The orange book

This puts high demands on orange juice producers to deliver the same level of quality, or as near as possible, as that consumers expect from fresh fruit.. As a supplier of both processin

The

The Orange Book

Editor

Ulla Ringblom

Production

Pyramid Communication ABPrinter: Ruter Press

Sharing an experience

Because of its refreshing taste and some nature, orange juice dominates the fruit juice market It is unique among juices in that the consumer can easily compare its sensory properties with those of the fresh fruit or juice squeezed directly from fresh oranges

This puts high demands on orange juice producers to deliver the same level of quality,

or as near as possible, as that consumers expect from fresh fruit The challenge is particularly tough because orange juice is a complex bever-age sensitive to the way it is treated

Over the years, Tetra Pak has been closely involved with orange juice products We be-lieve that some of this experience could also

be of interest to our customers As a supplier

of both processing equipment and packaging systems, Tetra Pak has hands-on competence with all steps in the production chain, from the fruit tree to the distribution of packaged orange juice This is what we would like to share with you in the form of this book

A journey with juiceThe Orange Book follows the complete jour-ney of orange juice It begins with the various types of orange fruit, proceeds through all the processing and packaging steps, and ends with the distribution of the end product to consumers

Along the way there is a chance to look

at market information, juice quality and gories, the trading and shipping of products, and industry standards and regulations Con-sideration is given throughout to the factors that influence end-product quality, including the role of flavour and product blending

cate-A mine of informationFrom bulk concentrate and onwards, much of what is described in The Orange Book is also valid for orange nectars and other types of fruit juices However, the production requirements for pure orange juice are usually more stringent

in order to satisfy consumer expectations for this product

This book focuses solely on orange juice, but Tetra Pak also has extensive know-how in the processing and packaging of many other types of fruit juices

A number of tools help you extract mation readily from this book A glossary explains familiar expressions used in the citrus industry, and a list of literature is given for fur-ther reading Metric units are used throughout this book except when other specific units are commonly used A list of conversion factors al-lows you to convert between different units

We hope you will find The Orange Book useful in providing consumers with the most enjoyable fruit juice provided by nature

Second edition The first edition of The Orange Book was well received in 1997, and as it went out of print it is followed by this revised edition

Valuable comments have been received on the book from many sources in the citrus indus-try Tetra Pak would particularly like to thank the following persons for their review of rel-evant sections in the book and suggestions on how to improve it: Professor Robert Braddock

of the University of Florida, Antonio Carlos Gonçalves of Louis Dreyfus Citrus, Dr Bar-rie Preston of Döhler-Eurocitrus, and Martin Greeve, Chairman of the AIJN Code of Prac-tice Expert Group

1 THE ORANGE FRUIT AND

ITS PRODUCTS 1

1.1 The fruit’s origin and important varieties 2

1.2 A global overview 3

1.2.1 Large-scale development 4

1.2.2 Orange crop diseases 4

1.3 Bridging the seasons 5

1.4 Fruit selection 6

1.5 Inside an orange 6

1.6 Squeezing out every drop 7

1.7 Primary and secondary products 8

1.8 Major orange-producing regions 10

1.8.1 Brazil 10

1.8.2 Florida 12

1.9 Other regions 13

2 ORANGE JUICE QUALITY AND CATEGORIES 17

2.1 Juice quality 18

2.1.1 Defining quality 18

2.1.2 Quality specifications 19

2.2 Important properties of orange juice 20

2.2.1 Sugars and acids 20

2.2.2 Cloud and pulp 22

2.2.3 Flavour 23

2.2.4 Colour 25

2.2.5 Promoting health 26

2.3 Orange juice categories 28

2.3.1 Ready-to-drink orange juice 28

2.3.2 Concentrated orange juice 29

2.4 Regulations governing juice origin 30

3 THE SUPPLY CHAIN AND GLOBAL CONSUMPTION OF ORANGE JUICE 31

3.1 The chain of supply 32

3.1.1 Growers 33

3.1.2 Types of fruit processor 34

3.1.3 Blending houses 35

3.1.4 Juice packers 36

3.1.5 Soft drink producers 37

3.2 World market pricing for bulk juice products 37

3.3 FCOJ commodity trading and the futures market 38

3.4 Import duties and juice imports 39

3.5 Global orange juice consumption 42

3.5.1 Per capita orange juice consumption 43

4 PRINCIPLES OF PROCESSING ORANGE JUICE 45

4.1 Impact of processing on juice quality 46

4.1.1 Raw materials 47

4.1.2 Processing 47

4.1.3 Impact of long-term bulk storage 49

4.2 Air/oxygen in the product 50

4.2.1 Sources of air/oxygen 51

4.2.2 Problems caused by air/oxygen in the product 52

4.2.3 Principles of deaeration 53

4.3 Microbiology of orange juice 54

4.3.1 Relevant microorganisms in orange juice 54

4.3.2 Microflora of different types of orange juice 57

4.3.3 Influence of raw materials 58

4.3.4 Sanitation 58

4.4 Pasteurisation 59

4.4.1 Purpose of pasteurisation 59

4.4.2 Inactivation of enzymes 59

4.4.3 Inactivation of microorganisms 61

4.4.4 Time-temperature conditions for pasteurisation 61

5 FRUIT PROCESSING 63

5.1 Processing plant overview 64

5.2 Orange juice production steps 66

5.3 Fruit reception 67

5.4 Juice extraction 68

5.4.1 Extractor types 68

5.4.2 The squeezer-type extractor 69

5.4.3 The reamer-type extractor 71

5.4.4 Down stream of the juice extractors 72

5.5 Clarification 72

5.6 NFC production 74

5.6.1 Oil reduction 75

5.6.2 Primary pasteurisation 76

5.6.3 Deaeration 76

5.6.4 Long-term frozen storage 76

5.6.5 Aseptic storage in tanks 77

5.6.6 Aseptic storage in bag-in-box containers 78

5.6.7 Reprocessing of NFC 78

5.7 Concentrate production 79

5.7.1 Tubular evaporator systems 79

5.7.2 Plate evaporator systems 80

5.7.3 Homogenisation 81

5.7.4 The centrifugal evaporator 82

5.7.5 Essence recovery 82

5.7.6 Concentrate storage 83

5.7.7 Alternative concentration methods 83

5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery 84

5.8.1 Straining and concentration step 84

5.8.2 Polishing 85

5.8.3 The winterisation process 85

5.8.4 d-Limonene recovery systems 85

5.9 Feed mill operations 86

5.10 Pulp production 87

5.10.1 Production factors which affect commercial pulp quality 88

5.10.2 Process steps in pulp production 88

5.11 Pulp wash production 92

5.12 Essence recovery 92

6 TRANSPORT AND HANDLING OF BULK PRODUCTS 93

6.1 Packing and shipping preferences 95

6.2 Bulk shipping of FCOJ 95

6.2.1 From Brazil to Europe 96

6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC 97

6.3.1 Frozen NFC shipments 97

6.3.2 Bulk units for aseptic NFC shipments 97

6.3.3 Bulk shipping of aseptic NFC by sea 99

6.3.4 Transport of bulk product versus retail packaged product 99

6.4 Shipping costs 100

6.5 Terminals for receiving orange juice 100

6.5.1 Terminals for bulk FCOJ 100

6.5.2 Terminals for bulk aseptic NFC 101

6.6 Blending house operations 102

7 PROCESSING AT THE JUICE PACKER 103

7.1 An overview of juice packer operations 105

7.1.1 General requirements for juice packer lines 105

7.1.2 Process lines 105

7.2 Raw material reception and handling 110

7.2.1 Tanks for concentrate storage 110

7.2.2 Drums with frozen concentrate 111

7.2.3 Drums containing solid frozen products 111

7.2.4 Aseptic bag-in-box containers 112

7.2.5 Tanks for NFC 112

7.2.6 Reclaim product 112

7.3 Water treatment 113

7.3.1 Water quality 113

7.3.2 Water treatment methods 114

7.3.3 In-plant distribution of product water 115

7.3.4 Deaeration of water 116

7.4 Blending 116

7.4.1 Blending of nectars and fruit drinks 116 7.4.2 Defining the blending formula 117

7.4.3 Savings made by accurate blending 118

7.4.4 Comparison of blending methods 118

7.4.5 Batch blending systems 119

7.4.6 In-line blending systems 120

7.4.7 How a refractometer works 121

7.4.8 How a density meter works 122

7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration 122

7.5.1 Selecting the heat exchanger 123

7.5.2 The pasteurisation process 124

7.5.3 Deaeration 125

7.5.4 System design 126

7.5.5 Process control 126

7.5.6 Control of pasteurisation units 127

7.6 Aseptic buffer 128

7.6.1 Operational steps 129

7.7 Hot filling 129

7.7.1 Process description 130

7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC 130

7.9 Cleaning-in-place 131

7.9.1 CIP procedures 132

7.9.2 Pigging 133

7.10 Quality control of final product 134

7.10.1 Microbiological control 134

Contents

8 ADD-BACK COMPONENTS

– VOLATILE FLAVOURS AND

FLOATING PULP 135

8.1 Volatile flavours 136

8.1.1 Origin of natural volatile orange flavours 137

8.1.2 Major constituents of flavour fractions 139

8.1.3 Flavour standardisation and folding of oils 140

8.1.4 Methods of separating and concentrating flavours 141

8.1.5 Creation of flavour systems 142

8.2 Floating pulp 142

8.2.1 Useful terms 142

8.2.2 Floating pulp properties 144

8.2.3 Floating pulp concentration 145

8.3 Components added back to juice 146

9 PACKAGING AND STORAGE OF ORANGE JUICE 149

9.1 The role of packaging 151

9.1.1 Product quality parameters to be protected during storage 151

9.1.2 Factors affecting quality parameters during storage 151

9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen 152

9.2.1 Vitamin C degradation 152

9.2.2 Colour changes 154

9.2.3 The impact of oxygen on storage-dependent flavour changes 154

9.3 Barrier properties against light 156

9.4 Barrier properties against aromas 156

9.4.1 Composition of orange juice aroma 156

9.4.2 Properties of different polymers 157

9.4.3 Properties of different packages 158

9.4.4 Consequences of flavour scalping 159

9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic packaging 160

9.6 Different packages and packaging systems 160

9.6.1 Carton-based packages 161

9.6.2 Bottles 163

9.6.3 Hot filling 165

9.6.4 Selecting the most appropriate package for a particular juice 166

10 FROM JUICE PACKER TO CONSUMER 167

10.1 Distribution of product to retailer 169

10.1.1 Delivery directly to the retail store 169 10.1.2 Delivery through wholesalers 169

10.1.3 Delivery to a retailer’s central depot 170

10.2 Orange juice at the retailer 171

10.2.1 Distribution units 171

10.2.2 Handling at the retailer 172

10.3 The orange juice consumer 174

10.3.1 Regional preferences for juice categories 174

10.3.2 Who buys juice in the USA 176

10.3.3 When orange juice is consumed 176

10.3.4 Where orange juice is consumed 177

10.3.5 Why people buy orange juice 178

10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks 179 10.4.1 Fruit nectars 179

