Waste Plastics as an Alternative Energy Source

In the following work some experiments of the co-combustion process of bisphenol A polycarbonate with propane and 50 % air excess in the fluidised bed reactor filled with the quartz sand

Waste Plastics as an Alternative Energy Source

Keywords waste utilization – energy recovery – thermal destruction – alternative fuel – air pollutants

Abstract Current trends of technique and technology result in a wide of application of plastic materials However, the growth in production causes also a lot of waste plastics consequently Among lots of methods of utilization, thermal decomposition methods of waste plastics, as materials produced from the same stock as natural high calorific fossil fuels, are undoubtedly very suitable methods for a total removal of waste plastics from the environment with simultaneously the thermal energy recovery But improper plastic combustion processes, what are very complicated processes, may contribute to the serious environment contamination Thus, it is very important, that combustion chemical processes are studied properly, and then industrial technology processes may be controlled It is particularly important when we consider high costs of complex operations on exhaust gases form large incineration plants Public awareness of possible environment and health hazards contributed to not only the more restricted emission standards but also to the interest on crucial aspects of physical and chemical phenomena of industrial combustion processes Nevertheless, complexity of combustion processes of polymeric materials is not the argument against the environmentally-friendly energy recovery possibility form plastic waste with the mandatory policy of a sustainable development satisfied There is a necessity that each parameter that has an influence on the combustion process progress is consid-ered and most of the toxic products of the incomplete combustion are identified by available analytical methods and successfully eliminated In the following work some experiments of the co-combustion process

of bisphenol A polycarbonate with propane and 50 % air excess in the fluidised bed reactor filled with the quartz sand or the limestone in the different temperature conditions are presented The results confirmed the general thesis about the influence of such parameters as the temperature value and the kind of the reactor bed

on the combustion progress and the flue gas components The higher temperature value affected in positive way the whole process because lower emissions of the incomplete combustion compounds were registered in the flue gases then There was also observed that the combustion in the presence of the different fluidising materials filled the reactor may considerable change the character of the whole process In case of the limestone bed smaller temperature variations were registered in the reactor freeboard space when compared with the quartz sand bed what may indicate different chemical reactions occurred

* mgr inż., Wydział Inżynierii Środowiska, Politechnika Krakowska, asiapolomska@gmail.com

** dr inż Jerzy Baron, mgr inż Jadwiga Zabagło, dr hab inż Witold Żukowski, prof PK, Wydział Inżynierii i Technologii Chemicznej, Politechnika Krakowska, baron@pk.edu.pl, zabaglo@chemia.pk.edu.pl, pczukows@pk.edu.pl

1 Waste Incineration

Waste incineration is commonly used to reduce the volume and the toxicity of municipal solid waste And as in other combustion processes, the principal gaseous products of waste incineration are carbon dioxide and water vapour But waste incineration also produces by-products such as ash and some amounts of organic and inorganic compounds Other contaminants that are released in exhaust gases from waste incineration plants may contain lots of harmful chemical compounds, like particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic compounds, dioxins and furans The presence of these harmful substances in the exhaust gases is determined by the waste stream composition, by the combustion process itself and by the reactions occurring in the flue gases after combustion The amount of toxic products of incomplete combustion may be successively limited by the enough time of combustion processes, the effective mixing of gases in combustion chambers and high combustion temperature When the gases in the combustion chamber mix continuously with air and proper temperature values are maintained, then optimal conditions are achieved In correctly designed chambers the hazardous pollutants may be completely destroyed Because all of the crucial issues are in the public awareness nowadays, so environmentally-friendly technologies of waste incineration may be realized [4]

In many countries incineration is widely used not only to reduce the volume of municipal-solid waste but also to produce some forms of energy like heat, steam or electric energy Firstly in 1960 combustion in low-efficiency incineration plants without energy recovery or advanced pollution-control technology burned several percent of the municipal solid waste generated In 1980 waste incineration was decreased Nevertheless, because there has been more and more interest about waste-to-energy policy, by 1990 waste incineration had increased again There were a few reasons that had caused the decreasing in the municipal-waste incineration [4]:

− some alternative low-cost methods of waste disposal like land-filling,

− local people resistance what resulted in other locations of waste incineration plants,

− reusing of products and obligatory programs for waste recycling and so reduction of amount of waste,

− some amount of municipal waste that can not be monitored

Individual owners of houses and hotel managers had practised uncontrolled combustion of municipal solid waste in their small waste incinerators for many years But, from that time, waste incineration technology and emission control have improved considerably Nowadays large-scale incineration plants are specially designed furnaces Today, it is known, that the first step to reduce the emissions of harmful substances have to start from the limiting of formation of them in the incinerators by the reduction of pollutant precursors (e.g chlorine, metals, nitrogen, sulphur) in the waste stream Formerly, typical waste incineration plants might be fed a heterogeneous mixture of various-component municipal solid waste including toxic elements that were transformed into or catalyzed the formation of pollutants The combustion processes had been carried out with no respect to temperature and oxygen control so consequently some waste components were often not completely burned Today, not only the volume but also the toxicity are considered during plan-ning of waste incineration [4]

2 Fuel Properties of Plastics

Plastics have a widespread usage in our community today and the market of plastics has increased rapidly over the past few decades They are used in the construction of many items in the development of numerous industrial, commercial and domestic applications All plastics are

polymers with long chain molecules Generally, they are flexible and unbreakable materials, but there are many rigid and brittle plastics and these physical features depend on the particular plastic’s chemical characteristics There are two basic kinds of plastics: thermoplastic materials which can be re-melted, reformed and reused, and thermosetting materials which cannot be reformed [3]

Plastics are produced from petroleum sources Several percent of all the petroleum extracted from the earth each year is intended to the petrochemical industry and from some of this amount of petroleum plastics are produced Petrochemical plants produce the basics of plastics and these basics are then processed to final products [3]

The quantity of plastics in municipal solid waste is growing rapidly nowadays The content of plastics in a typical waste is directly proportional to the plastic consumption The increase of plastic waste may cause many problems with the disposal Presently, the most common methods of the disposal of solid waste including plastics are land-filling and incineration However, there are many drawbacks of land-filling of waste plastics, because covering waste plastics with soil simply removes their visibility since plastics do not decompose Most plastics are resistant to chemical corrosion and biological attack and thus waste plastics may remain undamaged for many years Dumping plastics

to sea does not result in their degradation as well However, the increase of the content of plastics in municipal solid waste brings about the higher heating value of these waste [3, 14, 15]

Waste incineration provides considerably reduction of the volume of waste and the heat generated during the process may be utilized, but there are many unresolved problems when combustion of municipal solid waste with waste plastics is considered Application of conven-tional incinerators is usually not effective because combustion of plastics is often incomplete Low temperature of the combustion, below 760°C, may result in the emission of a lot of smoke because

of the burning of organic plastic waste Grate systems may be found unsuccessful because heavier thermoplastic polymers melt and create a sticky mass that block the air supply and inhibit the process Probably the most important problem with conventional incineration plants that burn waste plastics is the high calorific value of plastic materials, which is approximately 24 MJ/kg to

43 MJ/kg Most municipal sold waste incinerators are designed to burn materials that generate much less heat then plastics, between 11 MJ/kg and 23 MJ/kg However, plastics with their chemical differences, high molecular weights and hydrocarbon natures may sometimes inhibit the efficiency of the combustion of waste materials in conventional incineration plants [3, 14]

3 Plastic Combustion Basis

Incineration of waste plastics, like other combustion processes, is a very complex phenomenon

In a fire mass and heat fluxes to and from the combustible substance and the surrounding atmosphere are occurred The whole combustion process consists of a few stages and depends on mainly the kind of the polymer [13]

