

22 A Foreign Ministry spokesman said at a press briefing that relations with the Community were strained

23 The 14-year-old brags that he has escaped from custody 31 times

24 Things didn’t, he admitted, look good in Russia

25 Italian striker Gianluca Vialli will play for Juventus next season, Sampdoria president Paolo Mantovani confirmed today

26 The police would rather you played safe than ended up being sorry

27 I’d just as soon you put that thing away

28 It says here they have live music

29 I would rather that the theory was stated

IV Passivise the verb in the main clause and comment on the resulting complex sentence:

Model: People assume [that they’ll get married some day]

[That they’ll get married] is assumed by people

When we passivise the main verb, the complement clause has

to move from DO position into subject position However such a construction is infrequent because a long phrase in initial position renders the text more difficult That is why the complement clause is extraposed from subject position and moved towards the end of the sentence

It is assumed [ that they’ll get married some day]

1 They say that he knows some influential people

2 People felt that the social workers were doing valuable work

3 All medical staff in this hospital consider that this surgeon is a brilliant practitioner

4 The board of directors thought that some redundancies in the company were inevitable

5 Sir Humphrey explained to the Minister that delays might be fatal

6 The pilot called it a miracle that no one was killed

7 He considered it a good thing that the parliament would be involved

8 Ann felt it an injustice that she had been automatically blamed

9 Tom thought it a tragedy that she had settled for marrying Joe

10 There were a number of new faces there and so we thought it a good idea that we all just say who we are beforehand

11 If you are getting a mortgage, the lender will make it a condition

of the loan that the property is insured, and will usually arrange cover

12 The institutions simply took it for granted that the debtor counties should honour their debts in full

V Comment on the type of Heavy NP shift:

Model:

Did you infer [PP from her sudden departure] [CP that she was annoyed]?

The complement clause functions as a DO for the verb in the main clause The typical position of the DO is immediately after the verb, but the resulting complex sentence sounds unnatural and rather difficult to understand:

? Did you infer [PP that she was annoyed] [PP from her sudden departure]

The reason for which speakers do not accept such an order of phrases is that the complement clause is too long As a consequence they prefer to move the complement clause towards the end of the complex sentence; in other words the

CP has to move towards the end by jumping over the PP

1 We are certain from what we know of late 16th century architecture that the chapel was built at that time

2 The police officer told a surprised group of drivers that the freeway was closed until further notice

3 Although I didn’t look at him, I could tell from his voice that he was smiling

4 Her face betrayed to an observer that she was seriously ill

5 You will have to demonstrate to the court that the repairs are reasonably necessary to preserve your property

6 He’s always drumming into us that we must be consistent

7 But the C.O continues to impress on me that I am too old for the job I think he wants to force me to relinquish my commission

8 David admitted to the clerk that he had been at the scene and had lent the other youth a knife to get into cars

9 Can you prove to the commission that the effects are not harmful?

10 He hinted strongly that he might be prepared to send troops in

11 They advised me clearly that I should take out a medical insurance for my skiing trip

12 At the inquiry the judge suggested the lawyers that the safety procedures be thoroughly updated

VI Extrapose the complement clauses:

Model: [ That she managed to come] is a wonder

It is a wonder [that she managed to come]

The complement clause has been extraposed, i.e extracted out of its initial (subject) position and moved to the end of the complex sentence The position which has been left empty after movement of the clause must be filled by the expletive pronoun ‘it’

1 She doesn’t regret that she missed the concert

2 That Pam is seeking a divorce surprised us

3 We are sure that it’s a mistake

4 That it might be better to postpone our departure was suggested to

us

5 We had a scary feeling that we had been trapped

6 You might at least have announced that you were moving in on

us

7 We insist that he is told the truth

8 They agreed that there should be changes

9 That recognising syntactic categories at first sight is not easy is obvious

VII Identify the type of verb that requires a complement clause choosing from: reciprocal verbs, equative, quoting verbs with inanimate subject, phrasal verbs, phrasal modals:

that-1 Scientists agreed that these lumps of matter must originate in the asteroid belt

