TÀI LIỆU ACCA MỚI NHẤT 2015 BPP f5 study text

2.1 Using absorption costing to deal with the problem of overheads Traditionally, the view has been that a fair share of overheads should be added to the cost of units produced to obtai

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Paper F5

Performance Management

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FAST FORWARD

Studying F5

The F5 exam requires candidates to be able to apply management accounting techniques in business

environments The key question you need to be able to answer is 'what does it all actually mean?' Modern technology is capable of producing vast amounts of management accounting information but it has to be used to help managers to make good decisions and manage effectively The emphasis in this paper is

therefore on practical elements and application to the real world The exam does not set out to trick you: the paper will be fair

1 What F5 is about

The aim of this syllabus is to develop knowledge and skills in the application of management accounting techniques It covers a number of specialist techniques, decision making, budgeting and standard costing, concluding with how business performance should be managed and controlled

F5 is the middle paper in the management accounting section of the qualification structure F2 concerns

just techniques and P5 thinks strategically and considers environmental factors F5 requires you to be able

to apply techniques and think about their impact on the organisation

2 What skills are required?

 You are expected to have a core of management accounting knowledge from Paper F2

 To deal with the multiple choice questions, you will need to demonstrate understanding of the

subject across the entire syllabus

 For the longer questions, you will be required to carry out calculations, with clear workings and a

logical structure

 You will be required to interpret data

 You will be required to explain management accounting techniques and discuss whether they are

appropriate for a particular organisation

 You must be able to apply your skills in a practical context

3 How to improve your chances of passing

 There is no choice in this paper, all questions have to be answered You must therefore study the

entire syllabus, there are no short-cuts

 You should then practise extensively on examination-style questions Practice will improve your

ability to answer questions well, and should enable you to answer them more quickly BPP's

Practice and Revision Kit contains questions on all areas of the syllabus

 Keep an eye out for articles as the examination team will use Student Accountant to communicate

with students

 Read journals etc to pick up on ways in which real organisations apply management accounting

and think about your own organisation if that is relevant

4 Brought forward knowledge

You will need a good working knowledge of basic management accounting from Paper F2 Chapter 1 of this

Study Text revises elements of costing, and further revision material is provided in other chapters, such as

those on CVP analysis and variance analysis If you struggle with the examples and questions used to revise this knowledge, you should go back and revisit your previous work The examination team will assume you know

this material and it may form part of an exam question

The exam paper and exam formulae

Format of the paper

From December 2014, the exam is a three-hour paper divided into two sections Section A consists of 20 multiple choice questions of two marks each

Section B consists of three questions of 10 marks each and two questions of 15 marks each All questions are compulsory In Section B, answers to the questions will require a mixture of calculations and

discussion

You also have 15 minutes for reading and planning

The exam will cover as much of the syllabus as possible

Exam formulae

Set out below are the formulae you will be given in the exam If you are not sure what the symbols

mean, or how the formulae are used, you should refer to the appropriate chapter in this Study Text

Chapter in Study Text

P = a – bQ

b = change in pricechange in quantity

a = price when Q = 0

MR = a – 2bQ

Y = axb

Where Y = cumulative average time per unit to produce x units

a = the time taken for the first unit of output

x = the cumulative number of units

b = the index of learning (log LR/log 2)

LR = the learning rate as a decimal

Syllabus and Study Guide

The F5 syllabus and study guide can be found below

Specialist cost and

management accounting

techniques

P A R T A

Costing

Introduction

Part A of this Study Text looks at specialist cost and management accounting

techniques This chapter serves as a revision of concepts you should have

covered in your previous studies

In the following chapter we will be looking at more complex techniques, so it is

important that you are familiar with the key concepts and terminology in this

chapter

Topic list

1 Costing

2 The problem of overheads

3 Revision of absorption costing

4 Overhead absorption

5 Marginal costing

6 Absorption costing and marginal costing compared

Exam guide

This chapter serves as an introduction to your study of cost and management accounting techniques, as knowledge is assumed from Paper F2 Management Accounting and is still examinable at this level Questions in this paper will focus on interpretation rather than doing complex calculations

1 Costing

Costing is the process of determining the costs of products, services or activities

Cost accounting is used to determine the cost of products, jobs or services (whatever the organisation happens to be involved in) Such costs have to be built up using a process known as cost accumulation

In your earlier studies you will have learnt how to accumulate the various cost elements which make up total cost

Absorption costing cost accumulation system

2 The problem of overheads

Indirect costs, or overheads, are costs incurred in making a product or providing a service, but which

cannot be traced directly to products or services Absorption costing is a means of incorporating a fair

share of these costs into the cost of each unit of product manufactured or each service provided

If a company manufactures a product, the cost of the product will include the cost of the raw materials and components used in it and cost of the labour effort required to make it These are direct costs of the

product The company would, however, incur many other costs in making the product which are not directly attributable to a single product, but which are incurred generally in the process of manufacturing a large number of product units These are indirect costs or overheads Such costs include the following

 Machine depreciation  Heating and lighting

A direct cost is a cost that can be traced in full to the product, service or department that is being costed

An indirect cost or overhead is a cost that is incurred in the course of making a product, providing a service

or running a department, but which cannot be traced directly and in full to the product, service or department

In some companies, total overhead costs may be substantially greater than the total of direct production costs

FAST FORWARD

Key terms

FAST FORWARD

It might seem unreasonable to ignore indirect costs entirely when accumulating the costs of making a

product, and yet there cannot be a completely satisfactory way of sharing out indirect costs between the

many different items of production which benefit from them

2.1 Using absorption costing to deal with the problem of overheads

Traditionally, the view has been that a fair share of overheads should be added to the cost of units

produced to obtain a full unit cost of production and sales This fair share should include a portion of

production overhead expenditure and possibly administration and marketing overheads too This is the

view embodied in the principles of absorption costing

2.1.1 Theoretical justification for using absorption costing

In a manufacturing organisation, production overheads are incurred in making the output, so each unit of product receives some benefit from these costs Each unit of output should therefore be charged with

some of the overhead costs

2.1.2 Practical reasons for using absorption costing

(a) Inventory valuations

Inventory in hand must be valued for two reasons

(i) For the closing inventory figure in the statement of financial position

(ii) To calculate the cost of sales figure in the income statement

The valuation of inventories will affect profitability during a period because of the way in which the cost of sales is calculated

Cost of goods sold = cost of goods produced + the value of opening inventories – the value of

closing inventories (b) Pricing decisions

Many companies attempt to set selling prices by calculating the full cost of production or sales of

each product, and then adding a margin for profit 'Full cost plus pricing' can be particularly useful for companies which do jobbing or contract work, where each job or contract is different, so that a standard unit sales price cannot be fixed Without using absorption costing, it may be difficult to decide what the price should be to earn a satisfactory profit

(c) Establishing the profitability of different products

This argument in favour of absorption costing states that if a company sells more than one

product, it will be difficult to judge how profitable each individual product is, unless overhead

costs are shared on a fair basis and charged to the cost of sales of each product

2.2 Using marginal costing to deal with the problem of overheads

For many planning and decision-making purposes, absorption costing is less useful as a costing method than marginal costing In some situations, absorption costing can actually be misleading in the

information it supplies

Advocates of marginal costing take the view that only the variable costs of making and selling a product

or service should be identified Fixed costs should be dealt with separately and treated as a cost of the

accounting period rather than shared out somehow between units produced However, some overhead

costs are variable costs, which increase as the total level of activity rises; so the marginal cost of

production and sales should include an amount for variable overheads

3 Revision of absorption costing

Absorption costing is a traditional approach to dealing with overheads, involving three stages: allocation,

apportionment and absorption

Apportionment has two stages, general overhead apportionment and service department cost apportionment

Absorption costing is a method of product costing which aims to include in the total cost of a product

(unit, job and so on) an appropriate share of an organisation's total overhead, which is generally taken to mean an amount which reflects the amount of time and effort that has gone into producing the product You should have covered absorption costing in your earlier studies We will therefore summarise the simpler points of the topic but will go into some detail on the more complex areas to refresh your memory

Knowledge brought forward from earlier studies

Absorption costing

 Product costs are built up using absorption costing by a process of allocation, apportionment and overhead absorption

