Advances in aquaculture hatchery technology

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition:Number 242 Advances in aquaculture hatchery technology Edited by Geoff Allan and Gavin Burnell Oxford Cambridge Phila

Advances in aquaculture hatchery technology

Infectious disease in aquaculture: Prevention and control

(ISBN 978-0-85709-016-4)

New technologies in aquaculture: Improving production effi ciency, quality and environmental management (ISBN 978-1-84569-384-8)

Shellfi sh safety and quality (ISBN 978-1-84569-152-3)

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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition:

Number 242

Advances in aquaculture hatchery technology

Edited by Geoff Allan and Gavin Burnell

Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi

www.woodheadpublishingonline.com

Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India

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First published 2013, Woodhead Publishing Limited

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ISBN 978-0-85709-119-2 (print)

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Contributor contact details xiii

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xix

Foreword xxix

Preface xxxi

Part I Reproduction and larval rearing 1

1 Aquaculture hatchery water supply and treatment systems 3

O.-I Lekang, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway 1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 The water supply and its main components 6

1.3 Water treatment systems 8

1.4 Future trends 20

1.5 References 20

2 Principles of fi nfi sh broodstock management in aquaculture: control of reproduction and genetic improvement 23

N J Duncan, IRTA, Spain and A K Sonesson and H Chavanne, Nofi ma, Norway 2.1 Introduction 23

2.2 Control of reproduction 24

2.3 Critical points in the control of reproduction: forming a broodstock, culture environment and nutrition 28

Contents

2.4 Environment during gametogenesis and spawning:

the optimal environment 36

2.5 Sub-optimal environment: reproductive dysfunctions 39

2.6 Egg quality and incubation 42

2.7 Management points: fecundity, out-of-season spawning and sexual differentiation 44

2.8 Gamete stripping and spawning 51

2.9 Genetic improvement: traits, breeding values and application of genomic resources 53

2.10 Genetic improvement: risks, evidence of genetic response and current research programs in Europe 60

2.11 Conclusion 65

2.12 Acknowledgements 66

2.13 References 66

3 Cryopreservation of gametes for aquaculture and alternative cell sources for genome preservation 76

C Labbé, INRA, France and V Robles and M P Herraez, University of León, Spain 3.1 Introduction 76

3.2 Gamete cryopreservation in aquacultured species 77

3.3 Sperm cryopreservation methods and adaptation to hatcheries 82

3.4 Trials on egg and embryo cryopreservation 88

3.5 Genetic integrity and epigenetic perspective 93

3.6 Alternative cell sources for cryobanking in fi sh 98

3.7 Conclusions 102

3.8 Sources of further information 105

3.9 Acknowledgements 105

3.10 References 105

4 Live microalgae as feeds in aquaculture hatcheries 117

M R Brown and S I Blackburn, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Australia 4.1 Introduction 117

4.2 Compositional diversity of microalgae used in aquaculture 118

4.3 Microalgae applications as aquaculture feeds 122

4.4 Isolation of microalgae, and the establishment and maintenance of starter cultures 131

4.5 Mass scale production of microalgae 135

4.6 Preserved microalgae as feed 140

4.7 Future trends 143

4.8 Sources of further information and advice 144

4.9 References 145

Contents vii

5 Rotifers, Artemia and copepods as live feeds for fi sh larvae in

aquaculture 157

J Dhont and K Dierckens, Ghent University, Belgium, J Støttrup, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark and G Van Stappen, M Wille and P Sorgeloos, Ghent University, Belgium 5.1 Introduction 157

5.2 Rotifers as live feed: culture and harvesting 158

5.3 Feed for rotifers: types, techniques and nutrition 162

5.4 Rotifers as live feed: microbial aspects, hygiene and preservation techniques 165

5.5 Artemia as live feed: an overview 168

5.6 Diversifi cation of Artemia resources 171

5.7 New developments in the use of Artemia 175

5.8 Copepods as live feed: an overview 182

5.9 Copepods as live feed: nutritional value, microbiology and preservation techniques 188

5.10 References 191

6 Microdiets as alternatives to live feeds for fi sh larvae in aquaculture: improving the effi ciency of feed particle utilization 203

S Kolkovski, Department of Fisheries, Australia 6.1 Introduction 203

6.2 Diet manufacturing methods and microdiet characteristics 206

6.3 Feeding system 215

6.4 Future trends 220

6.5 References 220

7 Management of fi nfi sh and shellfi sh larval health in aquaculture hatcheries 223

T J Bowden and I.R Bricknell, University of Maine, USA 7.1 Introduction 223

7.2 Diseases in hatcheries 225

7.3 Development of immune systems in aquatic animals 228

7.4 Management of larval health 230

7.5 Conclusion 239

7.6 References 239

8 Microbial management for bacterial pathogen control in invertebrate aquaculture hatcheries 246

E F Goulden, L Høj and M R Hall, Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), Australia 8.1 Introduction 246

8.2 Methods to study bacterial communities in hatchery

systems 247

8.3 Hatchery microbial compartments 249

8.4 Identifi cation, detection and monitoring of pathogens 257

8.5 Prophylactic strategies 259

8.6 Treatment strategies 265

8.7 Innovations and future trends 271

8.8 References 273

Part II Closing the life-cycle and overcoming challenges in hatchery production for selected invertebrate species 287