2 If it does turn out that the inspectors have found highly enriched uranium, this raises s number of questions

3 The large size implies that the gaps were created by a star rather than a planet

4 An argument with a friend or relative doesn’t mean that you don’t get on with anyone

5 I’d sooner he grinned and bore it He can have a two month rest

in summer

6 The map says there’s six of them

7 Experts agree that one cause of poverty among the young is the dramatic rise in the number of single-parent families

8 What’ll happen is, it’ll come out that he didn’t shoot himself, Jack shot him

9 After the war, it came to pass that he did not resume his medical studies

10 It’s hard to say at first why Ed is so remarkable but then it creeps

up on you that this is top-quality son-writing

VIII Turn the verb in the main clause into the active voice and find a suitable noun to function as its subject:

Model: It is claimed that running helps to unleash hidden energies,

both psychic and physical

They claimed that running helps to unleash hidden energies, both psychic and physical

Doctors claimed that running helps to unleash hidden energies, both psychic and physical

1 In 1990, it was disclosed that he had contracted the AIDS virus

2 A short time ago, it was reported that demonstrators had broken through the police lines and more vehicles were set alight

3 Until it is shown that the tape is genuine, we have to remain skeptical

4 When it was pointed out that she would need considerable journalistic experience she agreed she didn’t have it

5 It is expected that by the weekend, air traffic, garbage collection and mail delivery will be back in full operation

6 It is planned that these hostages will be released in phases over three months up to late March

IX Identify the type of the extraposition pattern:

Model: I really appreciate it [ that you raised me in such a warm and

3 It transpired that the gunman had been released from jail

4 Then she undermined him, destroyed his confidence in his own talent, put it about that he was unreliable, a troublemaker

5 I hate it that you can paint contentedly while I’m feeling restless and bored

6 It came as little surprise that the twelve ministers found much to criticise in the reform proposals

7 They’d already broken it to the troops that there was to be no brief period in reserve as promised

8 It looks increasingly likely that the three national parties may form a government of national unity

9 Having been fortunate enough to see his immaculate garden, I think it highly unlikely that he shares my relaxed approach to weeds

10 When I interviewed him again I put it to him that he’d lied to you and to me about not seeing his wife that afternoon And he just caved in

X Reformulate in such a way as to have extraposition from object position:

Model: It might be regarded strange [that he refuses to come]

They regard it strange [that he refuses to come]

1 It was made clear that there was no place for superstition in the new society

2 It is considered unlikely that any of the Cabinet changes will represent any major changes in policy

3 It was regarded as an affront to civil liberty that any person going about his lawful business should be stopped randomly by any authority

4 It is planned that these documents will be released over the next two weeks

5 It is considered unlikely that the money will be refunded

6 Although people have believed that planets exist orbiting around suns similar to our own, it has been thought unlikely that neutron stars would have their own planets

XI Identify the ungrammatical examples and comment on the errors:

1 He held her completely responsible for that she took food without paying for it

2 She made that she was not interested clear

3 The judge paid no attention to that she had just lost her husband

4 That she was foreign made it difficult for her to get the job

5 That Simon had not been home for three days didn’t seem to worry anybody

6 The fact that Simon had not been home for three days didn’t seem

to worry anybody

REPORTED SPEECH

I A friend of yours at work sees you during the day and complains about her work Report this to another friend a few days later Begin your report as suggested at the end

Mary stopped me at work the other day She was really fed up…

(Graver 1995: 175)

II Rewrite the sentences in direct speech Note that there

is an implied dialogue, and that the reported version is, in some cases, very much a paraphrase of the original

1 When questioned by the master about the disappearance of a bicycle from the school cycle shed two days before, the boy flatly denied having had anything to do with it

2 Tony accepted without reservation my suggestion that we should try to get local support for the new theatre company

3 Michael rang up Jean at the last moment, apologizing profusely for being unable to go to dinner with her that evening Despite his apology, Jean was very put out, and said that he might have let her know earlier

4 After the accident, the bus driver accused the motorist of not looking where he was going, to which the latter retorted that if the other hadn’t been driving so fast, he himself would have had a chance of stopping in time

(Graver 1995: 179)