 Allocation is the process by which whole cost items are charged directly to a cost unit or cost

centre Direct costs are allocated directly to cost units Overheads clearly identifiable with cost

centres are allocated to those cost centres but costs which cannot be identified with one particular cost centre are allocated to general overhead cost centres The cost of a warehouse security guard would therefore be charged to the warehouse cost centre but heating and lighting costs would be charged to a general overhead cost centre

 The first stage of overhead apportionment involves sharing out (or apportioning) the overheads

within general overhead cost centres between the other cost centres using a fair basis of

apportionment (such as floor area occupied by each cost centre for heating and lighting costs)

 The second stage of overhead apportionment is to apportion the costs of service cost centres

(both directly allocated and apportioned costs) to production cost centres

 After the apportionment of production overheads, all the overhead costs have been divided or shared between the production departments The final stage in absorption costing is the

absorption into product costs (using overhead absorption rates) of the overheads that have been

allocated and apportioned to the production cost centres

 An overhead absorption rate is calculated for each production department (or for production activity as a whole) Typically, this is an absorption rate per direct labour hour worked or an absorption rate per machine hour worked

Briefly discuss the factors which could affect the choice of the bases an organisation may use to apportion service department costs

Key term

FAST FORWARD

Answer

(a) The type of service being provided by the service department

(b) The amount of overhead expenditure involved

(c) The number of departments benefiting from the service

(d) The ability to be able to produce realistic estimates of the usage of the service by these departments

(e) The resulting costs and benefits

A company is preparing its production overhead budgets and determining the apportionment of those

overheads to products Cost centre expenses and related information have been budgeted as follows

Machine Machine Mainten- Total shop A shop B Assembly Canteen ance

Consumable materials 16,900 6,400 8,700 1,200 600 – Actual

Rent andrates 16,700 3,711 4,453 5,567 2,227 742 Area

Depreciation 40,200 20,100 17,900 2,200 – – Val of mach

166,760 44,816 45,230 26,832 33,250 16,632 Reallocate – 7,600 5,890 19,760 (33,250) – Direct labour

Reallocate – 4,752 11,880 – – (16,632) Mach usage

Totals 166,760 57,168 63,000 46,592 – –

4 Overhead absorption

After apportionment, overheads are absorbed into products using an appropriate absorption rate based

on budgeted costs and budgeted activity levels

Having allocated and/or apportioned all overheads, the next stage in absorption costing is to add them to,

or absorb them into, the cost of production or sales

Overhead costs are absorbed using a predetermined rate based on budgeted figures

4.1 Use of a predetermined absorption rate

Knowledge brought forward from earlier studies

(activity levels) are estimated

4.2 Choosing the appropriate absorption base

List as many possible bases of absorption (or 'overhead recovery rates') as you can think of

Answer (a) A percentage of direct materials cost (b) A percentage of direct labour cost (c) A percentage of prime cost (d) A percentage of factory cost (for administration overhead) (e) A percentage of sales or factory cost (for selling and distribution overhead) (f) A rate per machine hour

(g) A rate per direct labour hour (h) A rate per unit

The choice of an absorption basis is a matter of judgement and common sense There are no strict rules

or formulae involved But the basis should realistically reflect the characteristics of a given production centre, avoid undue anomalies and be 'fair' The choice will be significant in determining the cost of individual products, but the total cost of production overheads is the budgeted overhead expenditure,

no matter what basis of absorption is selected It is the relative share of overhead costs borne by

individual products and jobs which is affected

Using the information in and the results of the question on page 7, determine budgeted overhead absorption rates for each of the production departments using appropriate bases of absorption

FAST FORWARD

Answer Machine shop A: $57,168/7,200 = $7.94 per machine hour Machine shop B: $63,000/18,000 = $3.50 per machine hour Assembly: $46,592/20,800 = $2.24 per direct labour hour

4.3 Over- and under-absorption of overheads

Under- or over-absorbed overhead occurs when overheads incurred do not equal overheads absorbed

The rate of overhead absorption is based on estimates in the budget, of both the numerator (budgeted expenditure) and denominator (budgeted activity level), and it is quite likely that what actually occurs will differ from either one or both of these estimates As a consequence, actual overheads incurred will probably be either greater than or less than overheads absorbed into the cost of production, and so it is almost inevitable that at the end of the accounting year there will have been an over-absorption or under-absorption of the overhead actually incurred

 Over–absorption means that the overheads charged to the cost of production or sales are greater than the overheads actually incurred

 Under-absorption means that insufficient overheads have been included in the cost of production or sales

Under-absorption may also be called under-recovery of overheads; absorption may be called recovery

over-Suppose that the budgeted overhead in a production department is $80,000 and the budgeted activity is 40,000 direct labour hours The overhead recovery rate (using a direct labour hour basis) would be $2 per direct labour hour

Suppose that actual overheads in the period are $84,000 and 45,000 direct labour hours are worked

The total production overhead expenditure of the company in the questions above was $176,533 and its actual activity was as follows

Machine shop A Machine shop B Assembly

Required

Using the information in and results of the previous questions, calculate the under- or over-absorption of overheads

FAST FORWARD

4.4 The reasons for under-/over-absorbed overhead

The overhead absorption rate is predetermined from budget estimates of overhead cost and activity level Under or over recovery of overhead will occur in the following circumstances

 Actual overhead costs are different from budgeted overheads

 The actual activity level is different from the budgeted activity level

 Actual overhead costs and actual activity level differ from those budgeted

A production department has a budgeted production overheads of $180,000 and budgeted activity of 45,000 machine hours Overheads are absorbed on a machine hour basis

Required

Calculate the under-/over-absorbed overhead, and note the reasons for the under-/over-absorption in the following circumstances

(a) Actual overheads cost $170,000 and 45,000 machine hours were worked

(b) Actual overheads cost $180,000 and 40,000 machine hours were worked

(c) Actual overheads cost $170,000 and 40,000 machine hours were worked

Answer The overhead recovery rate is $180,000/45,000 = $4 per machine hour

5 Marginal costing

In marginal costing, inventories are valued at variable production cost whereas in absorption costing they

are valued at their full production cost Profit is calculated by deducting variable costs of sales from sales revenue to obtain contribution, and then deducting fixed costs to obtain a figure for profit

Marginal cost is the cost of one unit of a product/service which could be avoided if that unit were not

produced/provided

Contribution is the difference between sales revenue and variable (marginal) cost of sales

Marginal costing is an alternative to absorption costing Only variable costs (marginal costs) are charged

as a cost of sales Fixed costs are treated as period costs and are charged in full against the profit of the period in which they are incurred

Knowledge brought forward from earlier studies

Marginal costing

 In marginal costing, closing inventories are valued at marginal (variable) production cost

whereas, in absorption costing, inventories are valued at their full production cost which includes

absorbed fixed production overhead

 If the opening and closing inventory levels differ in an accounting period, the profit reported for the

period will differ between absorption costing and marginal costing

 But in the long run, total profit for a company will be the same whichever costing method is

used, because in the long run total costs will be the same by either method of accounting The different costing methods merely affect the reported profit for individual accounting periods

A company makes and sells a single product At the beginning of period 1, there are no opening inventories of the product, for which the variable production cost is $4 and the sales price $6 per unit

There are no variable selling costs Fixed costs are $2,000 per period, of which $1,500 are fixed production costs Normal output is 1,500 units per period In period 1, sales were 1,200 units, production was 1,500 units In period 2, sales were 1,700 units, production was 1,400 units

Required

Prepare profit statements for each period and for the two periods in total using both absorption costing and marginal costing

Answer

It is important to notice that although production and sales volumes in each period are different, over the

full period, total production volume equals sales volume The total cost of sales is the same and

therefore the total profit is the same by either method of accounting There are differences in the

reported profit in Period 1 and in Period 2, but these are merely timing differences which cancel out over

a longer period of time (in this example over the two periods)

(a) Absorption costing The absorption rate for fixed production overhead is $1,500/1,500 units = $1

per unit The fully absorbed cost per unit = $(4+1) = $5

Key terms

FAST FORWARD

Period 1 Period 2 Total

Less closing inventory c/f (300$5) 1,500 – 1,500

The marginal cost per unit = $4

Period 1 Period 2 Total

Less closing inventory c/f (300$4) 1,200 – 1,200

RH makes and sells one product, which has the following standard production cost

$

Normal output is 16,000 units per annum Variable selling, distribution and administration costs are 20 per cent of sales value Fixed selling, distribution and administration costs are $180,000 per annum There are no units in finished goods inventory at 1 October 20X2 The fixed overhead expenditure is spread evenly throughout the year The selling price per unit is $140 Production and sales budgets are as follows

Six months ending Six months ending

31 March 20X3 30 September 20X3

Required

Prepare profit statements for each of the six-monthly periods, using the following methods of costing

(a) Marginal costing

(b) Absorption costing

Answer

(a) Profit statements for the year ending 30 September 20X3

Marginal costing basis

Six months ending Six months ending

(b) Profit statements for the year ending 30 September 20X3

Absorption costing basis

Six months ending Six months ending

Absorption cost valuation ( $69) $103,500 $34,500

2 Budgeted fixed production o/hd = 16,000 units  $20 = $320,000 pa = $160,000 per six months

3 Six months ending Six months ending

31 March 20X3 30 September 20X3

× std fixed prod o/hd per unit  $20  $20 (Over-)/under-absorbed overhead ($10,000) $20,000

6 Absorption costing and marginal costing compared

If opening and closing inventory levels differ, the profit reported under the two methods will be different

In the long run, total profit will be the same whichever method is used

6.1 Reconciling the profit figures given by the two methods

The difference in profits reported under the two costing systems is due to the different inventory valuation methods used

(a) If inventory levels increase between the beginning and end of a period, absorption costing will report the higher profit because some of the fixed production overhead incurred during the period

will be carried forward in closing inventory (which reduces cost of sales) to be set against sales revenue in the following period, instead of being written off in full against profit in the period concerned

(b) If inventory levels decrease, absorption costing will report the lower profit because as well as

the fixed overhead incurred, fixed production overhead which had been carried forward in opening inventory is released and is also included in cost of sales

6.2 Example: Reconciling profits

The profits reported for period 1 in the question on page 12 would be reconciled as follows

$

Adjust for fixed overhead in inventory (inventory increase of 300 units  $1 per unit) 300

Remember that if opening inventory values are greater than closing inventory values, marginal costing shows a bigger profit than absorption costing If opening inventory values are lower than closing inventory values, absorption costing shows a bigger profit than marginal costing

FAST FORWARD

Exam focus

point

6.3 Marginal versus absorption costing: reporting to management

Marginal costing is more useful for decision-making purposes, but absorption costing is needed for financial reporting purposes to comply with accounting standards

We know that the reported profit in any period is likely to differ according to the costing method used, but does one method provide a more reliable guide to management about the organisation's profit position?

With marginal costing, contribution varies in direct proportion to the volume of units sold Profits will

increase as sales volume rises, by the amount of extra contribution earned Since fixed cost expenditure does not alter, marginal costing gives an accurate picture of how a firm's cash flows and profits are affected by changes in sales volumes

With absorption costing, in contrast, there is no clear relationship between profit and sales volume,

and as sales volume rises the total profit will rise by the sum of the gross profit per unit plus the amount

of overhead absorbed per unit Arguably this is a confusing and unsatisfactory method of monitoring profitability

If sales volumes are the same from period to period, marginal costing reports the same profit each period (given no change in prices or costs) In contrast, using absorption costing, profits can vary with the volume of production, even when the volume of sales is constant Using absorption costing there is therefore the possibility of manipulating profit, simply by changing output and inventory levels

6.4 Example: Manipulating profits

Gloom Co budgeted to make and sell 10,000 units of its product in 20X1 The selling price is $10 per unit and the variable cost $4 per unit Fixed production costs were budgeted at $50,000 for the year The company uses absorption costing and budgeted an absorption rate of $5 per unit During 20X1, it became apparent that sales demand would only be 8,000 units The management, concerned about the apparent effect of the low volume of sales on profits, decided to increase production for the year to 15,000 units

Actual fixed costs were still expected to be $50,000 in spite of the significant increase in production volume

Required

Calculate the profit at an actual sales volume of 8,000 units, using the following methods

(a) Absorption costing (b) Marginal costing Explain the difference in profits calculated

Less: over-absorbed overhead (5,000  $5) (25,000)

FAST FORWARD

The difference in profits of $35,000 is explained by the difference in the increase in inventory values

(7,000 units  $5 of fixed overhead per unit) With absorption costing, the expected profit will be higher than the original budget of $10,000 (10,000 units  ($10 – 9)) simply because $35,000 of fixed overheads will be carried forward in closing inventory values By producing to absorb overhead rather than to satisfy customers, inventory levels will, of course, increase Unless this inventory is sold, however, there may come a point when production has to stop and the inventory has to be sold off at lower prices Marginal costing reports a contribution of $6 per unit, or $48,000 in total for 8,000 units, which fails to cover the fixed costs of $50,000 by $2,000

Chapter Roundup

 Costing is the process of determining the costs of products, services or activities

 Indirect costs, or overheads, are costs incurred in making a product or providing a service, but which

cannot be traced directly to products or services Absorption costing is a means of incorporating a fair

share of these costs into the cost of each unit of product manufactured or each service provided

 Absorption costing is a traditional approach to dealing with overheads, involving three stages: allocation,

apportionment and absorption

 Apportionment has two stages, general overhead apportionment and service department cost apportionment

 After apportionment, overheads are absorbed into products using an appropriate absorption rate based

on budgeted costs and budgeted activity levels

 Under- or over-absorbed overhead occurs when overheads incurred do not equal overheads absorbed

 In marginal costing, inventories are valued at variable production cost whereas in absorption costing they

are valued at their full production cost Profit is calculated by deducting variable costs of sales from sales revenue to obtain contribution, and then deducting fixed costs to obtain a figure for profit

 If opening and closing inventory levels differ, the profit reported under the two methods will be different

In the long run, total profit will be the same whichever method is used

 Marginal costing is more useful for decision-making purposes, but absorption costing is needed for

financial reporting purposes to comply with accounting standards

Variable cost Product cost Avoidable cost Controllable cost Relevant cost Cost centre

(e) Dividing costs into production, administration, selling and distribution, research and development and financing costs (f) Cost that can be traced in full to whatever is being costed (g) Organisation's departments

(h) A cost that varies with the level of output (i) A cost that is incurred in the course of making a product but which cannot be traced directly and in full to the product

(j) Cost that is incurred for a particular period of time and which, within certain activity levels, is unaffected by changes in the level of activity (k) Cost identified with goods produced or purchased for resale and initially included in the value of inventory

(l) Cost which can be influenced by management decisions and actions

2 ……… is the process of determining the costs of products, activities or services

3 How is an overhead absorption rate calculated?

A Estimated overhead ÷ actual activity level

B Estimated overhead ÷ budgeted activity level

C Actual overhead ÷ actual activity level

D Actual overhead ÷ budgeted activity level

4 Over-absorption means that the overheads charged to the cost of sales are greater than the overheads actually incurred

5 Fill in the blanks in the statements about marginal costing and absorption costing below

(a) If inventory levels ……… between the beginning and end of a period, absorption costing will report the higher profit

(b) If inventory levels decrease, ……… costing will report the lower profit

6 Fill in the following blanks with either 'marginal' or 'absorption'.

(a) Using ……… costing, profits can be manipulated simply by changing output and inventory levels

(b) Fixed costs are charged in full against the profit of the period in which they are incurred when

……… costing is used

(c) ……… costing fails to recognise the importance of working to full capacity

(d) ……… costing could be argued to be preferable to ……… costing in management accounting in order to be consistent with the requirements of accounting standards (e) ……… costing should not be used when decision-making information is required

Answers to Quick Quiz

Now try the question below from the Practice Question Bank

Activity based

costing

Introduction

accounting techniques It has been divided into five sub-chapters to reflect the

examiner's emphasis that all five techniques are equally important and equally

examinable

In this chapter we will be looking at a method of cost accumulation, activity

based costing (ABC), which is an alternative to traditional absorption costing

ABC attempts to overcome the problems of costing in a modern manufacturing

environment, where a very large proportion of total production costs are

overhead costs

Topic list Syllabus reference