The kind and the amount of the products what are created during the thermal decomposition of the specific material substantially depend on the physical conditions under which the material is decomposed When the surrounding atmosphere is low in oxygen then a pyrolysis occurs but the oxygen-rich atmosphere results in an oxidative pyrolysis or a flaming combustion All natural and synthetic polymers contain carbon so when they are burnt carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are generated But, in fact, the smoke from polymer combustion processes is a very complex mixture of solid particles and aerosols, there are lots of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, partially oxidized fragments of particles and more complex aromatics [7]

The combustion of polymers is an extremely interesting process so it is examined in different ways in many special controlled flammability standards For these purposes some appropriate

devices and apparatus are used The most common parameters for testing and measurements during small-scale flammability tests include [1]:

− the sample size, the dimensions and the orientation,

− the sample exposure to small flame or radiant heat,

− the sample environment (the oxygen concentration),

− the test measurements (the ignition time and the flame extinguishment, the dripping of the burning or non-burning polymer melt and the ignition of the combustibles in the close proximity to the test sample, the light obscuration by the smoke, the release rate of the smoke, the heat release and the rate and the extent of the flame spread and the surface charring) The process of the polymer burning can be started by setting a fire that may be initiated by the exposure of the polymer to heat with or without using of a pilot flame The burning proceeding depends on the kind of the polymer The exposure of thermoplastics to external or internal heat fluxes in a fire brings about the polymer softening and the melting, and next the release of some vapours to the environment but without the significant surface charring, whereas the exposure of thermosets to external or internal heat fluxes in a fire generally results in the surface charging and the release of some vapours to the environment The mixture of the polymer vapours with air is created and a combustible or a non-combustible zone around the polymer sample can be formed The combustible mixture ignites the polymer surface and some flames are then observed, while the non-combustible mixture does not ignite Because of the vapour ignition, the continuous process

of the polymer burning can be maintained The expansion of the fire ignites the polymer surface ahead and the release of some heat and smoke take place The mass of the polymer sample is reduced The heat generated is transferred ahead and the growth of the polymer surface temperature to the ignition temperature takes place and this temperature is maintained until the polymer vapours ignite During the whole thermal decomposition process including the ignition, the combustion and the fire propagation, the incomplete and the complete combustion products and the heat are generated Considering more exactly of the polymer burning process, after when a part of the sample melts, the molten and burning drips flow away from the heat source and they burn as a liquid fire and also they ignite other parts of the polymer and other materials located close to the fire All the physical processes (so the softening, the melting and the flow of the molten burning drips) and also the chemical processes (so the kind of the reactions in the flame), what are carried out during the polymer burning process, depend on the polymer morphology [1] The incineration of waste plastics have to be maintained by the energy released during the combustion process, so the amount of the energy have to be sufficient to heat the air, that is needed

to oxidative reactions, and also the incoming waste plastic materials to the ignition temperature, otherwise some fuel, that sustains the burning, have to be added Beyond the air excess, the combustion process is influenced also by the temperature and the time in the following way: while higher temperature values, then shorter time is needed to attain the same effect of the oxidation rate, and as the reverse, with lower temperature values the oxidation process is slower and the combustion time is longer It should be mentioned that the appropriate mixing conditions are also very important because every mass of the waste plastics have to come in contact with the oxygen form the air supplied [11] There are some methods available to improve the mixing of the air and the waste streams, e.g fluidised bed reactors

4 Experimental Data and Discussion

Among lots of various plastic materials, the special attention should be devoted to those which are characterized by a complex chemical structure, so to those plastics which particles include not only carbon and hydrogen molecules but also oxygen molecules or some other molecules like

nitrogen or sulphur, and to those plastics which particles are composed of molecules that are combined together not only by linear bonds but also by highly energetic aromatic bonds, what makes those chemical compounds very stable and difficult to decompose To break such chemical structure during a combustion process a lot of energy and a high temperature are needed Often, it may be impossible to decompose thermally such compounds without using special methods