III Replace the verb says by one of the less frequently used reporting verbs: agree, whisper, mutter, boast, object,

admit, protest

1 ‘I can speak six languages fluently,’ he said

2 ‘That car you are driving is my property’, he said

3 ‘Yes, I broke the windows with my catapult,’ the boy said

4 ‘You can’t take me to prison I know my right,’ the man said

5 ‘We don’t have enough money to carry out the plan,’ said the treasurer

6 ‘This teacher doesn’t know what he’s taking about,’ said the student

7 ‘Well, yes; if the weather is bad, we can’t go,’ he said

IV Write a statement consistent with the reporting verbs:

13 .……he whispered shyly

14 .……he said callously

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

IN THAT COMPLEMENT CLAUSES

I Explain the following exceptions to the rules of the SQT

in terms of shift of domain or shift of temporal perspective:

1 The Secretary of labour stated the other day that in the past couple of months there have only been 200 lost man days

2 Bill told me yesterday that the situation has not improved yet

3 I have never said you were stupid

4 (He has met her several times but) he has never told his wife that

he had met her

5 (He has met her many times and ) he has promised her that he would not say anything to his wife

6 The tourist discovered that all the buses stop at the central market

7 I told you that the road is closed and will soon be repaired

8 The old man said he never locks the back door

9 Tom said Ann arrived last week

10 Henry asked if I received the telegram this morning

11 The clerk said that the best coffee comes from South America

12 We were told that the new radio service is to start operating next month

13 I told you that you are not to use this telephone for your private calls

14 Who said he’s coming later?

II Account for the ungrammaticality of the following:

1 *The Greek thought that the sun goes round the earth

2 *The teacher told us that water boiled at 100o centigrade

III Choose a suitable tense, whether for reported speech (dependent upon the verbs in italics) or for direct speech (within quotation marks):

A spokesman for the environmental group Greenpeace said that

fishing with drift-nets (1 kill) not only fish but also seals, dolphins and sea birds, which (2 not/ can) see the plastic-fiber filaments and so

(3 swim) into them, (4 become) entangled, and (5 drown) He pointed out that this type of net (6 can) be up to 55 km long and 15 in deep,

and added that a global ban on its use (7 be) proposed and discussed

at the United Nations the following week A fishermen’s

representative replied that his Organisation (8 oppose) any attempt to

prohibit drift-net fishing until scientific research (9 produce) evidence

to show that it (10 be) definitely harmful ‘I suppose,’ commented the Greenpeace spokesman, ‘that when the research (11 be) finished all the marine mammals and sea birds (12 vanish).’

The Mercian insurgents have announced that they (13 capture)

Revod, the country’s main port, from the government forces Their

leader General Mot told journalists that they (14 launch) a new

offensive last Friday and (15 take) the town early on Sunday morning The government, he said, (16 boast) that they (17 never I

give up) Revod ‘But,’ he continued in his excellent English, ‘they

(18 have) So you (19 can) see now, if you (20 fail) to do so in the past, that they (21 make) only idle boasts and that their final defeat

(22 be) certain.’ General Mot declared a month ago that the capture

of Revod (23 be) a great propaganda coup for the insurgents, and he

was right

At a recent symposium on renewable energy sources, Professor

Warner was asked if wind power (24 can) compete commercially

with conventional sources such as coal and oil His reply was that if it

(25 receive) comparative financial investment it (26 now I be) just as

competitive But, he said, the Government (27 so far/ invest) in wind

power sums which (28 be) quite ludicrous in comparison with its

investments in coal and oil and, above all, in nuclear power, which

(29 be) shown to be the most expensive energy source of all He said,

too, that research into wave power (30 not only/ be) grossly

underfunded in the past but actually suppressed ‘Did* you know,’ he

asked, ‘that this country (31 be) at one time at the forefront of research in this field, but that the fruits of this work (32 since/ be) reaped by other countries? And that this (33 happen) because nuclear power (34 be) the altar upon which the Department of Energy (35

sacrifice) our future welfare?’

Lord Justice Cleaver, in pronouncing judgement at the Court of

Appeal, said that Mrs Rudge, who (36 be) wrongfully accused of

shop-lifting five years before, (37 since/ live) with the terrible burden

of having to clear her name But, he now reminded the Court,

Superstore’s legal counsel (38 say) that the company (39 no longer /

insist) that there (40 be) some truth in its allegations against Mrs

Rudge ‘Counsel makes it quite clear,’ he went on, ‘that Superstore

(41 admit) that a very serious error (42 be) made.’ The Judge stressed

that, the increase in the libel award to ₤ 15,000 (43 be) not to be

taken as setting a standard for such awards, which (44 normally/ be) left to the decision of juries ‘ But in this case Mrs Rudge (45 be) entitled to greater damages than those the jury (46 award) her last year in the High Court.”