9 Palinurid lobster larval rearing for closed-cycle hatchery production 289

M R Hall, M Kenway, M Salmon, D Francis, E F Goulden and L Høj, Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), Australia 9.1 Introduction 289

9.2 Development of hatchery technology for palinurid larvae and broodstock husbandry 295

9.3 Larval rearing, water quality and tank design 299

9.4 Health issues during larval rearing 304

9.5 Health: infections and nutrition 311

9.6 Metamorphosis to puerulus and settlement to juvenile 317

9.7 Future trends 317

9.8 Acknowledgements 318

9.9 References 318

10 Biosecurity measures in specifi c pathogen free (SPF) shrimp hatcheries 329

J Wyban, High Health Aquaculture Inc., USA 10.1 Introduction 329

10.2 SPF shrimp and the development of hatchery technology 331

10.3 Biosecurity in SPF shrimp hatcheries 332

10.4 Industry impact 336

10.5 References 337

11 Blue mussel hatchery technology in Europe 339

P Kamermans, IMARES, The Netherlands, T Galley, Bangor

University, Wales, P Boudry, IFREMER, France, J Fuentes,

CIMA, Spain, H McCombie and F M Batista, Bangor

University, Wales, A Blanco, IMARES, The Netherlands,

L Dominguez, CIMA, Spain, F Cornette, IFREMER, France,

L Pincot, Grainocean hatchery, France and A Beaumont,

Bangor University, Wales

Contents ix

11.1 Introduction 339

11.2 Broodstock: holding, conditioning and management 342

11.3 Spawning, fertilisation, embryo development, early D-larvae and triploid and tetraploid induction 344

11.4 Larval rearing 352

11.5 Metamorphosis and spat settlement 355

11.6 Nursery rearing of mussel spat up to seed 361

11.7 Grow-out of mussel seed in land- and sea-based facilities 364

11.8 Future trends 369

11.9 Sources of further information 370

11.10 References 370

12 Research on the production of hatchery-reared juveniles of cephalopods with special reference to the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) 374

J Iglesias and L Fuentes, Spanish Institute of Oceanography, Vigo, Spain 12.1 Introduction 374

12.2 Broodstock conditioning and reproduction process 380

12.3 Paralarvae rearing 382

12.4 Conclusions and future trends 393

12.5 Sources of further information and advice 394

12.6 Acknowledgements 395

12.7 References 396

13 Jellyfi sh as products and problems of aquaculture 404

J E Purcell, Western Washington University, USA, E J Baxter, Vet-Aqua International, Ireland and V L Fuentes, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar (CSIC), Spain 13.1 Introduction 404

13.2 Jellyfi sh as human food, their fi sheries and aquaculture 405

13.3 Culture of jellyfi sh for aquaria and research 409

13.4 Problems with aquaculture caused by jellyfi sh 417

13.5 References 427

14 Sea cucumber aquaculture: hatchery production, juvenile growth and industry challenges 431

A Mercier, Memorial University, Canada and J.-F Hamel, Society for the Exploration and Valuing of the Environment (SEVE), Canada 14.1 Introduction: historical background 431

14.2 Hatchery production 434

14.3 Juvenile growth 442

14.4 Co-culture 447

14.5 Diseases 448

14.6 Conclusions and future trends 449

14.7 Acknowledgements 450

14.8 References 450

Part III Closing the life-cycle and overcoming challenges in hatchery production for selected fi sh species 455

15 Closed-cycle hatchery production of tuna 457

G J Partridge, Australian Centre for Applied Aquaculture Research, Australia 15.1 Introduction 457

15.2 Broodstock systems and management 460

15.3 Larval rearing and nursery production 477

15.4 Conclusions and future trends 488

15.5 Acknowledgements 489

15.6 References 489

16 Developments in hatchery technology for striped catfi sh (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) 498

P T Nguyen, T M Bui and T A Nguyen, Can Tho University, Vietnam and S De Silva, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and Pacifi c (NACA), Thailand and Deakin University, Australia 16.1 Introduction 498

16.2 Striped catfi sh seed production: induced breeding in hatcheries 501

16.3 Striped catfi sh seed production: larval and fry nursing 509

16.4 Harvesting and transportation 514

16.5 Future trends 515

16.6 References 516

17 Aquaculture production of meagre (Argyrosomus regius): hatchery techniques, ongrowing and market 519

N J Duncan and A Estévez, IRTA, Spain, H Fernández-Palacios, Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain, I Gairin, IRTA, Spain, C M Hernández-Cruz, J Roo and D Schuchardt, Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain and R Vallés, IRTA, Spain 17.1 Introduction 519

17.2 Broodstock management 521

17.3 Larviculture 528

17.4 Ongrowing and harvest 531

Contents xi

17.5 Product, market and economic aspects 533

17.6 Future trends 535

17.7 Acknowledgements 537

17.8 References 537

18 Hatchery production of yellowtail kingfi sh (Seriola lalandi) 542

D Stewart Fielder, Port Stephens Fisheries Institute, Australia 18.1 Introduction 542

18.2 Broodstock management 544

18.3 Larviculture 547

18.4 Future trends 551

18.5 References 551

Part IV Aquaculture hatcheries for conservation and education 555

19 Hatchery production for conservation and stock enhancement: the case of Australian freshwater fi sh 557

S J Rowland, NSW Fisheries, Australia 19.1 Introduction 557

19.2 Captive breeding and stocking 562

19.3 Actions to address concerns in Australia 564

19.4 Australian government hatcheries 568

19.5 Threatened species: decline, stocking and recovery 573

19.6 Stock enhancement: golden perch and Australian bass 580

19.7 Hatchery production and stocking: a success story in Australia 581

19.8 Conclusions 583

19.9 Acknowledgements 584

19.10 References 584

20 Developing educational programs in partnership with aquaculture hatchery facilities 596

D Meritt and D Webster, University of Maryland, USA 20.1 Introduction 596

20.2 The hatchery as a multi-disciplinary educational tool 601

20.3 Levels of hatchery education 604

20.4 Important considerations for educational programs that utilize aquaculture 617

20.5 Future trends 619

20.6 Sources of further information 621

20.7 References 623

Index 627

North Mall Campus

University College Cork

1430 AasNorwayE-mail: odd-ivar.lekang@umb.no

Anna K Sonesson and

Rozier 44GhentBelgiumE-mail: patrick.sorgeloos@ugent.be

Chapter 6

Sagiv KolkovskiDepartment of FisheriesWestern AustraliaP.O Box 20North Beach

WA 6920AustraliaE-mail: skolkovski@fi sh.wa.gov.au

Chapter 7

T J BowdenAquaculture Research InstituteDepartment of Animal &

Veterinary SciencesUniversity of Maine

5735 Hitchner HallOrono

ME 04469-5735USA

E-mail: timothy.bowden@umit.maine.edu

Contributor contact details xv

Wageningen URP.O Box 77

4400 AB YersekeThe NetherlandsE-mail: pauline.kamermans@wur.nl

Chapter 12

Dr J IglesiasOceanographic Center of VigoSpanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO)

Subida a Radio Faro 50

36390 – VigoSpainE-mail: jose.iglesias@vi.ieo.es

E-mail: Jennifer.Purcell@wwu.edu

E J BaxterVet-Aqua InternationalUnit 7B

Oranmore Business ParkOranmore

Co GalwayIreland

Society for the Exploration and

Valuing of the Environment

Can Tho UniversityVietnam

E-mail: ntphuong@ctu.edu.vn

Chapter 17

Neil Duncan* and Alicia EstévezIRTA Sant Carles de la RapitaP.O Box 200

E-43540 Sant Carles de la RapitaTarragona

SpainE-mail: Neil.duncan@irta.es; alicia.estevez@irta.catHipólito Fernández-PalaciosGrupo de Investigación en Acuicultura

Instituto Canario de Ciencias Marinas (ICCM) & Universidad

de las Palmas de Gran CanariaP.O Box 56

E-35200 TeldeLas PalmasCanary IslandsSpain

E-mail: pipo@iccm.rcanaria.es

Contributor contact details xvii

P.O Box 13CambridgeMaryland 21613USA

E-mail: meritt@hpl.umces.edu

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applications Edited by H L Meiselman

172 Food constituents and oral health: current status and future prospects

175 Science and technology of enrobed and fi lled chocolate, confectionery and

bakery products Edited by G Talbot

176 Foodborne pathogens: hazards, risk analysis and control Second edition

Edited by C de W Blackburn and P J McClure

177 Designing functional foods: measuring and controlling food structure

breakdown and absorption Edited by D J McClements and E A Decker

178 New technologies in aquaculture: improving production effi ciency, quality

and environmental management Edited by G Burnell and G Allan

179 More baking problems solved S P Cauvain and L S Young

180 Soft drink and fruit juice problems solved P Ashurst and R Hargitt

181 Biofi lms in the food and beverage industries Edited by P M Fratamico,

B A Annous and N W Gunther

182 Dairy-derived ingredients: food and neutraceutical uses Edited by

M Corredig

183 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food

processing Volume 2 Edited by K W Waldron

184 Innovations in food labelling Edited by J Albert

185 Delivering performance in food supply chains Edited by C Mena and

G Stevens

186 Chemical deterioration and physical instability of food and beverages

Edited by L H Skibsted, J Risbo and M L Andersen

187 Managing wine quality Volume 1: viticulture and wine quality Edited by

A G Reynolds

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxv

188 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 1: milk production and

processing Edited by M Griffi ths

189 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 2: improving quality in

milk products Edited by M Griffi ths

190 Cereal grains: assessing and managing quality Edited by C Wrigley and

193 Winemaking problems solved Edited by C E Butzke

194 Environmental assessment and management in the food industry Edited by

U Sonesson, J Berlin and F Ziegler

195 Consumer-driven innovation in food and personal care products Edited by

S R Jaeger and H MacFie

196 Tracing pathogens in the food chain Edited by S Brul, P M Fratamico and

T A McMeekin

197 Case studies in novel food processing technologies: innovations in

processing, packaging, and predictive modelling Edited by C J Doona,

K Kustin and F E Feeherry

198 Freeze-drying of pharmaceutical and food products T.-C Hua, B.-L Liu and

H Zhang

199 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 1:

understanding mechanisms of oxidation and antioxidant activity Edited by

E A Decker, R J Elias and D J McClements

200 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 2:

management in different industry sectors Edited by E A Decker, R J Elias

and D J McClements

201 Protective cultures, antimicrobial metabolites and bacteriophages for food

and beverage biopreservation Edited by C Lacroix

202 Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage

and nutraceutical industries Edited by S S H Rizvi

203 Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed Edited

by S De Saeger

204 Developing children’s food products Edited by D Kilcast and F Angus

205 Functional foods: concept to product Second edition Edited by

M Saarela

206 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits

Volume 1: fundamental issues Edited by E M Yahia

207 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits

Volume 2: açai to citrus Edited by E M Yahia

208 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits

Volume 3: cocona to mango Edited by E M Yahia

209 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits

Volume 4: mangosteen to white sapote Edited by E M Yahia

210 Food and beverage stability and shelf life Edited by D Kilcast and

P Subramaniam

211 Processed Meats: improving safety, nutrition and quality Edited by

J P Kerry and J F Kerry

212 Food chain integrity: a holistic approach to food traceability, safety, quality

and authenticity Edited by J Hoorfar, K Jordan, F Butler and R Prugger

213 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 1 Edited

by Y Nys, M Bain and F Van Immerseel

214 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 2 Edited

by F Van Immerseel, Y Nys and M Bain

215 Animal feed contamination: effects on livestock and food safety Edited by

J Fink-Gremmels

216 Hygienic design of food factories Edited by J Holah and H L M Lelieveld

217 Manley’s technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Fourth edition

Edited by D Manley

218 Nanotechnology in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries

Edited by Q Huang

219 Rice quality: a guide to rice properties and analysis K R Bhattacharya

220 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging Edited by J P Kerry

221 Reducing saturated fats in foods Edited by G Talbot

222 Handbook of food proteins Edited by G O Phillips and P A Williams

223 Lifetime nutritional infl uences on cognition, behaviour and psychiatric

illness Edited by D Benton

224 Food machinery for the production of cereal foods, snack foods and

229 Breadmaking: improving quality Second edition Edited by S P Cauvain

230 Emerging food packaging technologies: principles and practice Edited by

K L Yam and D S Lee

231 Infectious disease in aquaculture: prevention and control Edited by

B Austin

232 Diet, immunity and infl ammation Edited by P C Calder and P Yaqoob

233 Natural food additives, ingredients and fl avourings Edited by D Baines and

R Seal

234 Microbial decontamination in the food industry: novel methods and

applications Edited by A Demirci and M.O Ngadi

235 Chemical contaminants and residues in foods Edited by D Schrenk

236 Robotics and automation in the food industry: current and future

technologies Edited by D G Caldwell

237 Fibre-rich and wholegrain foods: improving quality Edited by J A Delcour

and K Poutanen

238 Computer vision technology in the food and beverage industries Edited by

D.-W Sun

239 Encapsulation technologies and delivery systems for food ingredients and

nutraceuticals Edited by N Garti and D J McClements

240 Case studies in food safety and authenticity Edited by J Hoorfar

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxvii

241 Heat treatment for insect control: developments and applications

D Hammond

242 Advances in aquaculture hatchery technology Edited by G Allan and

G Burnell

243 Open innovation in the food and beverage industry: concepts and case

studies Edited by M Garcia Martinez

244 Trends in packaging of food, beverages and other fast-moving consumer

goods (FMCG) Edited by N Farmer

245 New analytical approaches for verifying the origin of food Edited by

P Brereton

246 Microbial production of food ingredients, enzymes and nutraceuticals

Edited by B McNeil, D Archer, I Giavasis and L Harvey

247 Persistent organic pollutants and toxic metals in foods Edited by M Rose

and A Fernandes

248 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries E Arendt and E Zannini

249 Viruses in food and water: risks, surveillance and control Edited by N Cook

250 Improving the safety and quality of nuts Edited by L J Harris

251 Metabolomics in food and nutrition Edited by B Weimer and C Slupsky

252 Food enrichment with omega-3 fatty acids Edited by C Jacobsen,

N Skall Nielsen, A Frisenfeldt Horn and A.-D Moltke Sørensen

253 Instrumental assessment of food sensory quality: a practical guide Edited by

D Kilcast

254 Food microstructures: microscopy, measurement and modelling Edited by

V J Morris and K Groves

255 Handbook of food powders: processes and properties Edited by

B R Bhandari, N Bansal, M Zhang and P Schuck

256 Functional ingredients from algae for foods and nutraceuticals Edited by

H Domínguez

257 Satiation, satiety and the control of food intake: theory and practice Edited

by J E Blundell and F Bellisle

258 Hygiene in food processing: principles and practice Second edition Edited

by H L M Lelieveld, J Holah and D Napper

It is clear that global aquaculture production needs to expand signifi cantly, even to maintain average per capita consumption of foodfi sh, let alone to increase it (as is desirable to enhance human nutrition and food supply) Capture fi sheries cannot meet these demands This fact, and the growing realisation that responsible, sustainable aquaculture is potentially benefi cial for the environment, is becoming (somewhat grudgingly, perhaps) accepted

by those who once strongly opposed its expansion

This book, edited by Geoff Allan and Gavin Burnell, is timely – since the necessity for effi cient hatchery production for aquaculture and release has never been more important These distinguished scientists have combined their own complementary practical and theoretical experience

on the hatchery rearing of a wide variety of fi nfi sh and molluscs with that

of a team of other authors working with other species and in other disciplines.Since I fi rst became involved in aquaculture in the 1960s, basic hatchery technology for a much wider range of species has been developed However, satisfactory data on the quantity, species and characteristics of hatcheries has not yet been received by FAO; thus no global statistics exist As the editors comment in their preface, there are now only a few farmed aquatic species for which juveniles need to be sourced from the wild However, although appropriate hatchery technology may exist or be emerging, there remain some types of aquaculture for which wild seeds are still primarily

or partially used for various reasons These include eels (Anguilla spp.);

fl athead grey mullets (Mugil cephalus) in Egypt, SE Asia and southern China; milkfi sh (Chanos chanos) in the Philippines, Indonesia and Taiwan; mud crabs (Scylla serrata) in Asia; and certain species of groupers In some countries and for some species, including freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium

Foreword

spp.), wild seed capture remains an important source of rural income, despite the availability of hatchery technology For other important farmed

species, including southern bluefi n tuna (Thunnus maccoyii), yellowfi n tuna (Thunnus albacares) and spiny lobsters (Panulirus spp.), hatchery technology

is still novel In addition to the production of juveniles for aquaculture, the hatchery production of many species of fi nfi sh (and some crustaceans,

notably Homarus spp.) for fi sheries enhancement or recreational fi shing has

long been commonplace

Although the stocking requirements of so many species can be supplied through hatcheries, the refi nement of existing hatchery technology is essential The fact that the health and performance of farmed foodfi sh

depends on the quality of the juveniles stocked is sine qua non Furthermore,

the health and genetic characteristics of broodstock are of fundamental importance in aquaculture This book, by reviewing some outstanding successes in hatchery technological development, highlighting current research and pointing out the needs for the future, is an outstanding contribution to aquaculture, fi sheries enhancement and conservation

Michael New, OBE Past-President, World Aquaculture Society Past-President, European Aquaculture Society

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food producing sector in the world, growing at an annual rate of nearly 9 % This growth is driven by demand for seafood that is increasing as global population and per capita consumption increase The growth in demand is particularly strong in Asia If seafood production is to meet demand, an additional 42 Mt of seafood will need to

be produced by 2020 if global per capita consumption remains constant and

an additional 116 Mt if consumption continues to increase at the current rate Given limited expectations for any increase in capture fi sheries, this increase in production will have to come from aquaculture

One of the primary constraints to continuing growth of aquaculture is the supply of juveniles from hatcheries There are now only a few species where juveniles are sourced from the wild, and, increasingly, advances in hatchery technology and genetic improvement programs are being adopted

in order to ensure suffi cient quantities of high quality juveniles are available when demanded to maximise production from growout facilities However, advances in hatchery technology are often incremental, driven by technical managers of hatcheries and are poorly captured in the primary scientifi c literature These advances are not well shared because of real or perceived concerns about losing commercial advantage, but this tends to slow industry development and will reduce the chance of meeting global targets for production

This book reviews current and emerging technologies in key areas of aquaculture hatchery technology It is hoped that this book will present a convenient, comprehensive and systematic review of recent advances in hatchery technology that will be of interest to hatchery operators, scientists and educators The book is divided into four parts: Reproduction and larval

Preface

rearing; Closing the life cycle and overcoming challenges in hatchery duction of selected invertebrate species; Closing the life cycle and overcom-ing challenges in hatchery production for selected fi sh species; and Emerging issues and future trends.

pro-Part I Reproduction and larval rearing: The fi rst section of the book

deals with new techniques and technologies in hatchery husbandry In Chapter 1, Odd-Ivar Lekang emphasises the importance of hatchery loca-tion in relation to water quality He gives valuable information on how to measure and maintain suitable water quality with very practical informa-tion on the type of equipment required for both delivery and treatment He predicts that in the future good sites for both freshwater and marine aqua-culture will be at a premium and this will force operators to become more and more reliant on recirculation technology

The topic of broodstock management is large and complex and is expertly reviewed by Neil Duncan and his colleagues in Chapter 2 Genetic improve-ment through selection can yield from 5–20 % improvement in selected traits per generation, but only if you get it right from the start This com-prehensive chapter gives all the latest advances along with the caveats and cautions accumulated by the authors’ considerable experience in this fi eld One of the most exciting and signifi cant additions to the modern hatchery manager’s toolbox is the ability to store gametes by cryopreservation Chapter 3 in this section, by Catherine Labbé, complements the previous chapter and gives an insight into the challenges posed by this innovative (to aquaculture) technology In addition, she introduces cutting edge science

by considering the challenges posed by the use of embryonic and somatic cells to reconstruct fi sh

Various aspects of larval feeding are addressed in the following three chapters The fi rst one by Malcolm Brown and Sue Blackburn (Chapter 4) explains the production and use of live algae for the hatchery production

of bivalves, abalone, shrimp and fi sh In a comprehensive review, they cover the species used, the key nutrients, biosecurity and the types of production systems Of particular interest is the section on heterotrophic production which could reduce costs signifi cantly Chapter 5 by Patrick Sorgeloos and his colleagues (with the contribution on copepods by Josianne Stottrup) in the University of Ghent covers live feeds Each of the three main cultured

organisms (rotifers, Artemia and copepods) is dealt with in turn with detailed

husbandry protocols and many useful tips that that have been acquired from many years of experimental and industrial experience However, many hatchery operators would like to be able to dispense with the unpredict-ability and expense of live diets Formulated microdiets are one possible solution and in Chapter 6, Sagiv Kolkovski describes how these diets are manufactured and reviews their performance so far Although there have been some encouraging results published, there is still a lot of research required and the best we can hope for at the moment are feeding regimes that integrate live feeds with microdiets

Preface xxxiiiAfter nutrition the most important component of good husbandry prac-tice in the hatchery is maintaining a healthy environment In Chapter 7, Timothy Bowden and Ian Bricknell combine their renowned expertise in the area of disease management They review ways of improving health issues in invertebrate hatcheries and explain how we can promote the health of larvae through the use of immunostimulants and vaccines

‘Although a hatchery is operated to produce larvae of a target aquaculture

species, it is actually a complete ecosystem’ With this quote, Evan Goulden

and his co-authors (Chapter 8) challenge us to think of the hatchery ronment in a more holistic way They review the latest advances in micro-biological management from prebiotics to probiotics and from bacteriophages

envi-to quorum sensing and advise us that as our understanding of the microbial ecology and virulence mechanisms of important hatchery pathogens increases, a new world of specifi c biocontrol strategies will also emerge

As the demand for aquatic products continues to increase and the supply

of wild stocks is diminishing, it is important that aquaculture embraces the ecosystem approach to management just as the fi sheries sector has done In

Parts 2 and 3 of the book we describe the culture of species that either

currently rely upon wild juveniles for their production or have done so until recently

Part II Closing the life-cycle and overcoming challenges in hatchery production of selected invertebrate species: Chapter 9 covers a group of

invertebrate species that are proving very diffi cult to breed, the Palinurid lobsters They have one of the longest planktonic larval stages recorded for marine invertebrates varying from 4 to 22 months depending upon the species In this chapter, Mike Hall and his co-authors explain that although the life-cycle has been closed for several species the numbers produced are still not economic According to them, health and nutrition must be opti-mised in order to produce a commercial rate of larval survival from phyl-losoma to puerulus to juvenile Through a focus on disease control and biosecurity, there have been signifi cant improvements in white shrimp larval production and Jim Wyban (Chapter 10) documents the production

of High Health postlarvae (PL) from Specifi c Pathogen Free (SPF) stock It is perhaps surprising that the blue mussel is included in this section but, until recently, both the seabed dredging and longline culture industries were supplied by wild juveniles (seed) Pauline Kamermans and her co-authors (Chapter 11) collaborated in an EU project to investigate its hatch-ery production Despite the fact that other mussel species are commercially produced in New Zealand, North America and China, it is not yet economic

paralarvae is going to be the key to unlocking this life-cycle In Chapter

13 on jellyfi sh, Jenny Purcell and her co-authors not only review their

fi sheries and aquaculture but also consider the negative impacts of these coelenterates on fi sh farming There is some evidence that various anthro-pogenic activities are contributing to the increasing prevalence of their blooms Last in this category is the sea cucumber where a collapse in wild stocks stimulated aquaculture initiatives resulting in successful hatchery production Annie Mercier and Jean-François Hamel give a fascinating insight in Chapter 14 into these benthic invertebrates and describe how aquaculture is now even contributing to restocking and enhancement in some countries

Part III Closing the life-cycle and overcoming challenges in hatchery production for selected fi sh species: One of the most valuable groups of

farmed fi sh are the tuna and in Chapter 15 Gavin Partridge sively reviews the current state of this industry Although several hatcheries have closed the cycle, the day when signifi cant numbers of juvenile tuna will be routinely cultured from egg to adult is still some way off Next in this section (Chapter 16) Nguyen Phuong and his co-authors document the explosive growth in the production of the striped catfi sh in Vietnam As with the previous species, the early growth of this industry was fuelled by wild-caught juveniles until overfi shing and conservation issues changed the economics in favour of hatchery production Despite the success with this species there is room for improvement and research is concentrating on all the usual topics of nutrition, genetic improvement and health Meagre (Chapter 17) are a fi sh with enormous potential Their hatchery production

comprehen-is relatively easy and they have remarkable growth rates But, as Neil Duncan and his co-authors point out, the markets are still very niche, and this is probably the area most in need of attention Finally in this section,

we have the yellow kingfi sh (Chapter 18) Despite successful commercial hatchery production, there are still challenges with this species, particularly with larval deformities Stewart Fielder reviews progress to date

Part IV Emerging issues and future trends: Endangered freshwater fi sh

are a serious issue in many countries, and in Chapter 19 Stuart Rowland describes how hatcheries can be used in conservation programs by supply-ing juveniles for restocking However, prevention is better than cure and in the fi nal chapter (Chapter 20), Don Meritt considers how we can augment the teaching and learning process by bringing the classroom into the hatch-ery He argues that both public and private hatcheries offer the opportunity

to create exciting educational experiences for training new generations of environmentally aware and technically competent students

Geoff Allan and Gavin Burnell

Abstract: Good water quality is of major importance to production results in a

hatchery, particularly in those which work more intensively A low cost water transfer system is also important economically, affecting both investment and running costs The low cost, however, should not be allowed to compromise the effi cacy of the system, leading to operating problems or a lower water quality, for example This chapter will take a brief look at some important factors in the location of hatcheries, before progressing to assess different water supply systems, encompassing both fresh water and sea water Before the water enters the production unit, it has to be treated to fulfi ll the requirement of the aquatic organism as closely as possible A description of different water treatment

equipment/methods is also included in the chapter.

Key words: hatchery, water supply, site selection, water treatment.

on the given species Larvae or fry may be divided into two different ries: fi sh such as cod which, in their natural environment, will drift passively around the water, and ‘stationary’ species such as salmonids, which remain still in a continuous water fl ow For the former, the water volume around the larvae is quite constant, while for the latter, the larvae must adapt to the quality of the given water

catego-Hatcheries can be categorized, based on the intensity of production (in other words, the number of produced larvae/fry per m3 water and growth

rate), into extensive, semi-intensive and intensive They may also be divided into freshwater or seawater hatcheries depending on the species grown and

if sea water or fresh water is used Hatcheries that use fresh water may, furthermore, be separated into hatcheries that utilize gravity for water transport into the farm and ones which use pumped water which must be lifted into the hatchery The former is preferable due to lower running costs

In this chapter, the general focus will be on land-based hatcheries with intensive production Hatcheries may, however, also fl oat in the sea, which reduces the pumping cost but makes it diffi cult to control water quality and renders them more exposed to weather

The selection of a suitable site for a hatchery is crucial to the cost of lishing and running the hatchery, and thus to the hatchery’s economic effi ciency The better and more suitable the raw water quality is, the less water treatment is necessary, leading to a reduction in investment and running costs Theoretically, hatcheries may also be established where the raw water sources are less than optimal, but these will require more water treatment, resulting in higher production costs For sub-optimal sites, recir-culation aquaculture systems (RAS) are an alternative because the amount

estab-of raw water that has to be treated will be reduced

Normally, inlet pipe(s) represent an important cost in hatchery tion The pipes can be up to several kilometers long, in order to get enough water of satisfactory quality The same might be the case with the outlet pipes, in order to reach a depth and an area where contaminated outlet water can be suffi ciently diluted and local pollution avoided The ideal is,

installa-of course, to fi nd a site where both a short inlet and outlet pipe can be used while still achieving satisfactory water quality In addition, for optimum effi ciency to be maintained, the raw water quality ought to be as stable as possible throughout the year in order to avoid both expensive systems for water quality regulation and fl uctuation in water quality If it is not possible

to utilize gravity water and pumps have to be used, sites with lower lifting heads are favorable Large tide differences offer no advantage regarding the pumping cost, unless the hatchery is established in the tidal zone and the tide is utilized for water exchange The location of the inlet pipes when they meet the shore and that of the pumping station must not be too exposed to the elements Waves can be particularly dangerous in this regard

1.1.2 Brief characterization of water

Small, newly hatched larvae or fry in particular need a good water quality

to achieve optimal growth and survival rate Natural water may have a optimal temperature – typically it is too cold but it may also be too warm – and water temperature regulation may be necessary The gas saturation

sub-Aquaculture hatchery water supply and treatment systems 5

in the incoming water may also be sub-optimal – generally, this is due to a high content of nitrogen gas, or super-saturation The oxygen content may also be too low, leaving the water under-saturated, resulting in a higher water supply than necessary The CO2 content may also be too high on some sites, such as those using groundwater A high content of foreign particles

in the water – typically a result of sand or clay – is also detrimental, as it may clog the gills Water sources with too high content of particles should therefore be avoided A high concentration of micro-organisms, such as bacteria, virus and fungi, is, of course, also unfavorable The pH in the water, either alone or in association with dissolved metallic ions, may also be sig-nifi cant for the survival and growth rate

For newly hatched fry it is of major importance that the water quality is stable; there should be no fl uctuation However, even if the raw water quality

is stable, it might become unstable after water treatment During treating, there will be reactions in the water of a chemical, microbiological or physical nature Such reactions may take some time to be completed, meaning that the water composition may still be changing when the water reaches the production units, leading to instability For this reason, it may be advisable

to mature the water in large tanks with a long retention time to ensure that water quality is stable prior to its entry into the larva/fry tanks

Another notable feature of water treatment in hatcheries is that water velocity in the production units must be very low The water exchange rate will thus be low, as will the water supply to the production unit Long water retention time in the production unit, together with high concentrations of organic substances/nutrients – such as dead larvae, feed loss, eventually live feed (rotifers and artemia) and microalgae – provide good conditions for the growth of micro-organisms and of biofi lm This often results in sub-optimal water quality in the rearing unit Opportunistic, pathogenic bacteria may follow the raw water to the production unit or follow the added live

feed when this is used in the production (Vadstein et al., 2004; Brunvold

et al., 2007) Microbial maturation of the water prior to the production unit

may thus be necessary to control growth of useful bacteria Water quality inside the production unit is currently one of the major challenges in all hatcheries growing species with small larvae size or species using live feed

1.1.3 The components in a system

The main components in any water supply system are the inlet pipe, the pumping station and the water treatment The suitability of the last two components to the given water treatment depends on the raw water quality, the species grown and the intensity (number of kg of aquatic organisms per

kg water supplied) For intensive hatcheries, water treatment typically includes units for particle removal, micro-organism control, heating/cooling,

pH adjustment (freshwater sites) and degassing before the water reaches the production units

1.2 The water supply and its main components

Inlet pipes are conventionally used to bring the water from the desired depth in the water source to the hatchery if gravity water is used, or to the pumping station if the water has to be lifted to the hatchery (Huguenin and

Colt, 2002; Colt et al., 2008; Pulido-Calvo et al., 2008) It is also possible to

utilize the tide to ‘pump’ the water into the hatchery or to place the ery in the tidal zone, but water quality control is more diffi cult in such cases Materials commonly used in the inlet pipe are polyethylene plastic (PE) and PVC PE is a low cost material that is easy to handle and weld and does not release toxic substances When dimensioning the inlet pipes, normal water velocity in the pipe is 1–1.5 m/s, but it is important to fi nd a specifi c, suitable dimension

hatch-To stabilize the inlet pipe, it must either be put in ditches or moored to the ground, usually achieved with concrete lump weights clamped to the pipe (Fig 1.1) The appropriate distance between the lumps and weight of the lumps depends on the diameter of the pipe and whether it is in the water or on shore It is important that there is a continuous slope on the inlet pipes if the water is transferred with gravity, as this avoids creating points vulnerable to degassing It is also advisable to avoid using siphon construction on the inlet pipe The top of the siphon will always be a critical point

It is advantageous to be able to clean the inlet pipe easily as it may be susceptible to fouling Cleaning can, to give one example, be achieved by sending a cleaning plug through the pipe Fouling will result in a large reduc-tion in the amount of water that could fl ow through the pipe Usually, the

Fig 1.1 Water transfer pipes from the water source to the hatchery The concrete

block is used for stabilization of the pipes.

Aquaculture hatchery water supply and treatment systems 7closer the water is to the surface of the source, the more susceptible it will

be to fouling, although this also depends on the degree of eutrophication

in the source It is therefore advisable to take the inlet water from as depths below 20–30 m if possible, thereby avoiding the layers with the highest concentration of fouling organisms Taking the raw water from deeper water layers will also facilitate a stable water temperature

The water may also be transferred in open channels for the whole or parts of the distance from the water source to the hatchery However, this reduces the control one has over the water quality There has been a recent increase in the use of PE pipes, PE parts and pre-manufacturing of com-bined PE parts that are diffi cult to get properly welded on site

1.2.2 Pumps and pump stations

The pump station can be placed either on shore using dry placed pumps

or below the low tide water level using submerged pumps (Rishel, 2002;

Pulido-Calvo et al., 2006; Lekang, 2007; Jones et al., 2008; Ratnayaka et al.,

2009) Both systems are in use Dry placed pumps have the advantages that they are easy to install, control and maintain, while submerged pumps pose

no risk regarding the suck of air on the sucking site of the pump and require no special equipment to fi ll the suck part of the pipe prior to start-ing the pump

Before the water enters the pump station it ought to be passed through

a grid or fi lter to prevent unwanted objects from fi nding their way into the pump This may be a grid at the entrance to the inlet pipe With submerged pumps, it may be a grid inside the pumping station, leaving the inlet pipes open with no inlet restriction

Centrifugal or propeller type pumps are the best to fi t for water supply

to hatcheries (Fig 1.2) Propeller pumps will typically have the lowest pumping cost for larger water fl ows and a lifting head below 10 m Increase

of the total lifting head to above 15 m will result in a considerable rise in the pumping costs; in such a case, a higher degree of oxygenation or RAS could be considered

An important issue to consider is whether to pump more water or to add pure oxygen gas Depending on the costs of electricity and liquid oxygen, respectively, the amount of pumped water can be reduced and more pure oxygen can be added to fulfi ll the oxygen requirements of the fry The amount of pumped water can then be reduced to only what is necessary for dilution of the concentration of CO2, suspended solids (SS) or total ammo-nium nitrogen (TAN) to acceptable levels for the grown organism (see later description)

One signifi cant advance in this area is the application of more and better electronic devices in the pump stations, such as improved frequency con-verters and computer programs which optimize the running costs of the pumps Sensors can also be added to monitor the conditions inside the

pumps, such as moisture content in submerged pumps and temperatures in bearings.

1.3 Water treatment systems

There is a variety of equipment available catering for the removal of

dif-ferent sizes of particle (Tchobanoglous et al., 2003; Timmons and Ebeling,

2007; Spellman, 2009) A typical method is to install a sieve with a rotating

fi lter cloth able to catch particles smaller than the mesh (Fig 1.3a, b) The fi lter cloth should be cleaned, or back fl ushed, regularly to avoid clog-ging and to ensure that the particles exit through the particle outlet (Lekang, 2007) This is an area effective treatment method that typically removes particles down to 20 μm Some parasites will also be removed with such

fi lter mesh, and this is particularly useful for hatcheries Depth fi lters may also be included to remove smaller sized particles, but these require more intensive operation, due to the necessity of regular back fl ushing of the fi lter mass Filter masses of sand or crushed glass are common in depth fi lters In-line fi lters are also used to an extent, but they are prone to head loss due

to their dimensions

Protein skimmers, or foam fractionators, may also be used for water treatment, especially when growing larvae/small aquatic organisms (Chen

et al., 1993a, b) These are normally used in tandem with another particle

fi lter such as a micro-sieve or a depth fi lter The removal of small sized particles in foam fractionators is achieved by gas bubbles, usually of air, which are released at the bottom of a water column When the bubbles rise

to the surface of the water column, particles and some dissolved organic

Fig 1.2 Dry placed centrifugal pumps for water supply.