In the following work a few experiments of the co-combustion process of some bisphenol A polycarbonate samples with propane in the fluidised bed reactor, filled with the quartz sand or the limestone, are presented with the results below in some graphs Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic polymer with a very high oxygen index equal to 26 (what indicates the minimum volumetric concentration of oxygen in an oxygen – nitrogen mixture which will just support combustion; higher OI values represent better flame retardation) and besides it is classified as V-2

by Underwriters’ Laboratory what means a material which have to be exposed to a relatively high temperature before it will ignite [10, 12] Because of the specific properties of polycarbonate, it is commonly used in lots applications It is an engineering polymer used in many everyday-usage utensils in housewares, in laboratories and in industry as well Polycarbonate typical engineering applications may be presented in e.g electrotechnical and electronic industry (switch and lamp enclosures, connectors, plugs, sockets, loudspeakers, electrical insulation films, mobile phone enclosures, identity cards, credit cards, compact discs and digital versatile discs), automotive industry (streetlights, traffic signals, automotive windows, lampshades, reflectors, headlights, taillight covers, interior lights, motorcycle windshield visors and helmets), a great deal of food package and domestic utensils (drinking bottles, drinking glasses, egg boilers, coffee makers, coffee filters, plastic dishes and trays, beverage pitchers, wine carafes, electrical kettles, attachments for electrical grills and microwave ovens, electric shavers, hair-dryer, tanks for flat irons), laboratory equipment (tubes, rods, microscope parts and flash-light instruments), medical industry (some apparatus like blood oxygenators, dialysis machines, and also optical glasses and diverse kinds of lenses), leisure devices (like ski carriers or binoculars), research animal enclosures and lots of other technical employment and practical usage [2,10] All these devices at the final stage of their usage become waste components and consequently there is a need of the utilization

of them Waste materials containing polycarbonate or creating from polycarbonate may cause some serious problems while municipal waste combustion processes in industrial incineration plants The specific chemical construction of polycarbonate makes the polymer very thermally stable The results of the following presented laboratory-scale experiments are the prove that the thermal decomposition of polycarbonate in combustion processes is possible and may be applied

in industrial waste incineration plants as well

The whole laboratory position, which was used for the performance of the few experiments, is schematically presented in the figure 1 The combustion processes that are realized in this bubbling fluidised bed reactor can generate the heating power about from 5 kW to 15 kW, what depends on the combustible substance applied The reactor is the horizontal oriented cylindrical quartz tube, which diameter equals to 96 mm, the height equals to 500 mm and the wall thickness is equal to

3 mm The tube is resting on a flat perforated Cr/Ni steel distributor which thickness is equal to

1 mm The perforation is made as a sequence of circular holes of 0.6 mm in their diameters in the quantity of 6.25/cm2 The reactor principle operation arises from its construction and there are three main zones if physical and chemical processes are considered The first zone, the plenum chamber, is located at the bottom, the air and some propane were mixed there The streams of gases supplied to the reactor plenum chamber were equal to 1.650 dm3/s of air and 0.046 dm3/s of propane, measured at the ambient temperature The mixture of the gases were then supplied

by the distributor to the bed, the second zone, and the fluidising flow of the bed was maintained

1 - plenum chamber

2 - bubbling fluidised bed

3 - freeboard space

4 - perforated distributor

5 - reactor cover

6 - pilot flame

7 - bed thermocouples

8 - freeboard thermocouples

9 - insulating sleeve

10 - air rotameter

11 - propane rotameter

12 - propane container

13 - air blower

14 - air blower contoller

15 - air pipe

16 - propane pipe

17 - flue gas sampling probe

18 - ash trap

19 - cyclone

20 - exhaust fan

21 - valve

22 - ECOM SG Plus gas analyser

23 - MRU VarioPlus gas analyser

24 - HORIBA VA-3000 - PG-250 gas analyser

25 - J.U.M FID 3-200 gas analyser

26 - data storage system 15

19 5

12

13 14

21

21

16 21 26

HORIBA VA-3000 - PG-250

ECOM SG Plus

J.U.M 3-200 VOCs (FID)