After the Appeal Court hearing, Mrs Rudge said she (47 believe) in British justice again ‘It (48 not / be) the money that (49 really / matter), but he fact that I (50 have) a public apology from Superstore.’ She recalled how she (51 be) arrested by a store

detective, searched, and locked in a cell for several hours When the

case (52 come) to trial in 1987 no evidence (53 be) offered and she (54 be) acquitted ‘But I (55 live) under a cloud of suspicion until this

very day.’

* The use of the past tense here is idiomatic; in meaning and in its influence as a reporting verb upon the following tenses it is the equivalent of 'Do you know ?’

THE SUBJUNCTIVE

IN THAT COMPLEMENT CLAUSES

I Justify the use of the subjunctive and state the syntactic function of the following complement clauses:

1 My desire is that she should leave off her work and go on a holiday

2 He proposed that we should postpone our departure

3 It is only fair that you should know the truth

4 She accepted his suggestion that she should dismiss her taxi and ride back with him

5 It is imperative that the Government should take some immediate steps in the direction of Irish self-government

6 His intention was that his two sons should follow his trade

7 It is only natural that a mother should not wish to be parted from her children

8 He insisted that the trip should be postponed

9 I am anxious that nobody should know where I am going

10 They came to the agreement that talks should be held twice a year

11 The estate agent was astonished that anyone should want to buy the house – it was in such terrible condition !

12 I suggested that we taper off the counseling sessions

13 The publisher sent me a letter with the request that I should write

a review of the play

II Give the correct form of the verb in brackets:

1 Is it important that this paper (be written) in one hour?

2 It is imperative that they (to send) the goods immediately

3 It was necessary that the money (to be returned) quickly

4 It was vital that she (to get married) to John

5 It was right that the old professor (to be appointed) Headmaster

Use the should + infinitive forms instead of the subjunctive above

III Rewrite the following using the subjunctive:

Model: How odd! Both our wives have the same name

It’s odd that both our wives should have the same name

1 Quite naturally, you’re upset about what’s happened

2 It’s incredible ! We’ve been living in the same street for two years and have never got to know each other

3 You missed the one talk that was worth hearing What a pity !

4 That’s curious ! He asked you to come rather than me

5 It’s typical of him He expects everyone else to do all the work

6 Isn’t it odd ! They are getting married, after all they’ve said about marriage

7 You have to pay so much tax It’s crazy !

8 Look over the agreement before you sign it This is essential

9 Read the instructions carefully before you start answering the questions This is important

10 How splendid ! You’ll be coming to live near us

11 You’ve bought the house we once thought of buying ourselves How interesting !

12 Emergency supplies must reach the area quickly This is vital

(Graver 1995: 42)

THE INFINITIVE

I Rewrite the sentences, deleting the subject of the embedded clause:

1 She swore she wouldn’t tell anyone

2 I promised I would have a word with Nick when he returned

3 We have agreed that we have to follow up this incident

4 He had already resolved that he would agree to nothing at this first meeting

5 He kept threatening that he’d push the button on this remote control bomb device

(Cobuild 1996: 33)

II Comment on the verbal properties of the infinitives:

1 It’s better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all

2 She seemed always to be falling asleep

3 I don’t think there is anything more to be done Thank you for your help

4 He asked for only one thing – to be left in peace

5 He was found to have lied about his business experience

6 The thief is assumed to be hiding in the woods

7 We searched everywhere for the dog, but it was not to be found

8 I seem to have made a mistake in the address

9 She seems to have been greatly admired in her youth

10 The Government’s counter-inflation strategy may be being

blown off course’

11 In Hitchcock’s latest film there is not a corpse to be seen

12 You seem to have been making lot of mistakes lately

Note:

a The infinitive can have aspect and voice A passive progressive infinitive may be phonetically awkward and rarely used

III Use the correct form of the infinitive for the verbs in brackets In preparation you should study list 1 at the end

of the book:

When I called on the Mc Arthurs, Harry chanced (1 garden) for one, not (2 fish), and so I was able to have a chat with him He and Mary seem (3 have) a very happy marriage so far, don’t they? But their son

Charles played rather a nasty trick on them the other day, when he

pretended (4 injure) in a cycle accident that had never taken place

When he told them the truth he made matters worse by saying they’d

been stupid (5 believe) his story His mother was so upset by his

behaviour that she wants his pocket-money (6 stop) for six months

IV Comment on the use of the short infinitive:

1 He had opened the door and was about to climb in when he noticed a figure detach itself from the shadows of the building and make its way towards him

2 It’ s hard to watch youth slip away in the mirror and realize that you’re no longer growing up but growing old

3 The first half of this year saw arrears rise up to record levels

4 Even during his electoral campaign, he was careful never to let himself be committed to any definite promises of freedom for all

5 Knowledgeable, friendly staff can help you make your choice from the hundreds of different rings

6 His few opponents can safely be let go

7 Could you help me (to) unload the car?

8 Have Mrs Hansen come in, please (mainly US)

9 I’ve never known him (to) pay for a drink (perfect tenses of know

only)

10 What a fire-door does is (to) delay the spread of a fire

Note on usage: the to-less infinitive is required after:

a the causative verb make (=compel), have:

She made the children clean up their own rooms

She had the maid clean all the rooms

b Let (=allow), bid (=request)

They let the children stay up late on weekends She bid the children be quiet

c Verbs of physical perception: hear, observe, look at, feel, etc

I heard the whistle blow a few minutes ago

d Expressions: let … know (=tell, inform), let …have (=send, give),

let go of (=release)

d The omission of ‘to’ is optional with help:

She helped the old woman (to) cross the street

e The omission of ‘to’ is optional in pseudo-cleft constructions:

All I did was (to) give him a little push

What I did was (to) give him a little push

V Correct and comment on the errors in the following:

1 *She lets her children to stay up very late

2 *I must to go now

3 *She was heard say that she disagreed

4 *Don’t let to go of Mummy’s hand

5 *I’ll let you to know my holiday dates next week

6 *She was made repeat the story

7 *Could you let me to have the bill for the car repair?

VI Apply the tough movement to the following:

Model: It is tough [to cut with this knife]

It is tough [PRO to cut with this knife]

This knifei is difficult [ PRO to cut with ti ]

1 It is easy to play sonatas on this violin

2 It is surprisingly difficult to follow this injunction

3 It is quite simple to operate these machines

4 It is often interesting to listen to old people

5 It is barely possible to live with John

6 It is easy to fall in love with him

7 It is tough to work with such a boss

8 It’s a pleasure to see this performance

9 It is very difficult for Tom to learn Chinese in a year

10 It will be easy and cheap to collect the council tax

11 It is great fun for us to be with Margaret

Note: Tough movement allows a non-subject constituent of the infinitival clause to move into the subject position of the main clause

VII Identify the syntactic function of the following infinitive clauses:

1 It is usual for John to go jogging to lose weight

2 Don’t bother to see us to the station

3 He demanded to be flown to Sweden, but instead the plane landed

at Helsinki

4 The paramedics rush to help

5 A: Only a woman could invent such a story

B: Indeed, it needs a woman to invent such a story

6 It remains our aim to maintain its real value over a run of years

7 One night he awoke to find her crying softly

8 It accentuates wrinkles to fill them with face-powder

9 Their coach was eager for them to succeed

10 Another airplane was standing by to take her to Rome

11 It is a crime to listen in on private conversations with scanners

12 You are always in my thoughts and it pains me to think of you struggling all alone

13 A: Only a great actor like Sir Lawrence Olivier could play this

15 She’d begun composing as a child in Berlin, so it meant a lot to her to have her music performed here

16 The public authorities have ordered passengers and crew not to leave the aircraft during stopover

17 It became a policy to increase the number of magistrates

18 He claims to have had no inside knowledge

19 Women deserve to be treated as professionals

20 The high-backed leather chair was too uncomfortable to sit in

21 James had often said that while it was one thing to have children dependent upon you, it was intolerable to be materially dependent