10.4.2 Still fruit drinks 179

11 STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS 181

11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling 182

11.1.1 The USA and Canada 183

11.1.2 The European Union 184

11.1.3 Other major regions and countries 186 11.1.4 Fruit juice standards of Codex Alimentarius 187

11.2 The problem of adulteration 188

11.2.1 Protecting the consumer 188

11.2.2 Telling wrong from right 189

12 GLOSSARY 191

13 ABBREVIATIONS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 197

13.1 Abbreviations 197

13.2 Unit conversions 198

13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions 199 14 FURTHER READING AND REFERENCES 201

14.1 Books on orange juice 201

14.2 References 202

14.3 Useful websites 204

INDEX 205 Contents

• The origin and spread of the orange plant

from South east Asia to the rest of the world

• Global orange production and the

de vel op ment of large-scale production

• Common orange crop diseases and their

control by using resistant rootstocks

• The whys and wherefores of single-strength

and concentrated juice

• How the seasons are bridged to provide con sum ers with year-round supplies

• What’s inside an orange

• Nature’s gift Every part of the orange can be used for producing commercial products

• Valuable by-products such as pulp, peel oil, essences and animal feed

• The most important orange-growing regions

and its products

In section 1 you will read about:

1 The orange fruit

and its products

Summary

The orange plant originated in Southeast

Asia and spread gradually to other parts

of the world Today, orange juice products

de rive from four main groups of or ange

About 65 million tonnes of oranges per

annum are produced globally Of this,

around 40 % is proc essed into juice and

the rest con sumed as whole fruit.

Single-strength or

concentrated

As juice is produced on a seasonal basis, it

must be stored between seasons to en sure

a year-round supply to consumer markets

Most juice is produced as frozen con

cen-trat ed or ange juice, FCOJ, be cause it can

be stored for long periods of time and

shipped at lower cost as it con tains less

wa ter “Not-from-concentrate” juice, NFC,

which is at sin gle strength, requires much

larger vol umes during stor age and shipping

Most NFC pro duced is intended for near by

markets but its export is increasing.

A look inside

Basically, an orange consists of juice

i cles surrounded by a waxy skin, the peel The peel com pris es a thin, coloured outer layer called the fl a ve do and a thick er, fi - brous inner layer called the albedo The endocarp, the edible portion of the fruit, in- cludes a central fi brous core and in di vid u al segments con tain ing the juice sacs In large process ing plants the com plete fruit is uti- lised By-products are pro duced to help maximise profi ts and min i mise waste

Major players

The two most important sing re gions are Bra zil and the state of Flor i da in the US Together these re gions account for near ly 90 % of global orange juice pro duc tion.

orange-proces-1.1 The fruit’s origin and

important varieties

The orange is the world’s most pop u lar fruit Like

all citrus plants, the orange tree originated in the

trop i cal regions of Asia Oranges are men tioned

in an old Chinese man u script dating back to 2200

BC The de vel op ment of the Arab trade routes,

the spread of Is lam and the ex pan sion of the

Roman empire led to the fruit being cultivated

in other regions

From its original habitat, the or ange spread to

In dia, the east coast of Africa, and from there to the

east ern Mediterranean region By the time

Colum-bus and his fol low ers took plants to the Americas,

or ange trees were com mon in the west ern

Mediter-ranean re gion and the Ca nary Is lands

Fig 1.1 World citrus fruit production by types 2001/02.

Source: FAO

Tangerines 17 %

Oranges 66 % Grapefruits

6 %

Lemons / Limes 11 %

Oranges account for more than two thirds of the world production of all citrus fruits, of which oth er important species are the lemon, grape fruit and mandarin (see Figure 1.1)

1.2 A global overview

South Africa Argentina

Brazil Morocco Caribbean Florida Spain Italy

Israel Egypt

Fig 1.2 The major orange-growing regions.

ripens at a similar time, which allows effi cient harvesting and operation of processing plants However, it also means that trees of the same variety in a grove are susceptible to the same dis-eases and physiological disorders As required

in different regions, bud wood may be grafted

on to rootstocks known to be resistant to certain diseases or drought

During their fi rst few years of growth orange trees do not bear fruit, but when they do, the yield per tree increases gradually until the trees reach maturity at about 10 years old

1.2 A global overviewOranges are cultivated in tropical and sub tropi cal

re gions around the world The trees can grow in

a wide range of soil conditions, from ex treme ly sandy soils to rather heavy clay loams, although they grow best in intermediate types of soil.Local growing conditions, such as climate, type of soil and grove practices, have a large

in fl u ence on the quality of fruit produced and on the extracted juice An orange variety, for ex am ple Valencia, may have quite different prop er ties when grown in dif fer ent parts of the world The major orange-growing re gions are shown in Figure 1.2

Four groups of fruit are of com mer cial signifi cance

in the production of or ange juice products:

• The sweet orange, also known as the China

orange, Citrus sinensis

• The sour or bitter or ange, also known as the

Seville orange, Cit rus aurantium

• The mandarin orange and tan ge rine varieties,

Citrus reticulata

• Hybrid oranges (tangors) which result from

var i ous crosses be tween tan ge rines and sweet

oranges

Of these, the sweet orange is by far the most

im por tant In several mar kets, in clud ing Europe,

only juice made from sweet orange va ri e ties,

Cit rus sinensis, may be labelled as orange juice

To be cor rect from a horticultural view point, the

common name for the spe cies Citrus reticulata

is mandarin, some va ri e ties of which are called

tangerines However, the word tan ge rine is often

used as the common species name

Most citrus plants are propagated vegetatively

by bud wood cuttings (scions – the top part that

controls the type of fruit) grafted on to a

differ-ent rootstock This means that trees of the same

cultivar are genetically identical and respond

Approximately 65 million tonnes of oranges are

produced per year worldwide About 40 % of the

total tonnage is processed, the rest being

con-sumed as fresh fruit Whenever possible, growers

prefer to sell oranges to the fresh fruit market as

their price is normally higher than for fruit sold

for processing into juice In some countries this

can lead to a signifi cant variation in the amount

of fruit processed from one year to another

Florida and Brazil are the world’s largest fruit

producing countries Here the majority of fruit

harvested is processed because the orange

varie-ties in these regions are grown for processing

rather than for direct consumption

Due to the planting of new trees, world orange

production continued to increase into the early

2000’s – mainly in Florida, Brazil and China

World orange production is also expected to

increase further in other regions as a result of

improved planting programmes, cultivating

techniques, and support given to orange

grow-ers Nevertheless, unwanted climatic effects like

frost and storms, along with uncontrolled diseases

of fruit trees, could reduce crops and juice yields

signifi cantly Recent years have seen notable fl

uc-tuations in world orange production

1.2.1 LARGE-SCALE DEVELOPMENT

Commercial cultivation of oranges intended for

large-scale processing into fruit sections and

juice began in Florida in the 1920’s In the late

1940’s, frozen concentrated orange juice for home

dilution was developed in the USA This led to a

rapid growth in orange juice consumption As a

result, the cultivation and processing capacity of

oranges in Florida grew rapidly

However, severe frosts in Florida drastically

reduced fruit yields and killed many trees during

the 1960’s, 70’s and 80’s To secure the supply of

orange juice for the US market, trees were planted

and large processing plants were built for orange

concentrate in Brazil The fi rst concentrate plant

was built in Brazil in the early 1960’s and the large

expansion in production capacity took place

dur-ing the 70’s and 80’s Orange processdur-ing in Brazil

was established by US companies

In 1983 Brazil surpassed Florida as the world’s number one orange producer However, new trees that were planted further south in Florida

in areas less affected by frost are now bearing fruit This has boosted Florida’s orange produc-tion signifi cantly and in years with good yields the state meets most of the US demand for juice Figure 1.3 shows the estimated world citrus fruit production and processing for the 2001-02 season (mid-01 to mid-02)

China has the fastest growth in citrus fruit production as a result of the intensive planting

of new trees So far, most oranges in China are consumed fresh, with only a small amount of fruit being processed The Mediterranean is an important region for growing high-quality fruit

As more and more Mediterranean oranges are being eaten fresh, juice production is gradually declining in this region

1.2.2 ORANGE CROP DISEASES

Like any other fruit, orange trees are susceptible

to diseases These may affect the leaves or fruit and even kill the trees Because diseases have a large economical impact on the citrus industry, many orange-growing regions allocate large funds for research on citrus diseases, and develop more resistant fruit cultivars and cultivation methods

to limit their effects

Fig 1.3 World citrus fruit production and processing, 2001/02.

Others USA Brazil

1.2 A global overview

1.3 Bridging the seasonsOranges can only ripen on the tree and the qual-ity of the fruit begins to deteriorate immediately after picking Therefore, the time between pick-ing fruit and processing it into juice and other products should ideally be as short as possible – less than 24 hours – although longer periods are not uncommon

Because the orange is a seasonal fruit, each gion strives to grow orange varieties with different ripening periods (see Figure 1.4) This prolongs the total harvesting period in a region and allows greater utilisation of processing equipment

re-To provide a year-round supply to consumers, juice must be stored to bridge the gap between seasons Most of the juice is stored frozen as con-centrate This is called Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice, or just FCOJ as it is referred to within the industry For the same amount of ready-to-drink (RTD) juice, concentrate requires 5–6 times less volume for storage and shipping than single-strength juice Thus shipping costs over long dis-tances are signifi cantly higher for single-strength products like not-from-concentrate juice (NFC)

The characteristics of a disease will determine

the appropriate response to control it Control

methods include the eradication of infected trees,

chemical suppression of disease-transmitting

in-sects and using resistant rootstock for grafting

New trees should come from controlled nurseries

where seedlings are protected from airborne or

soil contamination

The inspection of groves and follow-up of

measures taken are important for successful

con-trol of a disease Large eradication programmes

may require special funding In the 1940’s almost

all orange trees in Brazil were destroyed following

an outbreak of CTV (Citrus Tristeza Virus) New

plantings were made using a different rootstock

(Rangpur Lime) resistant to this virus

Among the serious citrus diseases found today

is Citrus Canker, caused by Xanthomonas

bacte-ria, that results in premature leaf and fruit drop

There is no treatment but the disease is limited

by removing all trees within a 60 m radius of

in-fected trees CVC (Citrus Cholorosis Variegated),

caused by a bacterial pathogen transmitted by the

sharpshooter insect, leads to spotted leaves and

small fruit The fungal disease Citrus Black Spot

causes lesions on the fruit skin, which make fruit

unsuitable for consumption although it can still

be processed

In 1999, a new disease was discovered in

Bra-zil called Citrus Sudden Death (CSD) because it

caused the rapid decline and death of trees with

fruit and leaves still on them It is caused by an

insect-transmitted virus (similar to Tristeza) and

in just a few years it has spread to important citrus

areas of São Paulo State

Certain rootstocks are resistant to the Sudden

Death virus Now there is intensive replanting

using resistant trees as well as in-arching, where

resistant seedlings are planted next to an existing

exposed tree and a by-pass is grafted onto it above

the bud union However, since these alternative

rootstocks are less resistant to drought, they may

require more irrigation or be used to plant groves

in areas having a wetter climate

1.3 Bridging the seasons

Fig 1.4 Harvesting seasons in Brazil and Florida.

Juices from early and late fruit varieties differ

in quality as regards colour, sugar content, etc

To deliver products of specifi ed and consistent

quality throughout the year, concentrate

suppli-ers blend concentrates produced from different

orange varieties Most NFC products also consist

of a blend of juices extracted at different times

of the season Blending of NFC may take place

within the producing country or in the

import-ing market The difference in quality and yield

between different orange varieties is refl ected in

the range of market prices

1.4 Fruit selection

In Brazil, the typical processing season is from

June to February In Florida, oranges are usually

processed from late October to early June Good

quality fruit is harvested for the greater part of the

season In the Mediterranean, the period yielding

fruit of quality suitable for processing is shorter

than in Florida and Brazil

NFC is essentially juice as it is extracted

direct-ly from the fruit Regulations and the production

process allow for very limited, if any, adjustments

to product characteristics other than blending NFC

from different varieties Therefore careful

selec-tion of the fruit is necessary for NFC producselec-tion

In concentrate production it is possible to

ad-just certain quality parameters Careful control

of the evaporation step, essence recovery and the

possibility of blending concentrates that differ in

character enable the processor to meet many

dif-ferent product specifi cations Hence, variations

in fruit properties are less critical for concentrate

production

In plants where NFC is produced, concentrate should also be produced to make use of the “non-optimal” fruit In most regions, fruit best suited to NFC production is available for only part of the season The proportion of NFC and concentrate produced in a certain region will depend on the availability of suitable fruit

At present, NFC production makes up a low percentage (<10 %) of the total juice produc-tion in most orange-growing regions except for Florida, where the share of NFC production can reach 45 %

With oranges grown to be eaten fresh, a tain amount of fruit is rejected because of poor appearance (up to 20 %) The rejected fruit is used for processing into juice This is why juice processing facilities are also found in regions which specialise in producing oranges intended for the fresh fruit market

cer-1.5 Inside an orangeEssentially, an orange is a ball of juice sacs protected by a waxy skin, the peel The peel consists of a thin outer layer called the fl avedo and a thicker, fi brous inner layer called the albedo Orange-coloured substances called carotenoids in the fl avedo give the fruit its characteristic colour Vesicles (a small sac or cavity) containing peel oil also present in the fl avedo contribute to the fruit’s fresh aroma The white spongy albedo contains several substances which infl uence juice quality, often negatively, if they fi nd their way into ex-tracted juice These substances include fl avonoids, d-limonene, limonin and pectin

ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

FCOJ = Frozen concentrated orange juice NFC = Not-from-concentrate juice Single strength = The natural strength of juice

and that at which it is consumed.

Single-strength equivalent (SSE) =

Concen-trate and other products stated as their sponding amount of single-strength juice.

corre-1.4 Fruit selection

1.6 Squeezing out every drop

In theory, the aim of the juice extraction process

is to remove the maximum amount of juice from the fruit without including any peel In practice,

a compromise is made between the possible juice yield and the desired product quality The maxi-mum juice yield from an orange is 40–60 % by weight depending on the fruit variety and local climate Valuable oil from the peel is recovered during juice extraction Volatile fl avours from the juice are also recovered during juice processing The remaining material is mainly pulp, peel, rag and seeds Some pulp is recovered for sale as a commercial product Soluble solids are reclaimed from the remaining pulp stream by washing with water d-Limonene is extracted from oil in waste peel for use in the chemical and electronics industry Other by-products such as pectin and clouding agents are sometimes recovered Peel and other residual waste can be dewatered and dried as pellets for animal feed Because orange waste is very biodegradable, small plants may dispose of it as landfi ll

Increased cost-effi ciency is important for the orange juice industry The development of equipment within the citrus processing industry is aimed at increasing juice yields while maintaining juice quality It is also very important to reduce energy costs and to further refi ne by-products and

fi nd new uses for them

Fig 1.5 The structure of an orange.

The edible portion of the fruit is known as the

endocarp It consists of a central fi brous core,

in-dividual segments, segments walls and an outer

membrane The segments contain juice vesicles,

or juice sacs, that are held together by a waxy

substance Seeds may also be present within the

segments (See Figure 1.5.)

Apart from the juice itself, droplets of juice

oil and lipid are also present in the juice vesicles

The juice contains sugars, acids, vitamins,

miner-als, pectins and coloured components along with

many other components These are discussed in

more detail in subsection 2.2

After juice is extracted, pieces of ruptured

juice sacs and segment walls are recovered as

pulp When these particles are large, they are

referred to as fl oating pulp because they rise to

the surface of the juice Very fi ne particles and

suspended solids that gradually accumulate at the

bottom of the juice are called sinking pulp

1.6 Squeezing out every drop

1.7 Primary and secondary

products

The orange is one of nature’s gifts The two

primary products – whole fruit and juice – are

enjoyed worldwide Various secondary products,

the by-products, help to maximise profi ts and

minimise waste No part of the fruit is unused

after the juice is extracted if fruit throughput

justifi es investment in equipment needed to turn

pulp and peel into commercial products

A range of products that can be obtained from

oranges is summarised below, many of which

are discussed in greater detail in other sections

of this book Yields of the various products

de-rived from Florida Valencia oranges are shown

in Figure 1.6

Fresh fruit

After picking, fruit intended for the fresh fruit

mar-ket is sent to packing stations where it is normally

graded by visual inspection, washed, coated with

wax and packed The detergent used in washing

may include fungicides As traces of fungicide

could fi nd its way into juice, fruit from packing

houses may not be processed into juice for sale to,

for example, the European Union countries

Juice

This product is produced either:

• as a single-strength (natural strength) bulk product in frozen or aseptic form (NFC);

• as bulk concentrate normally frozen (FCOJ)

Comminuted citrus base

A by-product made either by milling the whole fresh fruit or by mixing juice concentrate with milled peel This product is used as an ingredient for fruit drinks Because comminuted citrus base has a stronger fl avour and provides more cloud than pure orange juice, it imparts a good orange

fl avour to fruit drinks of low fruit content It was originally developed in the UK

Pulp

This is ruptured juice sacs and segment walls recovered after the extraction process It can be added back to juice and juice drinks to provide mouthfeel and give a natural appearance to the product Pulp, also traded as “cells”, is usually distributed frozen but also in aseptic bag-in-box containers

Fig 1.6 Products derived from whole Florida Valencia oranges.

1.7 Primary and secondary products

Pulp wash

A product reclaimed from washing the pulp

stream Pulp wash contains soluble fruit solids

and is often used in fruit drink formulations

as a source of sugars and fruit solids It is also

used as a clouding agent to provide body and

mouthfeel because of its pectin content If the

law permits, pulp wash is sometimes added to

juice in-line before concentration Pulp wash is

also referred to as water-extracted soluble orange

solids, WESOS

Peel oil (cold-pressed oil)

The oil extracted from orange peel Some peel oil

is added to concentrate after evaporation prior to

long-term storage It masks or slows down the

de-velopment of a cardboard off-taste during storage

Peel oil is sometimes used by blending houses and

juice packers for extra additions to concentrate It

is sold to fl avour manufacturers for the production

of various fl avour compounds used in the

bever-age, cosmetics and chemical industries In trading,

it is often referred to as CPO, cold-pressed oil, or

CPPO, cold-pressed peel oil

Essence

Essence comprises the volatile components

re-covered from the evaporation process These are

separated in an aqueous phase and an oil phase

The water-soluble compounds (essence aroma)

are sometimes added back to the concentrate

or juice product The oil phase (essence oil) is

different from peel oil and contains more of the

fruit fl avour Essence oil is also used as add-back

to concentrate Both aroma and essence oil are

raw materials used by fl avour companies for the

manufacture of fl avour mixtures for the beverage

and other food industries

d-Limonene

The major component of peel oil Industrial d-limonene is recovered as a by-product from waste peel in the feed mill It is sold for use in the plastics industry as a raw material for the manufacture of synthetic resins and adhesives

It has also found use as a solvent, e.g in the electronics industry

Animal feed

Dry pellets made from the material left over from juice processing The waste stream consists of peel, rag, unrecovered pulp and seeds This resi-due is dewatered and dried to form concentrated fodder for cattle and sheep

Citrus molasses

The syrup produced from the concentration of liquor pressed from the wet waste stream It is used in producing animal feed pellets or as raw material for the production of citrus alcohol by fermentation

Pectin

A less common by-product of fruit peel Pectin can be extracted from the peel for use in jam, marmalade, jelly and preserve production 1.7 Primary and secondary products

1.8 Major orange-producing regions

1.8 Major orange-producing

regions

Together, Brazil and the USA grow 50 % of the

world’s oranges and produce more than 85 % of the

global orange juice supply (12 billion litres/year)

Regions contributing to the majority of world

or-ange juice production are shown in Figure 1.7

The export of orange juice onto the world

market is dominated by Brazil US exports are

quite small as a consequence of the large domestic

market for orange juice (See Figure 1.8)

The USA has been a signifi cant net importer

of juice However, as juice production in Florida

increased as a result of new tree planting, US net

juice imports have gradually declined to a low

level, the quantities depending on the size of the

Florida harvest Thus more juice available on the

world market must fi nd new or existing markets

Figure 1.9 shows the orange juice production in

Brazil and Florida between 1996-2003

1.8.1 BRAZIL

During the 2002/03 season, the orange crop in

Brazil was about 15 million tonnes (370 million

boxes of 40.8 kg/90 lb) Almost all commercial

groves and processing plants are located in the

state of São Paulo, where 280 million boxes were

produced The 2002/03 harvest saw a 25 % lower

fruit yield than the previous and following

har-vests, following cyclic fl uctuations in yield

Fig 1.8 World export of frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ), NFC volumes calculated as concentrate

Fig 1.7 World orange juice production, 2001/02.

Source: FAO

Brazil 51 %

Italy 3 % Spain 2 %

USA 36 %

The majority of Brazilian oranges goes into processing Nevertheless, the domestic fresh fruit market, selling for home-squeezed orange juice, makes up a signifi cant share of the total production resulting from the increase in per capita income

Mexico 1.7 % Cuba 1.3 % Greece 1.2 % South Africa 0.9 % Australia 1.1 % Egypt 0.4 % Others 1.7 %

Year

1800

1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

1400 1600

Brazil

Others Belize Costa Rica Spain USA

1.8 Major orange-producing regions

Groves are not normally irrigated and climatic variations, including drought, can have a strong infl uence on fruit yield and juice quality Some citrus varieties (Hamlin and Valencia) have a bi-ennial cycle which leads to cyclic fl uctuations

in orange output The variation in yield per tree obtained during recent harvest seasons is shown

in Figure 1.10

In Brazil, the “bloom” – the time when the tree fl owers and becomes pollinated before the new crop of fruit starts to grow – does not occur at the same time for all the trees in a grove or plantation As a consequence, trees

in a grove bear fruit of differing ripeness at any given time Since fruit in a specifi c grove

is gathered at one picking, the harvested crop will therefore vary in maturity This variation

in fruit ripeness forces the processor to make compromises in the juice extraction process that affect both the quality and yield of juice produced Nevertheless, the processor can modify process conditions and use essence recovery and juice blending to compensate for variations in fruit to produce juice concentrate

Fig 1.9 Orange juice production in Brazil and Florida as SSE, single-strength equivalents.

Source: Florida Department of Citrus

Fig 1.10 Average orange yield per tree in São Paulo

expressed as boxes of 40.8 kg (90 lb)/tree.

Source: USDA Gain report Brazil

Sweet oranges comprise the bulk of the Brazilian

crop The most important varieties are:

Pera Rio (June to mid-July; mid-August

to mid-December) Pera Natal (September to mid-January)

Valencia (mid-July to

September;mid-October to January)

Brazilian fruit tends to be smaller, less round and

to have a thicker peel than oranges grown for

processing in, for example, Florida The normal

processing season for Brazilian juice plants is

from late June through to early February

1.8.2 FLORIDA

During the 2002/03 season, the orange crop in

Florida was about 8 million tonnes (200 million

boxes) This was a smaller yield, 15 % lower, than

average for the early 2000’s More than 95 % of

the orange crop harvested in Florida is processed

into juice or juice products

A combination of climatic conditions, tree

variety and soil conditions results in fruit that

has a low appeal to the fresh fruit market, but

produces a very high quality of juice

The skin is not uniform in colour and it is often

quite green or yellow The peel is fairly diffi cult

to remove, which contributes to consumer

rejec-tion However, the round shape and thin peel of

Florida oranges make them ideal for mechanical

extraction systems

The main varieties of sweet oranges are:

Early season

Hamlin (October to January)

Parson Brown (October to January)

Mid-season

Pineapple (December to March)

Late season

Valencia (February to June)

During the early part of the season the orange

juice is light in colour and has a low oil content,

whereas during late season the juice has a stronger

colour and higher oil content Some mandarin

and hybrid fruit is also processed into juice

from December to April for blending in small

amounts with orange juice to obtain the desired

colour and/or fl avour

Florida also produces about 40 % of the world’s grapefruit, of which 40 % is sold as fresh fruit and

60 % is processed into juices and fruit products The Florida orange juice processing season extends from late October to late May/early June Seasonal variations occur from year to year de-pending on the weather

Climatic conditions in Florida are such that the bloom occurs uniformly and during a very short period of time, usually two or three weeks The high level of grove management includes ir-rigation and intensive pest and weed control This combination of favourable climate and profi cient grove management enables the fruit to ripen uni-formly for effi cient harvesting Moreover, the uni-form fruit quality enables the processor to select the optimum processing conditions for the fruit harvested each day

peel of Florida oranges make them ideal for mechanical dejuicing systems

”

There has been a shift in processing oranges away from FCOJ to NFC to meet the demand of the North American market At present, 35–45 % of the total orange crop goes to NFC production

In years with lower orange yields, processing

to NFC is favoured while FCOJ production is reduced Most NFC juice is consumed in the US There are relatively short distances between juice production and consumption

1.8 Major orange-producing regions

1.9 Other regions

California

California is the second largest

orange-produc-ing area in the US as regards quantity of fruit,

but is the leading supplier of oranges to the fresh

fruit market The dry climate results in oranges

with thick skin and good appearance that appeal

to consumers The state produced about 2 million

tonnes of oranges during the 2001/02 season

The dominant sweet orange variety in

Cali-fornia is Navel, a seedless variety, followed by

Valencia Both are grown primarily for the fresh

fruit market About 20 % of the crop, which for

some reason is considered unattractive to

con-sumers, is used for fruit processing

Navel orange juice has the peculiarity of

de-veloping a bitter taste after processing In small

amounts, Navel juice can be used for blending

with other juices or, alternatively, the bitterness

can be removed in a debittering process

Other orange-growing states in the USA are

Arizona and Texas

Mexico

During the 2000/01 season, 3.8 million tonnes

of oranges were produced in Mexico Oranges

make up two thirds of citrus production, limes

come second with nearly 30 % of total

produc-tion and their plantaproduc-tion area is increasing The

sweet orange crop is dominated by the Valencia

variety, and most of the fruit (about 85 %) goes

to the fresh fruit market The majority of groves

are small, a result of Mexican land reform and

regulation that limit the size of farms In the

orange-growing areas there is often a shortage

of investment money and diffi culty in

achiev-ing effective grove management This leads to

variations in crop size and fruit quality from

year to year

The production quantity of FCOJ depends on

world market prices for FCOJ and raw material

costs In years with short orange supply, prices

are high in the domestic fresh fruit market and

so less fruit goes to processing

Caribbean and Central America

This region includes several areas of small but increasing orange cultivation and orange juice production Valencia is the most common vari-ety of sweet orange Grove management is not intensive and irrigation is rare Climatic varia-tions lead to differences in crop yield and juice quality between seasons The main product in this region is frozen concentrate, although NFC

is also produced for export markets

The orange processing capacity has been consolidated in Belize and Costa Rica, whereas capacity has expanded in Cuba, the largest pro-ducer in the region Cuba’s citrus production increased steadily in the 1990’s However, in

2001 a hurricane damaged a large part of the citrus-growing area Cuba’s orange production

in the 2001/02 season was 0.4 million tonnes, of which more than half went to processing Cuba

is among the world’s most important grapefruit producers, but output was dramatically reduced

by the hurricane

Valencia oranges are harvested from ber to June Fruit harvested from March onwards tends to be high in sugar and low in acidity, which leads to very high Brix:acid ratios (>25) This juice therefore requires blending

1 million tonnes annually

Most lemons are grown in the northeast ince of Tucuman One third is exported as fresh fruit, whereas about two thirds are processed into lemon juice Local consumption of lemons

prov-is small, and the main markets for lemon port lie in the Northern Hemisphere Fresh fruit export to some regions has been constrained

ex-by the required protocols and phytosanitary standards, but these demands are now being increasingly met

1.9 Other regions

China has the highest growth in citrus fruit

produc-tion, with the provinces Sichuan, Guangdong and

Zheijang accounting for the largest yields In 2001,

the seasonal production was about 12 million tonnes,

up 50 % in 5 years, and extensive citrus tree planting

is expected to further increase harvests

Neverthe-less, compared with other large citrus-producing

regions, fruit yields are relatively low because of

poor cultivar availability and grove practices

Mandarins account for more than half of

citrus harvests in China, although the trend is

to reduce mandarin planting in favour of sweet

orange cultivars These include Hamlin, Valencia

and Chinese varieties, which make up about 30 %

of the total citrus production Most oranges are

consumed fresh with very little being processed

into juice; the predominant processed product is

canned mandarin

At present, the majority of oranges are

har-vested during a short period Since fruit quality

deteriorates rapidly after harvesting, there is only

a short fresh fruit consumption period of 3–4

months In comparison, Brazil and Florida have

typical harvesting cycles with balanced yields

over 7 months Therefore there is a strong desire

in China to change to fruit varieties that result in

longer consumption and processing periods

The per capita growth in income has led to

the rapidly increased demand for orange juice,

especially in large cities But until greater orange

production can support effi cient processing, this

demand will continue to be satisfi ed by juice

im-ports over the next few years Likewise, it will

be diffi cult to meet the demand for fresh fruit

by domestic production in the foreseeable future,

especially as the per capita fresh citrus

consump-tion is expected to increase by 50 % over the next

10 years Fresh fruit will continue to be the main

market for domestic oranges

When China joined the WTO in 2001 it agreed

to reduce tariff rates, a measure that promotes

higher imports of fresh fruit and orange juice

Japan

Citrus fruit grown in Japan consists primarily of mandarin varieties, some of which are processed into juice However, since the strict restrictions governing fruit juice imports into Japan were lifted at the end of the 1980’s, production of man-darin juice has decreased to a low level Imported orange juice concentrate now meets the needs of the rapidly expanding domestic juice market.Japan is also a large importer of fresh grape-fruit and orange fruit, mainly from the US Peri-ods of economic downturn also show in declining imports

Australia

Sweet orange varieties in Australia are Navel and Valencia Because of the high popularity of Navel – it is easy to peel and enjoyable to eat – and new plantings replacing old Valencia trees, it now accounts for about half of the crop and supplies the fresh fruit market The orange production in Australia was about 0.6 million tonnes for the 2001/02 season, a high-yield year in the biennial yield cycle

Fruit for processing, mainly Valencia, cally accounts for 40 % of the total harvest The Australian market for NFC has increased rapidly over the last few years and domestic producers are shifting from FCOJ to NFC production, which of-fers higher profi tability It is diffi cult for Austral-ian producers to compete at world market prices for concentrate in the domestic market Frozen concentrate now accounts for half of the juice market, mainly imported from Brazil

typi-There is also a drive to increase the export of fresh fruit, primarily Navel, to Far East markets and increasingly to the US As Australia has an alternate season to the US, it can supply the US market with high-quality fruit during the Califor-nia Navel off-season

1.9 Other regions

Mediterranean countries

In order of crop size, the most important

orange-growing countries in the Mediterranean are Spain,

Italy, Egypt, Turkey, Greece, Morocco, Syria,

Alge-ria and Israel About 11 million tonnes of oranges

are grown in this region (2001) This represents

about 20 % of world orange production, and

slightly more than the current yield in Florida

1.9 Other regions

Oranges in the Mediterranean region are primarily grown for the fresh fruit market, both domestic and for export to European countries About 15 %

of regional crops goes into processing The terranean is also important for other citrus fruits Mandarin production is about 4.5 million tonnes,

Medi-or 30 % of wMedi-orld production Lemons, about 3 lion tonnes, account for 30 % of world supply Spain is the largest Mediterranean producer of oranges and mandarins, the most important sweet or-ange varieties being Navel and Valencia Exports to fresh fruit markets dominate Production of orange concentrate has been reduced drastically in Spain because production costs are not competitive with world-market concentrate prices This is despite the fact that processors in European Union countries are entitled to a signifi cant subsidy for purchasing fruit for juice production NFC is produced for the European market from high-quality Valencia fruit but volumes are limited by fruit availability

Mediterranean producer of oranges and mandarins

”

The cultivation of seedless clementines in Spain has met with success and is much appreciated by consumers Most fruit is exported and accounts for 50 % of world mandarin exports

In Italy, orange concentrate production has also dropped drastically because of strong inter-national competition as regards price However, several types of blood orange unique to Sicily are grown on the island Juice from these oranges has created a niche market for export of both NFC and concentrate In other cultivation areas, replace-ment of blonde oranges with more profi table pink grapefruit is taking place

Fig 1.11 World citrus fruit production and processing

except Brazil and Florida, 2001/02.

Citrus production in Israel has been declining

for many years Orange production was less than

0.2 million tonnes in 2002, similar to grapefruit

production The drop in concentrate production

has caused the closure of processing plants

Uprooting of orchards is carried out because of

low profi tability, urbanisation and an increasing

water shortage

The main varieties of sweet oranges grown in

Israel are Shamouti (early) and Valencia (Jaffa is

not a fruit variety but a trade name used for fruit

and juice exported from Haifa harbour.)

The CMBI (Citrus Marketing Board of Israel),

which encouraged the production and marketing

of citrus for more than 65 years and actively built

up the European juice market, closed in 2003

1.9 Other regions

South Africa

South Africa has an expanding citrus industry, the main orange varieties being Valencia and Navel Most of the orange production, some 1.3 million tonnes, is exported as fresh fruit About 20 % goes

to the domestic fresh fruit market and the same amount is processed into concentrate

Traditionally, the main export market for ange fruit was Europe, but deregulation in 1997 opened up new opportunities that led to Japan and the Middle East becoming important markets South Africa has good potential for exporting fresh fruit to the northern hemisphere because

or-of its alternate season However, increased trade depends on South Africa meeting the phytosani-tary requirements and production protocols of the importing regions Changes in the organisation of the South Africa citrus industry have taken place aimed at enabling producers to meet importers’ demands more effi ciently

• How quality is assessed in objective and

subjective ways

• Substances and factors that are important to

juice quality, such as sugars and acids, cloud,

pulp, fl a vour and colour components, and

2.1 Juice quality

2.1.1 DEFINING QUALITY

For food products, quality is subjective and what

is good quality must ultimately be de ter mined by

the con sum er This is also true for or ange juice

The qual i ty of orange juice as per ceived by the

con sum er is made up of:

• taste

• mouthfeel

• colour

However, because orange juice is traded and

sumed worldwide, its quality cannot be de ter mined

sole ly by subjective assessments To make as sess

-ments more objective, several qual i ty parameters

have been defi ned Some of these parameters are

used to classify (grade) or ange juice, while others are

used to specify the product for trading Table 2.1 lists

the important quality parameters for or ange juice

TABLE 2.1 IMPORTANT QUALITY PARAMETERS FOR ORANGE JUICE Sugar content (°Brix) Flavour

Acid content Oil content Ratio of °Brix to acid Colour

The most important compounds that in fl u

-ence the qual i ty of orange juice are sug ars

and ac ids, fl avour and colour com po nents,

and vi ta min C These com pounds, plus cloud,

are an a lysed to defi ne and grade juice The

°Brix scale is used to measure sugar

con-centration, and juice acidity is measured

by titration There are several methods for

measuring cloud and colour Flavour is

eval u at ed us ing sub jec tive meth ods and is

thus dif fi cult to de fi ne and meas ure

The deterioration of juice quality is

main ly related to fl avour deg ra da tion,

nonen zy mat ic browning and nutrient loss

Enzyme activity af fects the mouthfeel of

juice, and the for ma tion of limonin makes

juice taste bit ter.

Juice categories and relevant terms

Many special terms are used for the two main cat e go ries of orange juice products, ready-to-drink orange juice and juice con- cen trate Some of these terms are re ferred to

in the reg u la tions of certain coun tries, other terms are merely used in juice marketing and trad ing

Standards and regulations gov ern ing prod uct origin, juice processing, juice qual i ty and prod uct labelling are im ple - ment ed by a number of reg u la to ry bod ies

in dif fer ent trad ing blocs There is a gen er al

de sire worldwide to harmonise the ards in force.

stand-All the parameters listed in Table 2.1, ex cept fl vour, can be determined by standard methods of anal y sis to give meaningful and re li a ble re sults

a-Or ange juice fl avour can only be eval u at ed by sen so ry means, usually by groups of pan el lists These anal y sis methods have been col lect ed and published in books by, for example, Redd et al and Kimball

TABLE 2.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR USDA GRADE A ORANGE JUICE

Appearance fresh or ange juice fresh orange juice

Reconstitution —— reconstitutes properly

Colour very good, min 36 points very good, min 36 points

Flavour very good, min 36 points very good, min 36 points

Defects practically free, min 18 points prac ti cal ly free, min 18 points

Total score min 90 points min 90 points

Source: USDA

2.1 Juice quality

TABLE 2.2 AIJN QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

FOR ORANGE JUICE

Relative density 20/20 min 1.040 min 1.045

Corresponding °Brix min.10 min 11.2

Direct juice

L-ascorbic acid (vit C)

at end of shelf life, mg/l min 200

Volatile oils, ml/l max 0.3

Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), mg/l max 10

Volatile acid as acetic acid, g/l* max 0.4

Ethanol, g/l max 3.0

D/L Lactic acid, g/l max 0.2

Arsenic and heavy metals, mg/l max 0.01–5.0

(various values)

* Indication of hygiene, not juice acidity.

Source: AIJN Code of Practice, Reference guideline for orange juice, 2003

The basic quality of orange juice is de ter mined

at the fruit processor, i.e by the quality of fruit

ac cept ed at the reception area, fruit stor age

times and the way juice is extracted Sub se quent

processing steps can not improve the main quality

parameters of a given pro duc tion batch This can

only be achieved by blend ing a par tic u lar juice

with superior quality or ange juice or con cen trate

This is commonly done

All processing and stor age of juice on its way to the consumer should aim at maintaining the in i tial qual i ty as much as pos si ble Equally im por tant is the qual i ty of water used to re con sti tute orange juice, as juice made from con cen trate com pris es

85 % added water

The effects of processing on quality are main ly related to fl avour degradation, while nonoptimal stor age conditions can result in juice browning, loss of vitamin C and fl avour changes

2.1.2 QUALITY SPECIFICATIONS

Guidelines for quality standards for fruit juic es for the European Union are spec i fi ed in the Code of Practice for the evaluation of fruit and vegetable juices, pub lished by the AIJN (see Sec tion 11) The absolute quality requirements defi ned in the reference guideline for orange juice are given in

Ta ble 2.2

In the USA, the US Department of Ag ri cul ture, USDA, is responsible for specifying qual i ty stand ards for orange juice To be labelled USDA Grade A, orange juice produced in Flor i da must meet the qual i ty requirements shown in Table 2.3 The quality fac tors are meas ured on a 100-point scale If the total score is above the limit but just one of the quality fac tors does not meet the Grade A requirements, the juice still may not

be labelled Grade A

The most important properties of orange juice that are directly related to these qual i ty pa ram e ters are discussed in the following sub sec tions

HOW BRIX IS MEASURED Brix can be measured by either density measure- ments or by measuring the refractive index of orange juice Both are then related to a 100 % sucrose so lu tion The °Brix scale is based on standard meas ure ments at 20 °C If the juice/ concentrate is analysed at any other tem per a- ture, a correction factor is used to equate the

°Brix measurement to one made at 20 °C

To ob tain the corrected °Brix value, the acid con tent must be determined by titration in order

to read the right correction value from a table.

Density measurements: The buoyancy of a

hy drom e ter in a liquid is directly proportional to the density of the solution Therefore a scale on the neck of the hydrometer can be calibrated to

a °Brix scale The °Brix is read on the scale at the point where the liq uid meniscus intersects the hydrometer neck Before measuring it is

im por tant to deaerate the juice since air in the sam ple can affect the result.

Hydrometers are mostly used for strength juice Although a hydrometer is an

single-in ex pen sive single-in stru ment, it is not very fast and

re quires up to 200 ml of sample.

For in-line Brix measurements, one mon method of measuring density is to feed the sample through an oscillating tube When the liquid enters the tube, the frequency of the oscillations decrease From this deviation the density can be calculated Read more about in- line density measurements in subsection 7.4.8.

com-Measurement of light refraction: Light travels

at dif fer ent speeds in different media such as air, water or sugar solutions When light passes from one medium to another it is refracted, that

is, it changes direction slightly This property of

a medium can be quantifi ed as its refractive dex The refractive index of a so lu tion depends

in-on its total soluble solids Therefore °Brix can be determined by measuring the refraction of light Either analogue or digital refractometers can be used to measure °Brix Although refractometers are more expensive than hy drom e ters, they are more fre quent ly used be cause they can measure over a large scale, 1–70 °Brix, and they constitute

a fast method which requires very little sample, 2–3 ml Mod ern refractometers can compensate for tem per a ture, but in de pend ent correction for acids is nec es sary, es pe cial ly for concentrates Read more about in-line refractometer meas- urements in subsection 7.4.7

Source: Dan A Kimball, Citrus processing: Quality control and technology, 1991.

2.2 Important properties

of orange juice

2.2.1 SUGARS AND ACIDS

The most important properties of or ange juice

are its sugar content and ratio of sugar to acid

con tent This ratio indicates the balance be tween

sweetness and acid i ty in the juice When the fruit

matures, this ratio increases as sugars are formed

and the acid content decreases The sug ars are

main ly su crose, glu cose and fruc tose in a ra tio

ap prox i mat ing to 2:1:1 The sug ar con tent of juice

is nor mal ly ex pressed as °Brix In ex tract ed juice,

the con cen tra tion of sugar typ i cal ly var ies from

9 °Brix for early sea son varieties to 12 °Brix for

fruit har vest ed late in the sea son (e.g Flor i da)

The °Brix (degree Brix) scale, which was

de vel oped by the sugar industry, relates the

sucrose con cen tra tion of a pure sucrose

solu-tion to its den si ty at 20 °C °Brix for or ange

juice not only includes the con cen tra tion of

dis-solved sugars but all soluble solids Dis dis-solved

substances oth er than sug ars will infl uence the

result of °Brix meas ure ments Thus, the level of

acid, the second most abundant dissolved

mate-rial, is of ten meas ured and a correction of the

Brix value is made

For single-strength orange juice, acid

rec tion is small and the term °Brix is com mon ly

used with out correction to mean only the sug ar

content How ev er, in measuring °Brix of or ange

juice con cen trate, the acid cor rec tion is im por tant

due to the much higher acid con tent of

concen-trate Here, the term “°Brix, cor rect ed” is used

°Brix = % soluble solids (w/w)

°Brix, corrected = % sugar (w/w)

In the laboratory, the °Brix of orange juice is

analysed by meas ur ing the juice density with a

hydrometer or by meas ur ing the refractive index

of juice us ing a laboratory or hand refractometer

Two basic in stru ments used for Brix anal y sis are

shown in Figure 2.1 Read more about in-line

measurements in subsection 7.4

2.2 Important properties of orange juice

HOW ACIDITY (TOTAL ACIDS)

IS MEASURED Juice acidity is measured using a chemical ti tra - tion method Orange juice contains acids which

re lease hydrogen ions (H+) in solution When a base which releases hydroxyl ions (OH- ) is add ed

to an acid media, a chemical reaction takes place which gradually turns the solution neutral.

H+ + OH- ➞ H 2 O

To analyse the acid content in a juice sam ple, a base (e.g sodium hydroxide, NaOH) of known concentration is slowly added under ag i ta tion until a specifi c pH value is reached Most offi cial methods state that the end pH value should be 8.1 (AOAC*) – 8.2 (USDA) However, some producers titrate to pH 7.0 (neutral) and

it is therefore im por tant to men tion the end pH together with the acid content The change in

pH can be detected by a pH elec trode or by ing a sensitive pH col our indicator that changes colour abruptly at pH 8.2.

us-When the size of the juice sample, the cen tra tion of the base and the amount of base added are known, the total concentration of ac- ids in the juice can be calculated In Europe, the acid i ty of orange juice is expressed as grams citric acid per litre juice, whereas in the USA it

con-is ex pressed as grams citric acid per 100 grams juice, or % w/w

* AOAC The association of offi cial analytical chemists.

2.2 Important properties of orange juice

Fig 2.1 Examples of instruments used

for °Brix measurements.

Light refraction:

– hand refractometer

Density:

– hydrometer

After sugars, acids are the most abundant class of

sol u ble solids in orange juice The ac ids comprise

main ly citric acid and to a lesser degree malic acid

Some of the acids are in the form of salts, which

give orange juice a buffering capacity Thus even

though the acid content may vary a lot, the pH of

juice ex tract ed from mature oranges is gen er al ly

be tween 3.2 and 3.8

Total acid content (acidity) is measured by

ti tra tion and is often expressed as grams citric

acid per li tre juice

Ratio

The Brix:acid ratio is very important for taste as

it is a measure of the balance between the sweet

and sour sensation As oranges ripen, the acidity

decreases while the sugars increase There fore

the Brix:acid ratio will also in crease

The ratio decides the maturity of the fruit

fore harvesting Maturity standards for or ang es

in Flor i da re quire a minimum °Brix of 9.0 and a

minimum Brix:acid ratio of 10 Con sum ers pre fer

a ra tio around 15 and therefore it is often nec es sary

to in crease the ratio In the USA, the only

permit-ted way of doing this is by blending low-ratio juice

with juice of higher ratio ex tract ed at oth er times

of the season In the EU, sugar may be added up to

15 g/l orange juice for balancing acidity without

having to label it “sweetened” Many other

coun-tries also allow for small amounts of sugar addition

but the permitted level may vary Therefore local

legislation should be consulted for details of this

Add ing sug ar to juice for sweetening pur pos es (in

higher concentrations than above) is not per mit ted

with out high ly vis i ble in for ma tion on the pack age

in di cat ing this Re mov al of acid from the juice,

cid i fi ca tion, would also in crease the ratio but is not

per mit ted for orange juice in most countries

Orange juice concentrate can be bought with

dif fer ent ratios; typical values lie be tween 14

% (w/w) citric acid

HOW CLOUD AND PULP ARE MEASURED

Sinking pulp

Different procedures for measuring the pulp and concentration of suspended solids of orange juice are used by the industry, therefore it is often impossible to compare values from differ- ent sources

The juice sample is centrifuged in graduated tubes for a known time and speed Solid mate- rial above a certain particle size will settle in the tubes according to the time and centrifugal force of the lab centrifuge The recommended procedure in the juice industry is to spin the juice sample at 370 g for 10 minutes at 26 °C (USDA method), whereas the Tetra Pak method uses 3000 g for 3 minutes The higher g-force used in the Tetra Pak method gives a more compact pulp sediment and therefore a signifi - cantly lower reading than the recommended method for juice of the same pulp content The sedimented quantity is expressed as vol- ume % Not only may the time-speed combina- tion vary greatly from method to method, but the results may be referred to suspended solids, sus- pended pulp, centrifugable pulp or sinking pulp.

Floating pulp

Floating pulp is often measured by a sieving method Sieves with different hole sizes are used to determine the amount and size of pulp

in juice ( See subsection 8.2 )

Cloud stability

Cloud stability is detected by measuring the transmittance of orange juice in a spectropho- tometer This analysis method is based on the fact that both soluble and insoluble solids absorb light, with the result that only a certain amount of total light entering a sample will pass through it The orange juice sample is centrifuged to take away larger suspended particles (sinking pulp) The light transmittance of the sample serum is measured at 650 nm wavelength The denser the cloud in orange juice, the lower the transmit- tance, %T Orange juice cloud is not considered stable if the %T at 650 nm is greater than 36.

2.2.2 CLOUD AND PULP

Cloud in orange juice is considered a de sir a ble

characteristic; it gives an opaque ap pear ance

to the juice and is important for the mouthfeel

Or ange juice cloud is formed by soluble and

sol u ble (suspended) com pounds released during

juice ex trac tion

Pectin is an important soluble cloud

stit u ent be cause it increases the vis cos i ty of the

juice liq uid, thereby allowing solid par ti cles to

re main sus pend ed

So-called “cloud loss” is caused by a loss in

vis cos i ty due to reactions between pectin mol e

-cules and calcium In the reaction, long pectin

molecule chains are formed which settle to the

bot tom Cloud loss leads to total sep a ra tion of

sus pend ed particles, leav ing an upper clear phase

and a lower cloudy phase con sist ing of sol id mat ter

settling to wards the bottom If the same re ac tion

be tween pec tin and cal ci um takes place in or ange

juice concentrate, it will instead lead to gelation

of the con cen trate You can read more about this

in sub sec tion 4.4

Another important contributor to the opaque

ap pear ance of juice is the suspended solids also

known as pulp The very small pulp particles

called “sinking pulp” are close ly related to cloud

Some sed i men ta tion of these particles will occur

dur ing stor age This sedimentation is not related

to cloud loss

Pulp is made up mainly of ruptured fruit cell

walls, segment walls and core fi bre Two kinds of

pulp are found in juice:

Sinking pulp, comprising particulate fi bres that

grad u al ly settle out with time This type of pulp

is found in all orange juices and is an im por tant

part of or ange juice cloud Typical val ues in

sin gle-strength juice range from 5 % to 12 %,

although the re sults de pend very much on the

anal y sis meth od used

2.2 Important properties of orange juice

Floating pulp, or cells, consisting of larger sol id

mat ter Most of this rises to the surface of juice

after it has been stirred Floating pulp is added

to con cen trate or reconstituted juice Its typical

con cen tra tion in single-strength juice, if added,

is 5–30 g/l (sieving method)

More in for ma tion on pulp and pulp production

can be found in Sec tions 5 and 8

Figure 2.2 The product streams that contain volatile

fl avours in a juice processing plant.

Essence oil

Essence aroma Peel oil

The fi rst two components have already been cussed The following text deals with the vol a tile components of orange juice

‘Volatile’ means that the compounds will porise from the juice at el e vat ed tem per a tures The lower the tem per a ture at which the fl a- vour component evaporates, the more vol a tile

va-is the component As the orange ripens the volatile components are cre at ed and increase The vola-tiles are of two types – wa ter-in sol u ble oils and watersoluble aro mas In everyday speech, volatile com po nents are referred to as fl avours

During the production of orange juice con cen trate, most of the volatile fl avours are re moved

-in the evap o ra tion step by be-ing boiled off gether with water This results in juice con cen -trate hav ing a fl at cooked taste However, the volatiles boiled off from juice are collected in

to-an essence-recovery system The orto-ange fl a vour

in the juice can later be restored by adding back the re cov ered fractions

Processing and storage of juice along the whole sup ply chain from tree to consumer are

re spon si ble for the changes in orange fl avour caused by the juice losing or gaining com po nents Gained compounds are called off-fl a vours (not always volatile) They are of two kinds;

• natural constituents of the fruit itself (from peel and rag)

• compounds formed during processing and/or storage

It is important to extract the juice so that un want ed compounds from peel and rag do not en ter the juice This is main ly achieved by avoiding too high a pressure in the juice ex trac tors and juice

fi nishers (see Section 5) Heat and oxygen are volved in the for ma tion of off-fl a vour com pounds during processing and stor age How ev er, it is still not totally clear how the com pounds that affect juice fl avour are formed

in-2.2.3 FLAVOUR

Flavour is the complex experience of the smell,

taste and mouthfeel of a product The fl avour of

orange juice is built up from a number of com po

-nents, the most important of which are:

• acids and sugars for taste

• cloud for mouthfeel

• volatile components for smell and taste

2.2 Important properties of orange juice

HOW OIL CONTENT IS MEASURED The analysis of volatile fl avours is often compli- cated and involves expensive instruments like a gas chromatograph The d-limonene level can, however, be measured by a simpler titration method, the Scott method

Since it is not possible to titrate the juice directly, the oil must fi rst be removed from the juice This is done by heating up a mixture of juice and alcohol; the alcohol and oil evapo- rate readily from the mixture since they are the most volatile components The alcohol and oil vapours are cooled down and collected The d-limonene content in this mixture can then be determined by titration.

The titration in the Scott method is based on

a chemical reaction between d-limonene and bromide A red colour indicator is fi rst added to the sample and then a bromide solution is added slowly Bromide reacts with d-limonene, and as long as there is d-limonene present in the sam- ple the solution remains red When the sample

no longer contains any d-limonene the bromide reacts with the colour indicator instead and the red colour disappears As the concentration of the bromide solution and the amount added to reach the colour change are known, it is possible

to calculate the d-limonene content The oil level

is expressed as % v/v in 11.8 °Brix juice.

Volatile fl avours

The volatile fl avour components are found in

three product frac tions – peel oil, es sence oil

and essence aroma To obtain good or ange juice

fl avour, com po nents from all three frac tions must

be present However, the exact blend need ed for an

op ti mal orange juice fl avour is still un known

Peel oil The recommended level of peel oil in

re con sti tut ed FCOJ is about 0.02 % v/v When

added to juice, peel oil gives body and fresh ness,

although when used alone it can give an artifi cial

taste Oil lev els much above 0.02 % v/v give rise

to juice harsh ness and a burning taste

Essence oil A typ i cal concentration of sin

gle-strength essence oil added to orange juice from

concentrate is about 0.01 % v/v When added to

juice, es sence oil gives top-notes and makes the

juice fruity, green and sweet

Essence aroma The essence aroma gives

top-notes to the juice and makes it fresh and sweet

A typical con cen tra tion of single-strength aro ma

added to or ange juice is about 0.2 % v/v

di tion of this fraction is more com mon ly found

with premium quality juice prod ucts than with

standard products

compounds from peel oil,

es sence oil and aro ma is

essential for optimal

orange fl avour

”

The addback of fl avours to concentrate or re con

-sti tut ed juice is carried out to different de grees

Most processors add es sence oil, es sence aroma

and ad di tion al peel oil to develop a spe cial taste

And today, ded i cat ed fl a vour com pa nies usually

of fer spe cial ly de vel oped fl a vour pack ag es to

en-hance a cer tain de sir a ble fl a vour pro fi le Further

details on vol a tile fl a vour frac tions can be found

in Sec tion 8

There is no reliable instrumental method of ter min ing orange juice fl avour objectively, so it is car ried out by sensory evaluation As this is based

de-on sub jec tive judgement, the setup of sen so ry analyses for fl a vour and the evaluation of re sults are com pli cat ed Nev er the less, fl a vour anal y ses must be carried out be cause of the im por tance of

fl avour as a qual i ty pa ram e ter

Oil content

The oil content is often equated to d-limonene con cen tra tion since d-limonene is the dom i nant com pound present in both peel oil and es sence oil d-Limonene acts as a carrier of fl a vours but con- trib utes little to the fl avour it self However, excess

of d-limonene can give a burning taste to juice Juice processed under USDA di rec tives may have a maximum oil content of 0.035 % v/v How-

ev er, con sum er pref er enc es range between 0.015 and 0.020 % v/v High levels of oil in juice result from squeezing the fruit too hard when ex tract ing the juice (for in creased yield)

2.2 Important properties of orange juice

In juice used for concentrate production, high

oil lev els are not regarded as a serious prob lem

since most of the oil is boiled off in the evap o

-ra tor However, high oil lev els in juice from the

extractors may in di cate that other un want ed

com-pounds have en tered the juice These nonvolatile

fl avour com pounds do not leave the juice during

con cen tra tion

For NFC production, low-pres sure ex trac tion

and/or downstream deoiling of extracted juice

is of ten used to reduce the oil content to near

0.020 % v/v

Bitterness

Orange juice should have no noticeable trace of

bit ter ness Although even very small amounts of

bitter substances are detectable by the con sum er,

bitterness is not a common problem for orange

varieties nor mal ly used for processing

Some orange va ri e ties main ly intended for the

fresh fruit market such as Na vel and Shamouti

contain a precursor (a chemical sub stance that

gives rise to another more important substance)

of a very bitter compound called limonin The

precursor itself is not bitter, which explains

why fresh fruit and freshly extracted juice of

these va ri e ties do not taste bitter But when the

juice sacs are ruptured during ex trac tion, the

limonin pre cur sor enters juice where it is

id ly con vert ed to limonin A debittering proc ess

in volv ing ul tra fi l tra tion and adsorbing sep a rat ed

bitter com po nents on to resin can be used to

re-move the bit ter taste For more information see

Braddock, 1999

2.2.4 COLOUR

The intense colour of orange juice is mainly due

to com pounds called carotenoids Colour, which should be bright yellow to orange-red and not too pale, is an important quality parameter The fact that the USDA re gards colour scores and fl avour scores as equally im por tant for orange juice shows the signifi cance of col our

HOW COLOUR IS MEASURED Colour is an important quality parameter but it is dif fi cult to defi ne and measure The main meth- ods used to evaluate col our are pre sent ed be low.

Known colour standards

An example of this sub jec tive method is the set

of USDA colour tubes One merely matches the col our of the orange juice sample with one of six colour stand ards in glass tubes The com- par i son should be done under a de fi ned light

in ten si ty around 150 candela.

Colorimetry

A colorimeter emits a fl ash of light from a pulsed xenon arc lamp to illuminate a juice sam ple and then meas ures the refl ected light The meas ured col our is then expressed ac cord ing to the L, a and b scale The L axis in di cates light ness of col our, the a axis indicates the col our range from red to green, and the b axis indicates the colour range from yel low to blue.

Although colorimetric measurements are not sub jec tive, meaningful in ter pre ta tion of results can only be made after fairly long experience The colorimeter can also be calibrated to known stand ard colour tubes to make the colour meas- ure ments easier.

Spectrophotometry

The colour change that may oc cur in orange juice during storage is of ten called browning and is measured with a spec tro pho tom e ter All cloud ma te ri al is re moved from the juice sample and the light ab sorbed by clear juice is meas- ured at 420 nm wave length A wave length of

420 nm is selected because the more red-brown the sample is, the more light will be ab sorbed at this wavelength The higher the absorption, the more accurate the results.

2.2 Important properties of orange juice

In dry and cooler climates such as in the Med i

-ter ra ne an, the colour of juice is well de vel oped,

while in hotter and more humid cli mates like that

of Florida the pigments are di lut ed and thus juice

has less col our The only legal way to enhance

col-our is to blend the juice in question with another

orange juice with a high er colour score (e.g from

Valencia or ang es) In the USA it is also allowed

to add up to 10 % tangerine juice to early

sea-son orange juice Tan ge rine juice con tains more

carotenoids and there fore has strong er col our than

most other citrus va ri e ties

Colour can be measured by comparing the

juice with known colour standards in glass tubes,

or by using a colorimeter

Off-colours result primarily from formation

of brown com pounds that dull the natural colour

of juice, not by changes in the pigments

selves The colour pigments of orange juice are

quite heat-sta ble com pared with colour pig ments

in other foods The for ma tion of brown-coloured

compounds occurs after excessive heat treatment

or long storage at room tem per a ture

2.2.5 PROMOTING HEALTH

A number of compounds present in juice

trib ute to its health-promoting image Some of

these are dis cussed below

Ascorbic acid

Ascorbic acid – vitamin C – is the most im por tant

nu tri ent in orange juice One of the rea sons for

this is that consumers regard or ang es as a good

source of vi ta min C Some oth er fruits contain

more vitamin C than or ang es but few are as

popu-lar, see Table 2.4 The level of vitamin C in freshly

extracted or ange juice may vary a lot depending

on orange va ri e ty and grow ing con di tions

Typical values for vitamin C in freshly ex tract ed juice range from 450 to 600 mg/litre Pro vid ed that the production procedures are cor rect, only

a small loss of vitamin C occurs during the

i tial processing into concentrate More sig nifi cant loss es may occur dur ing process ing at the juice packer and during ambient storage Typ i cal val ues for orange juice when con sumed range from 200

to 400 mg/litre

Vitamin C is essential for the synthesis of col la gen, the most abundant protein in mam-mals Col la gen is the ma jor fi brous element of skin, bone, blood vessels and teeth A lack of vitamin C leads to scurvy, which causes loss of teeth, bleed ing skin and ulcers

Vitamin C is sometimes suggested to have an anticancer effect by its reaction with and in ac -

ti va tion of free radicals in the body A wide range

of oth er benefi cial effects of vitamin C are also sug gest ed However, contrary to pop u lar belief,

it has nev er been shown clinically that vitamin C has a pre ven tive effect on the com mon cold

TABLE 2.4 AVERAGE VITAMIN C CONTENT IN SOME FRUITS

Peach 80 Apple 80 Blackberry 210 Kumquat 380 Grapefruit 390 Orange 530 Papaya 620 Kiwi fruit 630

Strawberry 660 Guava 1840

Blackcurrant 2100

Source: Svenska statens livsmedelsverk, Livsmedelstabell

2.2 Important properties of orange juice

Other nutrients

Folic acid is also found in signifi cant amounts in

or ange juice This B vitamin is required for DNA

syn the sis and its defi ciency is fi rst ex pressed in

tissues with high rates of cell turn o ver Pregnant

women are prone to folic acid de fi cien cy which, in

rare cases, may affect the foe tus Folic acid is quite

heat-sen si tive, but the vitamin C in citrus juice

pro-tects it from deg ra da tion during heat treatment

Flavonoids and pectin are believed to be linked

to the reduction of blood serum cho les ter ol in

hu mans The fl avonoid hesperidin can, how ev er, cause prob lems during orange juice pro duc tion as it precipitates out as white fl akes in the evap o ra tor

A number of other nutrients like thiamine and po tas si um are also found in orange juice but not in larger amounts than found in other fruits and veg e ta bles A comprehensive list of

nu tri ents in fresh ly extracted or ange juice is giv en in Table 2.5

TABLE 2.5 THE NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF FRESHLY EXTRACTED ORANGE JUICE

Protein (total Nx6.25), g 0.58–1.29 0.91

Fat (ether extract), g 0.0–0.66 0.2

Soluble solids, total, g 8.1–17.7 12.3

Sugar, total as invert, g 6.23–14.3 9.15

Source: adapted from Redd and Praschan.

2.2 Important properties of orange juice

2.3 Orange juice categories

Quality parameters as defi ned in product spec i fi

c-a tions c-and grc-ade stc-andc-ards provide or c-ange juice

buy ers and sellers with appropriate in for ma tion

about the product they are han dling This applies to

any link in the production chain To the con sum er,

how ev er, orange juice covers a wide range of

ucts, many of which are not well-defi ned

Many different terms are used within orange

juice marketing to describe the various products

Sev er al of these terms are not consistent and have

dif fer ent mean ings in different countries Nev er

-the less, along with -the increase in global trade

and mar ket ing of or ange juice, there is grow ing

pressure to harmonise the terms used

Orange juice products can be divided into two

main categories – ready-to-drink juices and

cen trates The latter require dilution with wa ter

before consumption Ready-to-drink juic es are

either NFC or reconstituted from con cen trate

Fig 2.3 Main orange juice categories.

2.3 Orange juice categories

2.3.1 READY-TO-DRINK ORANGE JUICE

Ready-to-drink (RTD) orange juice is at the strength at which it will be consumed It does not require di lu tion before drinking Some cat e go ries

of RTD orange juice are given below

Freshly squeezed orange juice

Juice packaged directly after extraction but out pasteurisation or any other physical or chemi-cal treat ment Its shelf life is very short

with-Fresh orange juice

A misleading term that should be avoided times it is used to mean freshly squeezed orange juice, in other markets it is used for juice dis trib -

Some-ut ed chilled (NFC or made from con cen trate)

Not-from-concentrate juice (NFC)

Juice which has neither undergone a con cen tra tion step nor dilution during production This term orig i nat ed in the USA

Premium juice

A term which has been used in the USA and Can a da for NFC for marketing purposes

Direct juice

A term sometimes used in Europe for NFC The

ex pres sion “not from concentrate” is felt to imply

to con sum ers that juice derived from con cen trate

is in fe ri or to NFC In European legislation NFC

is defi ned simply by the term fruit juice

Pure juice or 100 % juice

Often used on a label to defi ne pure juice, being

a di rect juice or one made from concentrate to

distinguish it from nectar

Orange juice from concentrate

This product is also known as orange juice made

with concentrate The juice is produced by

lut ing orange concentrate with potable water

FORTIFIED ORANGE JUICES

Juice with added fl oating pulp

This is juice with added fl oating cells (also known

as pulp or fruit meat) The product is some times

called Home style, Natural, etc

The added cells provide mouthfeel and in crease

the nat u ral fi bre content of juice Juice with out

fl oat ing cells is re ferred to as “smooth”

Vitamin enriched

Both naturally occurring vitamins and man-made

vi ta mins can be added by packers to in crease the

nu tri tion al value of orange juice

Calcium enriched

Calcium compounds, which are soluble in juice,

are added to juice by the packer to increase its

nutritional value

Fibre enriched

Addition of nutritional fi bre (normally not from

or ang es) to increase the health value of juice

RTD ORANGE PRODUCTS WHICH MAY

NOT BE CALLED OR ANGE JUICE

Orange nectar

Orange juice with added sugar, acids and/or wa ter

The minimum fruit content varies according to

is la tion For orange nectar, EU regulations stipulate

min 50 % fruit juice content at RTD strength

Orange juice drinks

Drinks with a lower juice content than nectars They are not subject to juice legislation but to general food legislation In some cases they may contain only peel oil and fl avouring agents

Orange fl avour drinks

Products tasting of orange but containing no gen u ine juice product

2.3.2 CONCENTRATED ORANGE JUICE

Concentrated orange juice is diluted to single strength before consumption The most com- mon orange concentrate products for the trade and retail sectors are given be low

Frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ), 65–66 °Brix

The standard product for traded orange juice con cen trate It is concentrated approx 5.5 times

It is a bulk product only, stored and shipped at –6 to –25 °C

The term may be misleading as FCOJ at such high concentration does not freeze solid but is still pumpable

FCOJ at approx 55 °Brix

This product is often referred to as Dairy Pack It

is a bulk product only It is 66 °Brix con cen trate cut back (rediluted), e.g with single-strength juice and pulp, to the required con cen tra tion No further additions are needed at the juice packer apart from water dilution This product is com- mon ly used by dairies

FCOJ at min 41.8 °Brix

A retail product, mainly in US, for dilution with

wa ter (3 times) to single strength at home, in res tau rants, etc

Concentrate at approx 52 °Brix

A retail product aseptically packaged, mainly in Scan di na via For dilution with water (4 times) to sin gle strength at home, in restaurants, etc It is dis trib ut ed chilled or at ambient temperature.2.3 Orange juice categories

2.4 Regulations governing

juice origin

In the European Union and several other coun tries,

the term ‘orange juice’ may only be used for juice

ex tract ed from sweet oranges, Citrus sinensis In the

USA, regulations allow for up to 10 % of tangerine

or hybrid orange/tangerine juice to be included in

or ange juice Also Codex Alimentarius allows for

10 % mandarine juice These add ed juices can

im-prove the col our and fl avour of the blended juice

In principle, regulations governing direct juice,

or NFC, require that fl avour and pulp removed

during processing should be added back to the

same juice For reconstituted orange juice, water

should be added back to the minimum

concentra-tion defi ned in the quality standard applied in a

country Essences should be added back to restore

fl avours, and pulp may be added to achieve the

desired properties of the fi nal juice product

Orange juice should come from the endocarp

of the fruit and be extracted by mechanical means

The EU directives for fruit juices of 2001 allow

pulp wash in orange juice from concentrate, but

not in direct (NFC) juice In-line addition of pulp

wash is also allowed in the US (up to 5 %) and

many other countries

Although attempts are being made con tin u al ly

to reach consensus between legislation in different

glo bal trading blocs, regulations gov ern ing fruit

juices and other beverages still vary worldwide

In general, legislation covers:

• product origin

• how juice processing may be carried out

• the composition and quality of fruit juices

• product labelling

In the USA, standards governing the com po si tion and labelling of food and the use of ad di tives are

un der the administration of the Food and Drug

Ad min is tra tion (FDA) and the United States partment of Agriculture (USDA) The standards for orange juice iden ti ty (or juice or i gin) are enforced by the FDA, whereas the stand ards for orange juice grades (more or less the quality) are enforced by the USDA

De-In the European Community, legislation cov er ing fruit juices and fruit nectars is based

on a Council Di rec tive concerning fruit juices and similar products The current directive 2001/112/EC came into force in 2001 and EU countries were given until 2003 to comply with

it The demands for labelling are out lined in the Council Directive on labelling, al though spe cifi c labelling requirements are given in the fruit juice Council Directive

Countries in other regions have similar islation to that of the US and EU Countries not having their own legislation refer to the Codex Alimentarius published by the FAO

leg-There is a general desire worldwide to

mo nise orange juice standards to promote free and open glo bal trading This is an objective of the Juice Products Association (JPA), whose mem-bers are drawn from the Unit ed States, Canada, Mexico, Cen tral and South America, and Europe The JPA’s po si tion is that the USDA standards covering the grade and quality of orange juice should be ap pli ca ble through out the major citrus juice pro duc ing coun tries It even suggests that USDA stand ards should be adopted as a world-wide har mo nised stand ard There are ongoing discussions with European and other authorities

on this topic

An overview of the most important aspects of leg is la tion in the US, EU and other coun tries are found in Section 11, Standards and Reg u la tions 2.4 Regulations governing juice origin

• The structure of the orange juice industry.

• The evolving relationship between orange

growers and fruit processors

• How marketing processors and bulk

processors operate

• The activities of blending houses, juice

packers and soft drink producers

• The fl uctuations in the worldwide pricing

of bulk juice products

• How FCOJ is traded as a commodity product and the signifi cance of the futures market to bulk trading

• Import duties with examples in certain trading blocs and countries

• The amount of orange juice products consumed in major markets

global consumption

of orange juice

In section 3 you will read about:

3.1 The chain of supply

There are many links in the chain of supply for

or ange juice – from ripe oranges ready for

ing to the con sum er opening a carton of juice at

a distant lo ca tion (see Figure 3.1) The product

usually chang es hands sev er al times along the

way It is thus im por tant to be familiar with the

com plete sequence of juice pro duc tion in order

to un der stand the com mer cial conditions for each

type of com pa ny forming the intermediate links

in the sup ply chain

This section refers generally to orange juice

production in Florida and Brazil, which dominate

the world juice market

Industry structure

Full vertical integration – i.e hav ing all the steps from fruit har vest ing to distribution of packaged con sum er product un der one roof – is rare in the

or ange juice in dus try This has resulted not only from ge o graph i cal fac tors but also from the way the in dus try has ma tured

There is a trend for each link in the pro duc tion chain – grow ers, fruit processors, juice pack ers and re tail ers – to be come independent busi ness es

This may be a natural con se quence of the mar ket place de mand ing increased and spe cial ised com-

pe tence at each step of the pro duc tion sequence

It may also be partly due to com mer cial fac tors, such as long-term supply contracts and the futures market, that allow in di vid u al sec tors of the cit rus

3 The supply chain

and global consumption

of orange juice

Summary

Orange juice products usually change

hands many times along the supply chain

It is thus important for all involved in the

intermediate steps to be fa mil iar with the

to tal se quence of juice pro duc tion

In Flor i da, or ange grow ers are be com ing

di ver si fi ed agribusiness com pa nies In

Bra-zil, the large orange proc es sors still get part

of their fruit from their own groves.

So-called marketing processors pro duce

and sell their own juice brands Bulk

es sors main ly sell their products in bulk

form Blend ing houses provide con cen trate

and bas es of consistent quality according to

de fi ned customer spec i fi ca tions Juice

ers treat bulk prod uct as re quired and then

pack it in con sum er pack ag es Soft drink

producers may use or ange con cen trate and

prepared bas es from blend ing houses as

raw materials

Pricing and trading

Special terminals for handling frozen cen trate in bulk are lo cat ed in ma jor ports

con-The world mar ket price of FCOJ fl uc tu ates

ac cord ing to its sup ply and de mand carrier Rotterdam ware house is a com mon standard for FCOJ (66 °Brix) trad ed pric es, which in clude freight charg es to the port of Rot ter dam, the Neth er lands

Free-The futures market enables the citrus

in dus try to manage commercial risks It also sets a value for FCOJ The spec u la tive

ac tiv i ty of the futures market provides the

fi nance needed to transact com mer cial hedges and set price levels In ad di tion

to long-term con tracts there is also a spot market for FCOJ.

Quite large differences in import duties for orange juice exist between importing coun tries As regards the consumption of orange juice, the USA and Europe are the largest markets.