20

MRU VarioPlus

1 4 7 2

9 8 18 6

24

25 22

23

3 17

Figure 1 The fluidised bed reactor with the measuring devices and the data logging system

Rysunek 1 Reaktor fluidyzacyjny wraz z zestawem urządzeń pomiarowych oraz systemem rejestracji danych

The chemical reactions of the combustion processes were just observed mainly in the fluidising bed, which porosity and temperature altered all the time The air in the quantity of 50 % excess, was responsible for the ensuring of the special oxidizing conditions, what were required for the particular arrangement of the combustion processes, and the propane, as a high calorific hydrocarbon fuel, heated the sand or the limestone fluidising bed in the reactor As a result, the concentration of oxygen in the flue gases was about seven percent during the propane combustion process and the temperature of the bed depended on the position of the moveable insulating sleeve, which covered the reactor tube partially at the height of the freeboard location or was removed completely, and that is why, the different bed temperature values, 960°C and 900°C, were achieved appropriately at the same fuel distribution to the reactor In the following few experiments the mass of the fluidising bed was equalled to 300 g in each case, and the diameters of the sand particles were about from 0.385 mm to 0.430 mm and the diameters of the limestone particles were about from 0.500 mm to 0.600 mm The temperature in the bubbling bed was measured by the set of two Cr/Ni-Ni thermocouples located 20 mm and 50 mm above the perforated distributor The whole space of the fluidising bed had almost the same temperature during each specific experiment Above the bed, in the freeboard space, the third zone, the pilot flame used for the ignition initiation was located, and through the freeboard space the parts of the

solid fuel, the samples of polycarbonate, were inserted to the hot fluidising bed, where afterwards they were ignited by the combustible air-propane mixture and then were heterogeneously burned bombarding by the particles of the fluidising bed material The temperature in the freeboard space, above the fluidising bed, was monitored by the set of eight Cr/Ni-Ni thermocouples, the first one

180 mm above the distributor and the others: 187 mm, 195 mm, 204 mm, 214 mm, 224 mm,

235 mm and 245 mm located in the sequence on the axis of the reactor The temperature values in the freeboard space depended on the height above the distributor and these temperature values were higher for the points located closer to the fluidising bed (and so closer to the distributor and

so closer to the main zone of the combustion processes, because in the bed the highest temperature values were observed) and were equalled to about from 800°C to 750°C in case of the limestone bed and from 830°C to 770°C in case of the sand bed The values of the temperature growths in the freeboard space, that are mentioned in the further description of this work, are the mean values form these eight values of the temperature growths in the listed points Next to the reactor, the exhaust fan was located and it contributed to creating a small subatmospheric pressure, so that the flue gases were not spread in the laboratory room but were taken outside into the atmosphere The laboratory position was equipped with four devices for the measurements of the concentrations of the selected compounds in the flue gases:

− MRU Vario Plus gas analyser with some electrochemical sensors for detecting of O2, CO, NO,

NO2 and SO2 and some IR sensors for identification of CO2 and VOCs,

− Ecom-SG Plus gas analyser with some electrochemical sensors for detecting of O2, CO, NO,

NO2, SO2,

− Horiba VA-3000 - PG-250 gas analyser with some IR sensors for CO2, CO, N2O, SO2 identification, some electrochemical sensors for detecting of O2 and some chemiluminescent acid sensors to monitor NO and NOx concentration,

− and J.U.M 3–200 gas analyser for monitoring of the total concentration of VOCs with FID method applied

Figure 2 The propane combustion

(960°C, sand bed) Rysunek 2 Spalanie propanu

(960°C, złoże piaskowe)

Figure 3 The polycarbonate co-combustion process with propane (960°C, sand bed) Rysunek 3 Współspalanie poliwęglanu

z propanem (960°C, złoże piaskowe)

The emissions of all nitrogen oxides that were monitored (NO, NO2, N2O, often given as NOx and calculated as NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) were almost negligible during the whole time of the experiments because neither propane nor bisphenol A polycarbonate without some specific pigments include nitrogen and sulphur in their chemical compound structures All the data from the measurements of the concentrations of the monitored components in the flue gases (O2, CO2,

CO, VOCs, NO, N2O, NO2 or NOx and SO2) and of the temperature values in the fluidising bed and in the freeboard space were registered in the frequency of 1 Hz and were saved on the computer hard disc

During the experiments, firstly, some propane was used to initiate the ignition and to heat up the fluidising bed (the sand bed or the limestone bed as well) Some photos, which were made, confirmed the fact that the combustion of propane in the fluidised bed reactor was a process without flames and so the oxidative reactions between the air and the fuel were nearly complete Thus, the emissions of carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds were very low then The appearance in the hot fluidising bed of some samples, from two to five pieces, of polycarbonate of the masses about from 40 mg to 100 mg, which were thrown from the top of the reactor, was resulted in some periodic blazing flames above the fluidising sand bed, in the freeboard of the reactor, and at that time sudden temporary growths in the measured emissions of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds in the flue gases were observed The concentration of oxygen in the flue gases decreased then During this part of the experiment the reactor quartz tube was also covered with a very thin layer of some soot, what is the prove, that the combustion process of polycarbonate was incomplete The emission of the carbon dioxide and the water vapour, that are the main products of the combustion process of the specific mass of the polycarbonate sample can be easily approximately calculated from the following formula (1):

O C C

O

2 2

2 2

2

21

79 18 7

16 21

79 18

but it should be noticed that the oxidation reactions during combustion of polycarbonate never goes in this way exactly, and besides carbon dioxide and water vapour there are usually some by-products, like carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds, what was experimentally proven and it is showed in the following graphs (figures 4 and 5) The experiments were realized in different conditions, because both the kind of the fluidising material (the quartz sand or the limestone) and its temperature were depended on the authors and therefore some crucial conclusions can be stated

PC [mg]

0

10

20

30

40

50

A CO (900 o C)

B CO (960 o C)

A.

B.

Figure 4 The carbon monoxide emissions during

the polycarbonate co-combustion process with

propane in the sand bed fluidised bed reactor in

different temperatures

Rysunek 4 Emisja tlenku węgla (II) podczas

współspalania poliwęglanu z propanem w

reaktorze fluidyzacyjnym ze złożem piaskowym

w różnych temperaturach

PC [mg]

0 4 8 12

D.

C.

Figure 5 The volatile organic compounds emissions during the polycarbonate co-combustion with propane in the sand bed fluidised bed reactor in different temperatures Rysunek 5 Emisja lotnych części organicznych podczas współspalania poliwęglanu z propanem

w reaktorze fluidyzacyjnym ze złożem piaskowym w różnych temperaturach

of polycarbonate because the lower emissions of the incomplete combustion compounds were registered in the flue gases then The results of the measured carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds emissions during the polycarbonate co-combustion process with propane in the two experimentally realized cases, so while the temperature of the fluidised sand bed was equal to 900°C and 960°C, are presented in the figures 4 and 5 It was observed that the relations between the emissions of the mentioned two parameters monitored in the flue gases were very similar when the temperature dependence is considered It should be also notice that in the two discussed experiments both the oxygen access and so the turbulence and the time of the combustion process were at the same level in each case

PC [mg]

5

10

15

20

25

30

o C

5 10 15 20 25 30

o C

a.

Figure 6 The growths of the temperature of the sand

bed and in the freeboard during the polycarbonate

co-combustion process with propane at 960°C in the

fluidised bed reactor

Rysunek 6 Wzrost temperatury piaskowego złoża

oraz przestrzeni nadzłożowej podczas współspalania

poliwęglanu z propanem w temperaturze 960°C

w reaktorze fluidyzacyjnym

PC [mg]

5 10 15 20 25 30

o C

5 10 15 20 25 30

o C

c.

d.

Figure 7 The growths of the temperature of the limestone bed and in the freeboard during the polycarbonate co-combustion process with propane

at 960°C in the fluidised bed reactor Rysunek 7 Wzrost temperatury wapiennego złoża oraz przestrzeni nadzłożowej podczas współspalania poliwęglanu z propanem w temperaturze 960°C

w reaktorze fluidyzacyjnym

There was also observed that the polycarbonate combustion process itself highly depends on the kind of the material filled the reactor The hot fluidising bed heated up the polymer samples when they appeared in it and also maintained constant mixed conditions of air provided oxygen and the gaseous and solid fuels so propane and polycarbonate Despite the fact that the emissions

of carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds in the next two discussed experiments were

in the very comparable levels, because the temperature of the combustion process was almost the same and equalled to about 960°C, however there were different temperature growths in the bed and in the freeboard when the sand bed and the limestone bed are compared The analysis of figures 6 and 7 gives the obvious conclusion that the difference between the reactions in the freeboard zone of the fluidised bed reactor in both two cases was considerable The higher temperature growths in the reactor freeboard space while combustion with the sand bed as the fluidising material may indicate to creating some more diffusive flames than in the analogous temperature and hydrodynamic conditions during the combustion process with using the limestone

to mix the fuels with air Because of this fact limestone is suggested to be more appropriate bed while polycarbonate thermal decomposition processes by combustion Diffusive blazing flames

are very unwanted physical phenomena and they accompany aromatic products of incomplete combustion and soot particle aggregation [9]

Summarising all these experimental data results, limestone may be assumed to be more recommended fluidised reactor bed when the combustion of polycarbonate is deliberated The industrial processes of the incineration of waste, especially containing plastic waste, which are very common in municipal solid wastes, should be carried out in high temperature, which is defined in the prevailing standards [5,6] The high calorific value of plastics, giving polycarbonate

as an example, which is in fact a hydrocarbon fuel, was also experimentally proven, because the increase of the temperature of the fluidising bed causing by the additional amount of the fuel, which warmed the bed up, was also undoubtedly confirmed the alternative fuel properties

References

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[2] Bottenbruch L., Anders S., Engineering thermoplastics: polycarbonates, polyacetals, polyesters,

cellulose esters, Hanser Verlag, New York, 1996

[3] Cheremisinoff P N., Morresi A C., Energy from Solid Wastes, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1976

[4] Committee on Health Effects of Waste Incineration, Board on Environmental Studies and

Toxicology, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council, Waste Incineration and

Public Health, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 2000

[5] Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 December 2000 on the incineration of waste

[6] Directive 2001/80/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2001 on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the air from large combustion plants

[7] Gad S C., Anderson R C., Combustion Toxicology, CRC Press, Florida, 1990

[8] Hilado C.J., Flammability Handbook for Plastics, Technomic Publishing Company, Basel 1998 [9] Jankowska G., Przygocki W., Włochowicz A., Palność polimerów i materiałów polimerowych, WNT,

Warszawa, 2007

[10] Krajewski B (red., praca zbiorowa), Poliwęglany, WNT, Warszawa, 1971

[11] Reynolds J P., Jeris J S., Theodore L., Handbook of Chemical and Environmental Engineering

Calculations, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 2002

[12] Seymour R B., Engineering polymer sourcebook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990

[13] Troitzsch J., Plastics Flammability Handbook: Principles, Regulations, Testing and Approvals,

Hanser, Kempten, 2004

[14] Wandrasz J W., Wandrasz A J., Paliwa formowane Biopaliwa i paliwa z odpadów w procesach

termicznych, Wyd Seidel-Przywecki, Warszawa, 2006

[15] http://www.wte.org/ (10.06.2010)

JOANNA POŁOMSKA, JERZY BARON, JADWIGA ZABAGŁO, WITOLD ŻUKOWSKI

Odpadowe tworzywa sztuczne źródłem alternatywnej energii

Słowa kluczowe utylizacja odpadów – odzysk energii – rozkład termiczny – paliwo alternatywne –

– zanieczyszczenia powietrza