27 It makes a world of difference to be dying for your ideas

28 She survived to record her experiences as a cave dweller in the beleaguered city

29 They were so concerned about the Pacific yew tree that they petitioned to have it included on the endangered species list

30 She hoped to find an English audience receptive to her watercolours and her images of contemporary life

31 Graduates with first-class degree still queue up to teach in Ulster’s grammar schools

32 He claims to have had no inside knowledge

33 Everyone leaving the library can now expect to be searched

VIII Reinforce the following statements using the model You may use various adverbs or clauses that show agreement: yes, indeed, certainly, naturally, expectedly,

you’re right, no doubt, undoubtedly, etc Work in pairs:

Model: A: Only a genius could have written this poem

B: Yes, it would call for a genius to write this poem

1 A: Only a good mechanic could fix your engine

IX Identify the syntactic functions of the For-to infinitive:

1 It has become common practice for winemakers to add acid to some sun-ripe wines to boost freshness

2 Her parents consented for her to marry that Norwegian

3 Sometimes it takes courage for us to approach the subject of the death with another survivor

4 It didn’t take too long for everyone to catch on to the real meaning behind the doublespeak

5 We will plead for him to be released on bail

6 ‘Maybe it doesn’t make sense for us to get together,’ he said

7 The band was playing too loudly for him to hear me

8 It was becoming quite difficult for me to commute the fifty miles from my home and office in Chicago several times a week

9 He has emphatically asked for the stove to be lit in the early morning

10 It looks bad for a civilized country to have these kinds of problems

11 The book has too many pages for Bill (to) read it in four hours

12 It seems almost impossible for me to find myself in a relationship without wanting to get away at some point

X Comment on the extraposition of the infinitive complements:

Model: It accords with the public interest [to prosecute]

The infinitive complement clause has been extraposed from subject position

1 I deemed it a great honor to be granted an interview with him

2 At an emergency meeting of teachers and parents, it was agreed

to send home all 3000 pupils at Chigwell county primary, Essex, until further notice

3 Drivers still consider it a challenge to negotiate the long, desolate stretches of road with few services

4 It comes as no surprise to learn that magistrates in England and Wales dislike the new Criminal Justice Act and are now seeking

to modify it

5 He saw it as his duty to further the aims of the Party

6 It is up to them to stay competitive

7 We grabbed sleep when we could and took it in turns to keep watch

8 I owe it to my country to fight for what is right

9 They deem it more important to privatise state property quickly than to settle in advance the details of a market economy

10 It was left to him to assess the needs of the various underground groups and disperse the cash according to these needs

11 You were born to be happy and you owe it to yourself to achieve this goal

12 The Romans regarded it as undignified to compete naked in front

16 He has always made it his business to know about these things

17 The senator calls it wasteful to give free immunizations to those who ca afford to pay

18 She dodged into the nearest toilet and remained there until she judged it safe to emerge

19 Courts in Scotland have rules it illegal to clamp a car parked on private ground and then to demand a fine

20 He argues that federal subsidies have rendered it hard to differentiate between good farmers and bad

21 This was a chance for them to stretch-to explore different themes and let it all hang out

XI Disambiguate by paraphrasing in such a way as to give two readings for the sentence Explain where the difference lies:

It would be pleasant for Martians to land in Las Vegas

CONTROL PREDICATES

I Discuss the co-reference relationship of the PRO subject

of the infinitive with the arguments in the matrix clause:

Model: The guard asked the prisoner to leave the room

The guard asked the prisoneri [ PROi to leave the room]

2 He challenged the Prime Minister to produce evidence

3 They encouraged peasant families by incentives to grow alternative crops

4 What has moved the President to take this step?

5 Recent evidence is leading historians to reassess that

event

6 Politeness obliged me to go on with the conversation

7 The protests have prompted the President to call a state of siege

8 He doesn’t trust the government to keep from taping his phone

9 Lieutenant Maines selected the best five soldiers to blow

up the bridge in preparation for the attack

10 They appointed a committee to consider changes to the Prison Service

11 Sue persuaded the teacher to leave earlier

12 Sue persuaded the teacher to be allowed to leave earlier

13 Grandpa promised the boys to take them to the zoo

14 Grandpa promised the boys to be allowed to go to the zoo

15 They targeted major celebrities to promote the book

16 They designated him to organize a new filing system for the whole office

17 The government has already earmarked some of the troops

to be called to the war zone at a moment’s notice

18 John agreed with Bill to kiss Mary

19 The police car signaled the motorist to turn left

20 The speeding car signalled to the pedestrian to turn left

NOMINATIVE / ACCUSATIVE + INFINITIVE

I Paraphrase the finite That Complement clauses:

a by an Accusative + Infinitive construction

b Passivize the main verb to get the Nom+Inf

construction, where possible:

Model: I knew [ CP that this message was outdated]

I knew the messagei [ ti to be outdated]

The messagei was known [ ti to be outdated]

1 Lincoln held that the Union was indestructible

2 Some believed that he had connections with the FBI

3 They found that the Democrats were notably more approving than

the Republicans

4 They discovered that the girl had heard of Mussolini and his

policy

5 They showed that much of the traditional dogma was irrelevant

6 I don’t consider that he is a very fine example of anything

II These sentences contain the verb make followed by an

infinitive Give the corresponding Acc+Inf constructions

and find the reason for the use of the particle to after the

verb make:

1 What made her choke with anger?

2 Everybody expects that Philip will be made to give evidence in

court

3 The teacher made her prune away unnecessary adjectives

4 The judge made the criminal restore the stolen property

5 I’m sorry that Mr Johnson was made to retire before Easter

III The verb have may be used in Acc+ Inf structure with two different interpretations: a CAUSE, b EXPERIENCE:

1 A: The plumber refuses to fix the faucet now

B: Forget about it I’ll have him fix it when he has finished his lunch

2 A: Has she ever hurt his feelings?

B: No, he has never had her hurt his feelings

3 A: Have you ever been searched by the police?

B: No, I’ve never had the police search me

IV Replace the finite complement clause by a Nominative + Infinitive construction (Note that the Accusative + Inf is not allowed with these verbs):

Model:

They admitted [CP that the opponents had played a better game] *They admitted the opponentsi [ti to have played a better game] The opponents were admitted [ to have played a better game]

1 The police conjectured that the substance found in the sink was poisonous

2 They deduced that the murderer had escaped up the chimney

3 It happened that I was standing next to her when she fainted

4 They disclosed that another diplomat had been arrested for spying

5 They maintained that the prisoner was innocent of the charge

6 They recollected that she had attended the ceremony in the company of an unknown gentleman

7 After they granted him the loan, they verified that he was the true owner of the house

8 The critics guarantee that the play will be an instant success

9 It was rumoured that a dangerous convict was hiding in the marshes

10 I supposed that the citizen had both a duty to be loyal to the state and the right to change the government

11 It was eventually proved that the man had been hiding in the neighbourhood

12 They think that there are more than 3,000 different languages in the world

13 He said that there was a disagreement between the Prime Minister and the Home Secretary

V Rewrite the sentences substituting a that-clause for the Acc + inf construction:

VI Comment on the subject in each infinitive construction:

1 He was believed to be working for that company

2 It would be lucky for him to succeed as he desires

3 He seems to have believed that firmly

4 She is supposed to have paid visits to this family in her youth

5 They assumed him to be working on that novel

6 He was asked to take the ladder with him

7 It is forbidden for tourists to bring pets on board

8 Sorry to be such a bore

9 Mary allowed herself to be examined by the surgeon

10 I don’t want there to be any trouble

Note: The subject of the infinitive can be retained, raised or deleted

VII Replace the Nom+Inf constructions by a that complement clause:

Model: There were understood to be no injuries

Therei were understood [ti to be no injuries]

It was understood [that there were no injuries]

1 There appeared to be no progress following today’s talks

2 There are reckoned to be thirty-seven different groups

3 There seems to exist a large and impressive body of evidence that points to reincarnation

4 There appeared to be a woman in the car, accompanied by a man

5 There were reported to be wounded on both sides

6 They wish it to be known that they cannot make any exceptions

to this rule

VIII Comment upon the errors caused by improper raising:

1 *They say his company to be in trouble

2 *Doris was wanted to be a manager

3 *Our staff are liked to say what they think

IX Decide whether the following examples contain control

predicates or raising verbs: