practical perspectives on science education

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Practical Perspectives

on Science Education

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Practical Perspectives

A useful compilation of articles on science education—based upon

55 years of teaching experience—that offers numerous proven teaching tips that will be valuable to science educators.

by Marvin Druger

Managing Editor

Susan Ernst

American Society of Agronomy, Inc.

677 S Segoe Road, Madison, WI 53711

www.agronomy.org

2010

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American Society of Agronomy, Inc

677 S Segoe Road, Madison, Wisconsin 53711 USA

Printed in the United States of America

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Section 1: Perspectives In General

A Realistic Perspective on Science Education 3

Our Mission in Education 13

It All Depends: A Perspective on Science Teaching at All Levels 17

The Status of College Science Teaching 21

Reform in Undergraduate Science Education 27

Are Standards the Answer? 31

Teaching Versus Research—An Ongoing Issue at the College Level 35

The Concept of Creative Scholarship 39

Teacher Education and Leadership: Keys to the Future of Science Education 43

Take Me to Your Leader: A Perspective on University Administrators 45

A Study of the Role of Research Scientists in K–12 Science Education 49

Grant-Free Projects in Science Education 59

The Concept of FYST: An Association for First-Year Teachers 63

A Summer Biology Program for High-Ability Students 67

What’s Next in Science Education? 75

Section 2: Perspectives In The Classroom Some Thoughts on College Teaching 83

Inner Guidelines for Undergraduate Teaching 87

Education for Life: A Perspective on Teaching Introductory College Science 91

Development of Specialists for Teaching Introductory College Science Courses 95

Humanizing the Introductory College Biology Course 99

Creating a Motivational Learning Environment in Large, Introductory Science Courses 107

Being There: A Perspective on Class Attendance 113

A Perspective on Exams and Grading: Some Tricks of the Trade 117

Decorum in the Large Lecture Class 121

Improving Our Teaching: Practice Makes Perfect 125

20 Practical Tips for College Science Teachers: How to Get Off to a Good Start 129

Lessons from Teaching Failures 135

Contents

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Preface & Acknowledgments

Promoting learning and a desire to learn are challenges for all teachers The process

is unimaginably complex, especially in science and mathematics I have taught ence for 55 years, mainly introductory biology at Syracuse University One day, I was thinking about the goals of education Suddenly, the overall mission of teaching came

sci-to me I was so excited that I wrote an essay in less than an hour, and it is published in this book That broad mission is to provide meaningful, motivational experiences that enrich the lives of students and help them identify their unique traits and where they fit

in life Each part of this mission can be elaborated upon, but this statement provides the broad essence of what an education should be all about

This book contains essays about different aspects of college science teaching They represent my personal reflections, based upon my experience in teaching more

than 40,000 students in my career Most of the articles were published in the Journal

of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education under the heading of “Druger’s

Notebook on Science Education.” Hopefully, the articles will stimulate your thinking about science education, and will help contribute to the accomplishment of the overall mission

This book would not have been possible without the encouragement, support, and

expertise of Susan Ernst, Managing Editor of the Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education Her talents, dedication, friendship, and perseverance made it

happen I also want to thank my wife, Pat, for her love, support, and technical tance My three children and my seven grandchildren provided a family environment that enabled me to be reflective about science teaching and about life Also, I want to thank the many thousands of students and many faculty colleagues who I have had the privilege to interact with over the years They provided the teaching perspectives that serve as the basis for the articles in this book

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assis-About the Author…

Marvin Druger officially

retired on August 15, 2009 He is

science education and his contact

information at Syracuse

Univer-sity remains the same (mdruger@

syr.edu)

Marvin has a Ph.D in

University and has taught biology

span of 55 years He has served as

president of three national science

for College Science Teachers

(twice), the Association for the

Education of Teachers in Science (now the Association for Science Teacher Education), and the National Science Teachers Association He also served as secretary and chair of the Education Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.Marvin contributed a number of articles about science education to the Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education and other publications, most of which

are reprinted in this book These articles are based upon his many years of teaching experience and provide many practical teaching tips and insights about science teach-ing that will be useful to science educators

Besides following his wife around all day, he has two other books in progress One book is The Misadventures of Marvin, which will be published in the spring 2010 by

Syracuse University Press This book describes many of the “stupid” things that Marvin has done in his lifetime that readers can relate to and laugh at (His wife said, “It’s a very fat book.”)

A second forthcoming book is a sequel to his poetry book for children of all ages,

Strange Creatures and Other Poems The new book, entitled Even Stranger Creatures and Other Poems, will consist of a collection of new poems about life that children and

adults can enjoy The poetry books are available directly from Marvin (mdruger@syr.edu) or the Syracuse University Bookstore (bookstor@syr.edu)

Marvin expects to stay active in science education and is currently directing a Saturday science enrichment program for high school students; supervising the Project Advance Biology Program, whereby his college biology course is taught in the high schools by high school teachers for college credit; and teaching an orientation class for first-year college students Marvin has contributed to science education in countless ways during his long career, and he continues to do so

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Other Books of Interest

Books by Marvin Druger

Strange Creatures & Other Poems

This book reflects on our everyday experiences and our environments Each poem carries a thoughtful message about life and the world around us Softcover, 109 pages

To order: mdruger@syr.edu; bookstor@syr.edu

Coming soon:

Even Stranger Creatures & Other Poems

This book will consist of a collection of new poems about life that children and adults can enjoy To order: mdruger@syr.edu; bookstor@syr.edu

The Misadventures of Marvin

This book will be published in the spring of 2010 by Syracuse University Press The book describes memorable and humorous episodes in Marvin’s career and life

Books published by ASA–CSSA–SSSA

Genetics: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd edition

Students will learn the experimental aspects of genetics through 15 three-hour ratory exercises with bacterial, plant, and animal organisms 2009 Moisture-resistant soft cover with spiral binding, 112 pages ASA and CSSA ISBN: 978-0-89118-561-1 Item Number: B21723 To order: books@agronomy.org; www.societystore.org

labo-Soil Science: Step-by-Step Field Analysis

Readers will learn both new procedures and tips for improved performance in the field, without a lot of background theory and with a focus on usefulness for real-life applications Water-resistant softcover with coil binding, 255 pages, 2008; SSSA ISBN: 978-089118-849-0 Item Number: B60915 To order: books@agronomy.org; www.societystore.org

Soil! Get the Inside Scoop

Written for children ages 9–12, this full-color book explores how soil is part of our life—the food we eat, the air we breathe, the water we drink, the houses we live in, and more Along the way, readers learn about different kinds of soil and meet the scientists who work with soil every day Softcover, 32 pages, 2008; SSSA ISBN: 978-089118-848-3 Item Number: B60913 To order: books@agronomy.org; www.societystore.org

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677 S Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA.

A Realistic Perspective

After 55 years of teaching science, I have reached the conclusion that we can do a much better job in science education at all levels We are constantly reforming sci-ence education, but we never seem to be able to get it “right.” Maybe that’s because there

is no “right” way to do things in science education Much of what we do is based upon common sense, for which sophisticated names have been invented such as “constructiv-ism,” authentic assessment,” “self-efficacy,” “inquiry teaching,” “active learning,” “peda-gogical content knowledge,” “cooperative learning,” and so forth We have new words to describe common-sense concepts

Generalizations are rare, since what happens in one classroom setting is different from what happens in another classroom setting The concept of “wait time” seems to have universal applications (Rowe, 1986) If a teacher waits at least three seconds for a student response after asking a question, rather than answering the question immediately, there are positive outcomes for the student and the teacher For example, more students volun-teer responses and answers tend to be more accurate Also, the teachers tend to ask fewer questions and increase the quality of their questions However, many education research findings are not generalizable, or they are simply obvious This is true for many “innova-tions” in science teaching Having students build their own knowledge from what they already know, that is, constructivism, seems obvious Indeed, any good teacher would use this concept intuitively

I don’t want to belittle the value of educational research We do need to know more about what’s going on However, education researchers sometimes get caught up in insig-nificant debates, for example, whether a study is qualitative or quantitative, or whether

a research instrument is a survey or a questionnaire These debates sometimes cause the researcher to lose sight of the goal of the research, namely to find out something impor-tant Also, if research does produce some new ideas, they often get lost in the application Finding generalizations through educational research is extremely difficult, considering the complexity of the human mind and of human behavior Every teacher, every student, Reprinted from J Nat Resour Life Sci Educ 38:209–214 (2009).

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4 Practical Perspectives on Science Education

every classroom setting, every lesson, is different and unique So, setting standards about what constitutes good teaching and learning outcomes is dependent upon all sorts of uncontrollable variables Outcomes may depend upon class size, the topic, the mood of the teacher, the individual student, the strategy, the physical setting, the time frame, and even the weather It all depends (Druger, 2002)

I am always puzzled when a student cannot seem to understand a basic science cept that seems so simple to other students I think one of the most promising and excit-ing areas of research involves studies that link the science of the brain and learning Such research can provide powerful tools for the teacher in the classroom (National Research Council, 2000)

con-Bandwagons and Experiences

At the present time, we are caught in a trap of our own making We have created wagons about teaching and learning that teachers are compelled to jump on If we give

band-a long lecture, insteband-ad of doing band-an inquiry lesson, we band-are band-accused of doing it the wrong way If we do not teach according to the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996), then we are accused of doing it incorrectly If students don’t pass standardized tests, we are supposedly not teaching them anything But we learn from everything that

we do, and everything that we do becomes part of what we are So, students learn from every experience, even if they don’t master testable information Attitudes, appreciation

of the subject, motivation to learn, and other affective outcomes may be far more tant for a student’s real life than memorizing subject matter to pass a test

impor-Motivating students is extremely important If we teach students to want to learn, and provide them with the skills and resources, learning will follow As one colleague stated:

“Our job as teachers is to inform and motivate students, but, if we motivate them, they inform themselves.”

Also, each student learns differently My 10-year-old grandson who has Aspberger’s Syndrome (a mild form of autism) fails school tests; yet he has memorized and can dis-

cuss every poem in my poetry book Strange Creatures and Other Poems (Druger, 2004),

and he was escorting the family around the zoo by reading a complicated map Different learners require different approaches Yet, our modern society tends to ignore these subtle aspects and outcomes of teaching and learning

We forget that we forget information, but we remember experiences Experiences make us who we are After many years of teaching about photosynthesis, I still had to check my notes each year to recall the details Yet, I vividly recall almost raising the American flag on the wrong flagpole in the Coast Guard Reserve while the troops and the base commander looked on

So, the broader mission of teachers becomes clear Beyond teaching concepts and facts and skills, we want to provide meaningful, motivational learning experiences that enrich the lives of students and help them identify their unique talents and where they fit

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“Suppose I had a criticism or suggestion, what would happen to it?” I asked “We would put it in the computer data bank,” he replied.

“But what would happen to my suggestion?” I persisted.

Finally, it became clear that a small committee of experienced, well-intentioned professionals would make a decision about my suggestion If they liked it, it might get incorporated If not, it would be discarded Why does the committee know any more than

I, or any other science educator? The answer is that the “buck” has to stop somewhere

We forget information, but we remember experiences

Experiences make us who we are

Members of the committee have to use their expertise and best judgment to make the best possible choices Then, professionals who develop state standards follow along with the national standards and, before long, the National Science Education Standards became like the bible for science education When I first read the National Science Education Standards, I thought that, given a few hours, my class of graduate students in science teaching would come up with the same standards They are common sense and offer a guide to where we would like to go in science education Since outcomes all depend on many uncontrollable variables, the standards should not be regarded as law

We have been preaching the same ideas for many years, but the application is lacking

We try to form a consensus about what we’d like science education to accomplish, but getting there is another story Even the consensus is controversial This is the nature of the beast when we are trying to deal with human beings and society There is no “right” way to do things It’s a matter of what “experts think” we need to do, often based upon opinions or poorly done or ambiguous research

My faith in finding “truth” in education is not great Every science educator that I know has good intentions They want to see more effective science education and are willing to contribute as much as possible toward that end Their research adds things to think about, but does not usually give definitive answers or generalizations

Doing It Over Again

Suppose we did not have a system for science education and suppose we could start all over again to design a sensible, practical system Suppose we could re-do or revise the entire system What are some of the important features to keep in mind?

Physical Facilities

Although some people do home-schooling for their children, that is not the rule For some students, home-schooling may be appropriate and effective Online courses may be good for learning information, but they lack the human contact experiences that a school and a teacher can provide Schools serve as a gathering place for meaningful experiences among teachers and students

Schools should be modern, clean, safe, and well-equipped with as many ing aids as possible Students should feel comfortable going to school Security has become a major issue, and school officials need to pay considerable attention to this

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learn-6 Practical Perspectives on Science Education

issue Many security systems used in schools don’t work very well to secure the school against intruders I have made many visits to various high schools; some high school teachers teach my biology course to their students for college credit (Edmonds and Signorelli, 2009; Project Advance Program Guide, 2007) Many times I have encoun-tered locked outside school doors, but there has always been some innocent student willing to open the door and let me in I have signed in and received a pass to wear

on my clothing I usually don’t wear the pass, yet nobody has ever confronted me in a hallway to ask about my pass I sign in when I enter a school, but I rarely remember to sign out when I leave

Also, schools need to provide a sense of constancy of physical features Young children feel more secure if the room is set up the same way each time; schools need to provide a secure, stable environment for the child Schools should be physically attrac-tive, and create a sense of warmth, comfort, and pride for students, teachers, and staff Some high schools that I visit convey these feelings; others remind me of a prison

Administrators

Administrators play an essential role in the success of science education in a school Specifically, administrators should be aware of the special needs of science teachers, and allocate essential resources Administrators need to recognize that science teach-ing involves laboratory work and preparation time, and that equipment and supplies are necessary to effectively teach the subject In general, administrators need to be caring, organized, intelligent, good people-managers and wise decision-makers They need to put themselves in the place of the teachers and students, and make decisions accordingly They need to be future-oriented in their thinking What impact will their decision have

on the students, the teachers, the staff, and the status of the school 10 or 20 years from now? Good leaders seek input and listen to the complaints as well as ideas of others, and then act according to their best judgment Administrators should explain and defend the rationale for major decisions If what is done does not have a good rationale, then don’t

do it Nowadays, good budget management is an important part of good leadership What should be their priorities for spending funds? How do we get the most out of what fund-ing we have, and how can we get more funding? Administrators must be good managers

as well as good leaders Every effort must be made to develop rapport and trust This can

be done by administrators setting an example and going out of their way to do things that demonstrate that the administrators really care

An effective administrator should find ways to maximize the potential of each teacher and demonstrate sincerity in this effort I have always admired the Project Advance administrators at Syracuse University They do not see their role as being

“bosses.” They try in every way possible to help the faculty do their job better To me, that’s good administration

Teacher Preparation

The most important component of education is the teacher My belief is, if you have

a well-prepared teacher in front of the class, students will learn, regardless of methods used Currently, we indoctrinate preservice teachers with the sacred doctrines that have been articulated by “experts,” and we expect them to teach accordingly Many education

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courses involve reading selected articles and discussing and reflecting on them ing is good, as long as it doesn’t preclude “doing.” We do want reflective practitioners

Reflect-in the classroom, but there’s more to science teachReflect-ing than that Our preservice science teachers’ classes should be filled with hands-on, science experiences Peer teaching, videotaping and self-analysis, and peer analysis should be incorporated into all preser-vice courses The emphasis should be to help the prospective teacher identify teaching strengths and weaknesses and make improvements Self-awareness of teaching skills is an important step toward becoming an effective teacher

Teachers are often “told” too much and are not “asked” to do creative things But,

if we ask them to do creative things, we have to allow them the time to do them Most teachers I know complain that they do not have enough time to be creative They are obliged to use the kit or lesson produced by someone else rather than tailor-make the lesson creatively for their own unique situation There are many good tools on the market, but selecting what’s useful takes some time Teachers do not have enough time to maxi-mize their creative potential “Free periods” are rarely free and rarely provide sufficient preparation time

Society needs to appreciate teachers and make teachers feel that they are important When I was talking to a group of seventh graders, I said, “Doctors and lawyers get lots

of respect; teachers don’t.” A student responded, “But without teachers, there wouldn’t

be any doctors or lawyers, or anybody.” Yet, our society values money-makers more than teachers Doctors help your body; teachers help your mind Both professions deserve equal respect and compensation

Components of Teacher Development

We need to remember that a teacher is a human being, and all the aspects of ogy should be applied when developing a mature, knowledgeable, creative, conscientious teacher who can effectively do the job of helping students learn

psychol-First, we need to identify those individuals at an early age who have talents for ing This is a very difficult task, but certain youngsters display traits that might lead to being an effective teacher For example, some children communicate well, take a leader-ship role in a group, are creative, have a positive self-image, and enjoy interacting with everyone As a child, my daughter demonstrated these traits, and she is now a second grade elementary school teacher My granddaughter exhibits similar traits and, if she chooses to be a teacher, I know that she will be an excellent one

teach-Before they are exposed to formal training, a number of young students do have a career interest in becoming a teacher When I visit high schools and talk with students, I usually ask, “Who wants to become a teacher?” A few students raise their hands

Once we have identified students with talent for teaching, how should we prepare them to do the job effectively? I believe that we should do it by offering them a great variety of different experiences—many unrelated to formal teacher education—that enrich their lives and make them more knowledgeable about themselves and the world We should provide them with opportunities to actually teach others through-out their preparation, perhaps starting with teenage summer camp experiences as counselors

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Traditionally, we offer a core of courses in different aspects of education Some of these courses seem repetitious Students may sit in a variety of courses where they read papers and then reflect in groups about these papers I believe preservice teachers need such courses, but they do not have to be a full semester My suggestion would be to modularize such courses and condense them into shorter time frames, thus leaving room for more science content experiences

We should offer students a great variety of different

experiences that enrich their lives

I once offered a two-week course on teaching to engineers and other science sionals in the Peace Corps who were going to teach sixth graders in Malawi They knew virtually nothing about teaching, in a formal sense They were intelligent, enthusiastic, knew science well, communicated well, and were eager to learn how to do a good job

profes-of teaching In two weeks they became transformed into able teachers How long does

it take to learn how to create a lesson plan? Or learn about the concepts of ism or inquiry teaching? Getting at the essence of what teaching is all about doesn’t take

constructiv-a sequence of full-semester courses, dictconstructiv-ated constructiv-as “requirements for certificconstructiv-ation.” Such courses are valuable, but we should greatly condense what we now require as formal education courses for certification The entire preservice teacher preparation program should enrich the lives of prospective teachers and provide them with a vast repertoire of experiences that they can pass on to their students

What are some of the experiences that I believe are important for prospective teachers?

1 Courses in all sciences at the introductory level Thorough knowledge of the

subject matter is critical to the success of a teacher We should require preservice teachers to complete introductory courses that show the relationships among the disciplines A one-credit seminar that emphasizes how to teach the content could accompany each basic science course A course on the application of mathematics

to analysis of scientific data should also be required

2 Overseas travel Being in another culture provides important insights about life and

people My children attended school in Australia They learned what it was like to

be in the minority, and they learned tolerance for others not like themselves My wife and I traveled extensively and experienced Australia, China, the Netherlands, Spain, France, England, Bali, Tahiti, Hawaii, Costa Rica, Fiji, South Africa, and other places When students asked me which was my favorite place, my response

is, “Every place was my favorite, since each place offered special experiences that

I will never forget.” As a result of visiting the Great Barrier Reef, I was able to develop a unit on the abundance and diversity of life that students remembered long after the course ended Many colleges have programs for study abroad Prospec-tive teachers should be required to participate in such a program Such experiences provide multicultural sensitivity that is so important in our schools and in society

3 Membership in professional science education organizations, such as the National

Science Teachers Association (NSTA) Student NSTA chapters function at different institutions to involve preservice teachers in professional activities Attending con-ventions provides important interactions and an avenue toward professionalism

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4 Part-time jobs that have nothing to do with teaching In my youth, I was a

Western Union messenger, an usher in the Roxy Theater, a camp counselor, a ceiling painter, and I sprinkled nuts on fruit cakes travelling along a conveyor belt

in a bakery Each job helped shape my understanding of myself and others, and provided me with an enriched perspective for teaching

5 A course in public speaking and drama No matter what career a student chooses,

he/she will have to stand up in front of a group and give a presentation Preservice students often do not have sufficient opportunities to practice and improve their presentation skills A course in public speaking or drama would be very useful A conversation with a faculty member who teaches drama convinced me that acting is

a content area There are facial gestures, hand gestures, and body movements that can be taught Such skills can greatly enhance the effectiveness of a teacher

6 A course in use of computers and technology in the classroom Certainly, more

technology will be used in classrooms in the future Students already seem to be proficient in this regard They are constantly text messaging and using their cell phones I am amazed at how well students know all forms of technology; the prob-lem is that they seem to use it endlessly

7 A course in management Teachers have to be effective managers They have to

handle all sorts of student records and data Management of records and people are critical parts of a teacher’s day, yet they are usually not formally prepared for this part of a teacher’s job

8 A course in behavioral psychology This is a critical feature that is involved in

every part of teaching, specifically curriculum development, discipline control, establishing rapport, motivating students, and enhancing learning How can a teacher effectively reach into the brains of students and teach them to want to learn?

A colleague told me that his chemistry students were completely bored and tivated when they were given a white powder and were simply told to analyze its composition as a part of chemistry lab This relatively boring activity suddenly became an exciting experience when the teacher announced that the powder was found at a crime scene, and the analysis was needed to solve the crime This was a good example of the application of psychology to student learning

unmo-The behavioral psychology course should include a section on dealing with students with disabilities and special needs Teaching such students poses challenges, and teachers need to know ways of helping these students learn A colleague who has a son with autism provided me with an important perspec-tive about students with learning disabilities He said, “They aren’t mentally ill They’re just different.”

9 A course in the history and philosophy of science Students and teachers often do

not appreciate the lessons that the past can teach us For example, learning about historical frauds in science help us predict the future We have had scientific frauds

in the past, we have them now, and we will likely have them in the future We need

to consider the past when planning the future

10 Active involvement of the student teacher in the culture of the school Most

teachers will state that the most valuable part of their teacher preparation program

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was student teaching Usually, student teachers are assigned to a mentor teacher The benefits to the student teacher depend on how the mentor teacher does the job

of mentoring Oftentimes, it is a matter of “Do as I do” rather than use your own ideas and special skills We need to establish training programs for mentor teachers,

so that the benefits of student teaching can be maximized

Also, we assign the student teacher to one master teacher A more effective approach might be to assign the student teacher to several teachers in the depart-ment The student teacher could even be assigned to the school, and get experiences

in all aspects of the school culture For example, helpful mentors in the schools might be the custodian or the librarian These people in non-threatening positions can provide many hints about teaching The student teacher thus can learn the cul-ture of the school, as well as how to teach a particular subject

11 Many opportunities for self-awareness of teaching skills through videotaping,

peer critiques, self-critiques, and providing avenues for improvements where needed

12 A significant science research experience Oftentimes, teachers are teaching

about scientific methodology when they, themselves, have never done any scientific research Moreover, we have science educators without scientific research experi-ence who are teaching preservice teachers how to teach science An interesting question is: Can someone be a great coach without ever having been a player? Preservice teachers should be required to spend some time during the summer in a laboratory doing actual scientific research Also, science methods courses should ideally be taught jointly by an experienced science teacher and a college science faculty member Science faculty should be working together with science educators

in the overall preparation of science teachers

In the 1970s, teacher preparation programs emphasized modules to provide teachers with competencies that would be needed by a teacher (Whitty and Willmott, 1991) The list of competencies seemed endless, and this proved to be a piecemeal approach that was very difficult to implement I am not suggesting that we return to this framework What

I am suggesting is that we need to set priorities and decide which preservice ences are most valuable, and then structure courses and learning experiences accordingly (Whitty and Willmott, 1991; Valli and Rennert-Ariev, 2002)

experi-The New Teacher

Too often the new teacher does not get the support that is desirable The new teacher has learned the theoretical aspects of educational practice, but they really are not prepared

to teach the specific curriculum that they have to teach One helpful approach would be to offer short courses on teaching the specific curriculum that has to be taught Another sug-gestion would be to recruit the best teachers in a locale to teach approaches to a specific topic—for example, DNA technology—in the classroom These short courses could be

on weekends, and they would be taught by experienced teachers who teach that topic effectively in the classroom

In the mid-1960s, I established an informal science teacher organization in Syracuse,

NY, called FYST (First Year Science Teachers) (Druger, 1968) The teachers met monthly and we organized a great variety of practical experiences, often involving experienced

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teachers We had membership cards, a FYST newsletter, workshops, and so forth The program eventually faded, largely because of the shortage of new teachers and the surge

of experienced teachers who wanted the activities

Summer institutes provide wonderful experiences for new and experienced teachers

For several years, I directed a summer institute for new teachers of Regents Biology in New York State This was a 10-day institute that involved hands-on experiences on spe-cific Regents biology topics The workshop was taught by a team of outstanding biology teachers from the local area The institute not only provided content skills and classroom activities, but also boosted morale of the new teachers Such experiences were very valu-able for the participants

I believe that teachers teaching teachers is an effective approach to teacher tion Too often, science methods courses are taught by college faculty members who are not engaged in teaching in the schools People in the best position to teach new teachers are the experienced teachers

prepara-Moreover, I strongly support the idea that mini-workshops and the like should be provided onsite in schools Going to a workshop outside of a school requires time and effort Having onsite opportunities would be ideal, and might attract the teachers who are usually not likely to attend workshops

Involving uninvolved teachers is a problem An NSF official was once boasting to

me about how many science teachers were being trained through the NSF-sponsored workshops I did some site visits and discovered that there were “institute addicts.” The same teachers were attending more than one workshop The uninvolved were still uninvolved

The Bottom Line

In my view, the teacher is the critical element in educating students Important steps in teacher preparation involve: identifying potential teachers early; enriching the individual with meaningful experiences; making sure that the preservice teacher knows the content and the skills of pedagogy; emphasizing self-awareness through videotaping, peer critiques, and self-critiques; providing avenues for improvement; and then turning the teacher loose

How can all of the above suggestions be incorporated into a teacher preparation program? How can we find enough time? One answer is to adopt a medical school model To earn certification as a physician, an individual has to complete two years

of post-baccalaureate basic training, two years of clinical experience, an internship of one or more years, and a residency Yet, to become certified as a teacher, the individual needs only two years of post-baccalaureate work, leading to a master’s degree If we truly want excellence in teachers who work on students’ minds, then perhaps we need

to make the preparation as extensive as that of a physician Six-year post-baccalaureate programs leading to certification would seem more effective than the current require-ments Of course, if this is done, the compensation should be comparable That’s not very likely in today’s society

We now have considerable dogma in education If a teacher does not follow the scribed standards, the teacher is supposedly doing it wrong Not using inquiry methods

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pre-12 Practical Perspectives on Science Education

in the class is almost heresy Teachers are confined to the dogma whether or not it fits their particular style or skills I’d rather have a great lecture by a teacher who knows how to lecture well, than an inquiry lesson by that same teacher who doesn’t do well

at using inquiry methods If we really knew all the answers in education, then student achievement levels would be much higher We really do not know the answers, and every individual teacher should have extensive teacher preparation, identify his/her best teaching attributes, and be free to teach accordingly Give such teachers enough time and onsite support, and they will develop their own innovative approaches Then we would have much better learning by students

References

Druger, M 1968 The concept of FYST: An association for fi rst-year science teachers Sci Teach 35(6):35–36 Druger, M 2002 It all depends: A perspective on science teaching at all levels J Nat Resour Life Sci Educ 31:94–95.

Druger, M 2004 Strange creatures and other poems Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.

Edmonds, G., and S Signorelli (ed.) 2009 Our courses your classroom: Research on Syracuse University courses taught in high schools Lulu Publishing.

National Research Council (NRC) 1996 National science education standards National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

National Research Council 2000 How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school Expanded Edition National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

Project Advance Program Guide 2007 Our courses your classroom Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY Rowe, M.B 1986 Wait time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up J Teach Educ 37(1):43–50 Whitty, G., and E Willmott 1991 Competence-based teacher education: approaches and issues Camb J Educ 21(3):309–318.

Valli, L., and P Rennert-Ariev 2002 New standards and assessment? Curriculum, transformation in teacher education J Curric Stud 34(2):201–225.

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Reprinted from J Nat Resour Life Sci Educ 36:159–160 (2007).

Our Mission in Education

I have been teaching science since 1954, and am still doing it I didn’t believe that I had been teaching for 53 years, so I requested my undergraduate transcript from Brooklyn College Indeed, I did student teaching at Midwood High School in Brooklyn in 1954 Then, I earned my masters and Ph.D degrees from Columbia University in zoology (genetics) After an NIH postdoctoral fellowship in Australia, I was hired as an assis-tant professor at Syracuse University to teach introductory biology, mostly to first-year students I have done that job at Syracuse University since 1962, and have evolved many themes for my teaching In this essay, I’d like to reinforce some of these major themes that have guided my teaching for so many years

First, I want first-year students to gain subject matter competency What this means

is to provide them with the vocabulary in the field with an emphasis on how to use this vocabulary to communicate and understand concepts Although development of criti-cal thinking skills is a very important goal, my belief is that you can’t critically think about nothing Students need to build a vocabulary base and meanings to increase subject matter competency I try to incorporate critical thinking into my teaching, but I’m not optimistic about its effectiveness At the introductory-course level, I believe vocabulary-building and use of vocabulary are important

We often hear that “less is more.” The belief by many is that we can’t teach thing, and that we should be selective and go into greater depth My view is that, at the first-year introductory level, “more is more.” I believe that we should teach first-year stu-dents something about everything in the field I don’t want my students to become seniors and say, “I wish I had known about electron microscopy when I was a first-year student

every-I would have explored that field in greater depth.” As students move on to advanced courses, “less is more,” and greater depth and specialization are appropriate

I also want students to recognize that science is the attempt of humans to make logical sense out of nature Humans are fallible There are poorly designed experiments, faulty conclusions, and even fraud This theme helps students focus on the nature of science and its positive and negative features

Many students believe that there is a conflict between science and religion, and they

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take an either/or position My resolution of this issue is to point out to students that science is not a naturally occurring entity in the environment It is a body of knowledge and a logical process that humans invented to better understand how the world works Religion is another way that humans explain the world This view is based upon faith and the Bible Thus, science and religion are different ways of looking at the world, and they are not in conflict Many scientists are religious I tell students that we cannot explore religion through science, since they have different criteria for “truth.” We can’t design an experiment that has God in one test tube and not in another as a control The final point is that nobody really knows which way of looking at the world is correct, but, in a science class, I teach the scientific perspective This approach does not offend religious or scien-tific beliefs, and students seem satisfied

Relevance of science is another important theme Whenever possible, we should make students aware of why science is meaningful to them We should ask the question, “If I was a student in this class, what would I want to know about the subject, and why?” and teach accordingly We must also recognize that everything we teach in a science course

is not practically relevant Some topics are simply interesting and are relevant to our intellect It’s nice to know about coral reefs and how they form, even though that informa-tion will not be put to practical use when the student is a surgeon removing an inflamed appendix Some students do not readily appreciate intellectual relevance, so I simply explain my philosophy to them at the start of the course

Perhaps the greatest change in society over the past years has been the use of ers and technology in society We cannot escape technology It pervades almost everything

comput-we do and this trend will undoubtedly continue in the future So, another goal is to help students gain skills in using technology for learning science iPods and cell phones will not

go away, so we should be finding ways to use technology to enhance learning

The most important themes in our teaching should be motivation and attitudes A colleague wisely proclaimed, “Our job as teachers is to inform and motivate students but,

if we motivate them, they inform themselves.” A major guiding principle is to “teach dents to want to learn.” When students tell me that science is too difficult, and they can’t

stu-learn it, I always tell them that they can stu-learn anything they want to stu-learn, if they really

want to learn it

Keep in mind…

• More is more Teach something about everything

• We learn from everything we do, and everything we do becomes part of who we are

• Provide students with the vocabulary in the field and emphasize how to use it

• Science is the attempt of humans to make logical sense out of nature

• Science and religion are different ways of looking at the world, they are not in conflict

• Make students aware of why science is meaningful and relevant to them

• Help students gain skills in using technology in learning science

• Teach students to want to learn

• Design courses to include many experiences students will remember and appreciate

• Provide meaningful experiences and help students find where they fit in life

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In an introductory college science course, many students may not be motivated toward learning science Many are just taking the course to fulfill a core requirement

So, motivating these students presents a major challenge for the instructor There are many ways for meeting this challenge, but providing meaningful, exciting, and unusual experiences is a key factor We forget content, but we remember experiences Thus, each instructor should design the introductory course to include many such experiences that students will remember and appreciate many years later My guiding principle in this regard is that “We learn from everything that we do, and everything that we do becomes part of what we are.”

I don’t want my students to become seniors and say,

“I wish I had known about electron microscopy

when I was a first-year student.”

All of the above features have been part of my teaching for 53 years, and I highly recommend them for others to consider One day, as I was thinking about what teaching and education are all about, it suddenly all came together in a flash of insight I suddenly realized that our main purpose is to “Provide meaningful experiences that enrich the lives

of students and help them find where they fit in life.”

The memorization of content, writing papers, grades, course requirements, and so forth are all incidental, compared to this overall mission We all know people who have

“jobs” or “careers,” but can’t wait to retire We also know people who have found where they fit in life, and they never want to retire Also, we know that people can fit into differ-ent roles at different times in their lives Regardless of the subject matter that we teach,

we should keep this mission at the forefront of everything we do in our classes and in our personal interactions with students I have had many letters from former students who thanked me many years later for helping them find where they fit in life

A few years ago, I underwent abdominal surgery for a twisted colon, and spent a month in the hospital The last week of my stay, a resident physician came in daily and attended to my wound My last day in the hospital, the resident came in and shook my hand warmly and enthusiastically He said, “I want to thank you for all you did for me.”

I was mystified I didn’t have a clue as to who the resident was, and what I possibly could have done for him He explained that he took my introductory biology course as a first-year student He intended to become a geology major, and he came into my office one day to talk about his future plans I apparently spotted other talents, and I suggested that he look into a medical career He took my advice, and was now immersed in medical practice He loved it Unknowingly, I had helped steer him toward where he fit in life I had tears in my eyes, when the patient in the bed next to me behind a curtain announced,

“And my daughter-in-law took your course also.”

What greater satisfaction can there be for a teacher than to help students find where they fit in life? The smallest experience can have a monumental effect, and I always keep this in mind when dealing with students You never know…

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Reprinted with permission from NSTA Publications, Vol XXXI, No 7, 2002, from Journal of College

Sci-ence Teaching, National SciSci-ence Teachers Association, 1840 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22201-3000

It All Depends: A Perspective

on Science Teaching at All Levels

I recently read an inspiring book that presented profound insights about the nature of science The book was written by a distinguished scientist, Francois Jacob (1998) A major theme of the book is that all living things are built of common building blocks, and diversity involves evolutionary combinations of these common ingredients He uses the analogy of the world resembling a giant erector set Further, Jacob distinguishes between

day science and night science He encourages the latter, which involves explorations

of creative and bizarre ideas “In art as well as in science, what is important is to try,” whether or not the trial will lead anywhere He states, “But, once in a while, a totally outrageous experiment opens a new avenue.”

It may well be appropriate to apply Jacob’s philosophy to the enterprise of science education Unlike science, education has few generalizations If 100 scientists measure

a fly’s wing, the resulting measurements will be similar If 100 science educators carry out a learning experiment, we can expect great diversity in the outcomes The result of

almost everything we do in science education depends It depends on the teacher, the

subject matter, the age of the students, the time of day, the physical setting, the mood of the students, and a multitude of other complex factors that cannot easily be controlled Human behavior is so complex that research in this field often produces vague, unrepeat-able results

Many of the accepted pedagogical approaches seem to be based on common sense

and advocacy Reforms seem more based on the opinions of leaders in the field, rather

than on reality Research-based reform becomes extremely difficult for at least two major reasons First, the complexity of human behavior makes it difficult to reach valid, gen-eralized conclusions Second, even if we could derive generalizations based on research, application of such findings would be extremely difficult since there are so many vari-ables in different settings

For example, inquiry teaching is advocated by many science educators It makes

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good common sense and establishes a desirable outcome for students Yet, even this

widely accepted approach depends Young children may well learn best through hands-on

inquiry experiences However, does an adult learner learn best by inquiry or can a good lecture achieve similar learning outcomes? Adult learners can simulate inquiry experi-ences in their minds and can have effective learning

Also, inquiry lessons pose many practical difficulties They take a lot of teacher time and ingenuity; group activities often mean that one student does the inquiring, and the others watch; students may have so much fun inquiring that content acquisition is lost; inquiry lessons seem to take a long time, yet desired outcomes may not be attained in the time available Also, students cannot inquire about nothing They might learn more

if they have some vocabulary and content knowledge as background to make an inquiry

lesson meaningful It all depends.

How does all of the above relate to Jacob’s views on the nature of science? If we apply Jacob’s perspective to science education, there may be hope for a brighter future We might consider current educational practices to be like a giant erector set There are common edu-cational practices that have evolved and organized into different combinations over time

A new approach is really a recent modification and a new combination of basic elements

that already exist My perception is that we have been advocating the same goals for many years The problem is that we have yet to attain these goals

An example is a quote in a textbook:

…it should be the constant aim of the teacher to lead the pupils to apply as far as possible the principles of the scientific method in discovering truths for themselves To be sure all this is time consuming, and there is the ever-present vision of examinations and requirements of subject-matter; but the emphasis upon scientific discipline is well worth more than one-half the

time of a course Perhaps some day those responsible for the requirements

in knowledge of subject matter, particularly those who set college-admission requirements, will come to take account, not simply of what facts a pupil

holds in memory, but also of what scientific training has been received while getting the facts

One might think the quote is from a modern text, but the quote is from a text lished in 1907 (Lloyd and Bigelow, 1907)

pub-What are some basic foundations for making real progress in science education? First,

we must recognize and appreciate the uniqueness of individuals Each teacher is unique,

as is each student Individual creativity should be fostered in teaching and learning

No single approach is best for all teachers and students Rather than promote popular

approaches, we should encourage trials of innovative ideas that may work for an

indi-vidual teacher or learner, but not for other teachers and learners It all depends.

No single approach is best for all students and teachers

It all depends.

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We are told that lectures are a less desirable approach in teaching Yet, one of the best lectures I ever heard was by Paul Brandwein, a distinguished science educator who

is now deceased The lecture was about why you should not lecture It was brilliant, and

I still remember it many years later After the session, I approached him and said that his lecture was excellent, but that it was about why we should not lecture He said that this group was mature enough to learn from a lecture approach The fact that I recall his lecture many years later validates his remark

In my opinion, the most crucial it depends is that it depends on the individual teacher

If we can identify and nurture mature, caring, knowledgeable teachers, learning by dents will occur Curriculum materials are certainly important, but good teachers need the opportunity and encouragement to create their own meaningful, worthwhile curriculum

stu-materials The National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) and state and local

standards are important because they articulate current thinking in the field However, just

because standards reflect current thinking does not mean that they are right Education is largely a social construct and so, it depends.

In my view, standards can be useful, but setting standards implies uniformity of plex human factors This may be an inappropriate focus, since attainment of standards

com-depends upon so many complex, nonuniform elements As we focus more on teacher

development, we can expect teachers to internalize their own standards and not seek side sources for such standards Also, articulating standards is one thing; implementing them effectively is another Raising the bar does not necessarily mean that students jump higher Curriculum, standards, etc should be viewed as basic resources for individual decisions about teaching, not as bandwagons that everyone must jump aboard because it

out-is the right thing to do.

Funding agencies should not be prescriptive, but should be seeking creative, even bizarre, ideas and helping to shape these ideas into feasible projects that have good

assessment plans Funding agencies should be seeking to support Jacob’s night science,

as well as day science.

Professional development programs need to provide teachers with a broad repertoire

of techniques and strategies and help teachers discover their own unique strengths and weaknesses Then, the need is to help teachers nurture their individual strengths, regard-less of whether it is in inquiry teaching or lecturing or other pedagogical approaches I believe the most effective student learning occurs when a teacher is equipped with all the tools of the trade, is self-aware and reflective, and is then encouraged to use the tech-

niques and strategies most suitable to that individual teacher There is no one best way to teach It all depends.

References

Jacob, F 1998 Of fl ies, mice and men Harvard Univ Press, Cambridge, MA.

Lloyd, F.E., and M.A Bigelow 1907 The teaching of biology in the secondary school Longmans, Green & Co., London, UK.

National Research Council 1996 National science education standards National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

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National Science Teachers Association, 1840 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22201-3000.

The Status of College Science

Teaching

Considerable national attention has been focused on the “crisis” in science tion at the pre-college level, but we do not hear much about the situation in college science teaching The College Committee of NSTA has conducted a national survey

educa-of college science teaching to obtain some basic data upon which future actions to improve college science teaching might be based In October 1983 approximately 2050 survey forms were sent to a random sample of biologists, chemists, physicists, and earth scientists at 2-year and 4-year institutions Of these, 873 forms (43%) were completed and returned Four hundred and four forms (46%) were from 2-year college faculty; 450 forms (52%) were from faculty at 4-year institutions; 19 forms (2%) were from faculty at other kinds of institutions The majority of the respondents (66%) had more than 10 years

of college teaching experience, and 85% of the respondents taught an introductory man) college science course

(fresh-The survey included questions concerning teaching modes, the use of instructional aids, conditions relevant to teaching at each respondent’s institution, suggestions for changes that could be made to optimize teaching, and suggestions concerning how NSTA and/or the Society for College Science Teachers (SCST) could help improve college sci-ence teaching Selected results from the survey are included in this report

Changes to Optimize Teaching

An important survey question was, “What would be the most helpful changes that could be made at your institution to optimize your teaching? Please list at least three sug-gested changes in order of importance.” Suggested changes identified among the top three priorities of 739 individuals who responded to this item were:

• Obtain more and better laboratory, demonstration, and teaching equipment, including computers (42% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

• Lower teaching loads and provide smaller class size (36% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

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• Provide more staff support (for example, secretarial help, laboratory technicians, ratory assistants, and so on) (22% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

labo-• Increase the quality of high school preparation of students for college science and/or establish higher college admission standards (20% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

• Improve facilities and space available for college science teaching (19% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

• Provide more opportunity and funds for travel, sabbaticals, and study leave (18% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

• Make improvements in courses and curricula (15% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

• Provide workshops to improve teaching skills (13% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

• Provide recognition for good teaching (13% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

• Improve salaries (13% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

• Reduce committee work, administrative duties, and other nonacademic ties (8% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

responsibili-• Improve administration (6% identified this need among the top three priorities.)

Suggestions for NSTA and SCST

Faculty members (n = 486) were asked to: “Please make one major suggestion for the

role of the NSTA College Division and/or the Society for College Science Teachers in helping to improve college science teaching.” A comparison between respondents to this item from 2-year and 4-year institutions is shown in Table 1 This comparison reveals that the need for workshops had the highest priority among the 2-year college respondents, whereas finding ways to improve high school teaching ranked as the number one sug-gestion from 4-year college respondents The concern for improved high school teaching ranked number two among 2-year college respondents

Concern about the quality of high school preparation of students was apparent from the results of one other item on the survey form: “What is your perception of the high school preparation of students for college courses?” The perception of preparation of high school students for college courses was not very positive (Table 2) Overall, only 1% of the respondents considered the preparation to be excellent; only 9% rated the preparation

as good; 90% of the respondents considered high school preparation to be from fair to very poor The survey did not probe this issue further, and the meaning of “preparation” needs to be interpreted

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col-• “Central collection of demonstrations, lab exercises, etc.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Set up a computer bulletin board linked to telenet through which college science teachers could exchange ideas and receive information.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Make your services known to nonmembers.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Promote school and college financial support from private industries, foundations, etc.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Development of a filmstrip or movie which strongly dramatizes our ‘crisis,’ ents data, and requests serious federal government intervention and assistance with plotting a strategy to improve the status of science education This filmstrip or movie

pres-Table 1.Suggestions for improving college science teaching

Suggestions Percent Suggestions Percent

teaching

26 Improve high school

teaching

college science teaching

13 Lobbying for support of

college science teaching

Public awareness about

importance of science

teaching

importance of science teaching

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should be part of a national campaign We in the sciences need the public relations that social scientists have long relied on.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Work toward improving the salaries and work loads so as to attract more tent individuals to the science and engineering profession.” (4-year college physics respondent)

compe-• “Press universities and colleges to recognize and reward good teaching.” (4-year lege physics respondent)

col-• “Convince administrations to support teaching as well as research They always say they do this, but, in fact, there is a severe discrimination against the teacher.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Schedule regional teaching skills seminars.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Encourage recognition of the importance of science courses for those nonscientists who are destined to become intellectual leaders in other fields.” (4-year college phys-ics respondent)

• “Try to force primary and secondary educational institutions to better prepare their students for college; that is, students need to be able to read, write, do simple math, and most importantly, think.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Raise salaries and prestige of high school science teachers.” (4-year college physics respondent)

• “Encourage funding so that teachers could work in industry during the summer and become familiar with new equipment and advances in the discipline.” (2-year college physics respondent)

• “Provide for a special nonmandatory certification based on completion of a prescribed set of courses in teaching techniques.” (2-year college physics respondent)

• “Certify junior college science departments.” (2-year college physics respondent)

• “Hold area workshops with college administrators.” (2-year college physics dent)

respon-• “Sponsor seminars, workshops, and so on, in subject matter areas—not ily how to teach I feel I can communicate what I know, but I am very thin subject matter-wise in some classes.” (2-year college physics respondent)

necessar-• “Lobby for NSF funding of summer institutes and in-service courses such as there was

in the late ‘60s.” (2-year college physics respondent)

• “Follow up with ideas, committees, and public statements on the matters of greatest concern indicated by the returned questionnaires.” (2-year college physics respon-dent)

• “Enhance communication among the sciences.” (4-year college biology respondent)

• “Political lobbying, combined with public media exposure, to increase awareness and respect for higher education.” (4-year college biology respondent)

• “Attempt to educate administrators as to the needs, problems, and bases for excellent science education (The majority of administrators are nonscientists who seem to me, for the most part, to be woefully ignorant of what science and science teaching are all about.)” (4-year college biology respondent)

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• “Encourage institutions to achieve a better balance between research and teaching.” (4-year college biology respondent)

• “Bulletin type information on new or tried techniques (such as lecture, demonstration) for college teaching.” (4-year college biology respondent)

• “Publicize outstanding programs This will aid others in establishing the same.” (4-year college biology respondent)

• “Work to improve the quality of high school science teachers and the high school riculum requirement.” (4-year college biology respondent)

cur-• “Establish regional traveling workshops.” (4-year college biology respondent)

• “Publicize interdisciplinary and tutorial programs as carried out in some institutions.” (2-year college biology respondent)

• “Develop a series on ‘Excellence in Teaching,’ giving examples from the experience

of great teachers that can be used by others to work toward the goal of excellence.” (2-year college biology respondent)

• “Establish a national academy for training (teachers) and improving college teaching.” (2-year college biology respondent)

• “Science fairs for teachers would be a great idea.” (2-year college biology respondent)

• “Preparation of nationwide guidelines for prerequisite knowledge for various tory courses.” (2-year college biology respondent)

introduc-• “Coordinate activities with educational divisions of professional societies such as the American Chemical Society, etc.” (4-year college chemistry respondent)

• “Attempt to inform college teachers of what is taught in high school.” (4-year college chemistry respondent)

• “Lobby for: proper facilities for teaching, adequate equipment in laboratory courses, and enough time for teachers to do a good job at teaching—appropriate loads.” (4-year college chemistry respondent)

• “Establishing of more workshops in which both high school and college teachers can interact would be beneficial.” (4-year college chemistry respondent)

• “Be available at other meetings (2-year colleges) to let us know what you have to offer.” (2-year college chemistry respondent)

• “NSTA, in conjunction with SCST, should provide guidelines for meaningful tion of science teachers at all levels and take an active role in encouraging that these guidelines be adopted by all educational governing organizations.” (2-year college chemistry respondent)

certifica-• “Provide a clearinghouse where the smaller colleges can obtain used, expensive equipment by trading or purchasing at a reasonable price.” (2-year college chemistry respondent)

• “Consider developing a basic science skills assessment test to be used as a ing/advising tool Then consider the problem of what could be done to prepare

counsel-a low-scoring student to tcounsel-ake counsel-a lcounsel-ab science course.” (2-yecounsel-ar college ecounsel-arth science respondent)

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Concluding Remarks

Based upon the results of this survey, it is difficult to arrive at qualitative judgments about the overall status of college science teaching Whether the situation is good or bad depends upon the perception of the reader Like the blind man viewing the elephant, each reader will have to evaluate the data from his/her own perspective and, hopefully, use some specific items as the basis for future studies and action

What seems clear is that there is room for improvement in college science teaching

We should not overlook the fact that, for many, education does not end with tion of high school Although national attention to the “crisis” in precollege education

comple-is warranted, we should not neglect the college level of science education where the professional scientists of the future are educated Building strength at all levels of science education deserves a high priority on our national agenda as we move to the future

Acknowledgments

The random samples of names and addresses of 4-year college faculty bers used in this study was obtained from the College Marketing Group, 50 Cross St., Winchester, MA 01890 Two-year institution faculty names and addresses were obtained from the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, One Dupont Circle, NW, Washington, DC 20036 Computer analysis of the data was done

mem-by Testing Services, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244 I would also like to acknowledge the suggestions from members of the NSTA College Committee in the development of the survey form

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Reprinted from J Nat Resour Life Sci Educ 26:4–5.

Reform in Undergraduate

Science Education

Reform in K–12 science education has been at the forefront of efforts to improve science education, and interest in succeeding is becoming evident nationwide Less effort has been spent in reforming science education at the university level We hear lots of talk about improving science teaching at the university level, and we may

be on the threshold of making real progress The need for reform seems clearly evident Traditionally, university faculty are hired mainly because of their potential as produc-tive scholars Teaching ability may be important, but it remains a secondary consider-ation Promotion and tenure awards are biased toward scholarly publications Although some say that teaching is scholarship, it is rarely regarded as such by promotion and tenure committees Enlightened universities are trying to make changes to achieve a new balance between research and teaching Unless the reward structure is revised to give teaching greater consideration, there is not likely to be much change in the direc-tion of improving undergraduate science education

Shifting the Emphasis The Advisory Committee to the National Science Foundation

recently issued a report on undergraduate education in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology (SME&T) (National Science Foundation, 1996) This report recognizes undergraduate education as part of a continuum from preschool to postgraduate studies, and recommends action-oriented ways to make improvements in undergraduate science education It points out the need for stronger support for K–12 teacher preparation programs and provides recommendations for institutions of higher education, business, industry and the professional community, government at the state and federal levels, and the National Science Foundation

The report points out that, despite promising progress, SME&T education still has

a long way to go to become world-class Undergraduate SME&T produces some quality scientists, while science illiteracy prevails in the general population

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high-28 Practical Perspectives on Science Education

The issues concerning undergraduate science education are numerous and complex What, if anything, should be done to shift the balance in the reward system toward teaching? Can this be done without disrupting the traditional research emphasis of universities? What sort of a balance can be attained between research and teaching? What components of undergraduate science education should be especially targeted for improvements? How can these improvements be made?

Individuals who are mainly concerned with teaching are rarely on promotion and tenure committees—the cards

seem stacked in the research direction.

First, let’s consider the reward structure As emphasis shifts from research ductivity to undergraduate teaching at major universities, new tenure and promotion guidelines are needed My view is that both research and teaching are essential roles for a university faculty member Universities are distinguished from high schools and community colleges because university faculty are expected to be producers of new knowledge, as well as disseminators of knowledge So, all university faculty should be expected to do both research and teaching However, someone who is best at research should be able to do mostly research and less teaching; someone who is best at teach-ing should be able to do mostly teaching and less research Both individuals should be rewarded equally for high quality performance in these roles Overall, this perception

pro-of the faculty member’s role should result in the balance that can improve ate science education Acceptance of this view would also help alleviate the perceived threat to the importance of research that is common among research-oriented faculty members

undergradu-Defining Good Scholarship The definition of good scholarship also needs

rethink-ing Traditionally, solid data and numerous references mean good scholarship pose a faculty member writes an essay, with no references, that expresses innovative ideas and changes the thinking of many people in that field of study Suppose a faculty member designs, organizes, and conducts innovative programs for students or science teachers Suppose a faculty member writes innovative laboratory activities for students Suppose a faculty member develops a radio or TV program, or a new piece of software Shouldn’t these types of activities be considered as creative scholarship? On the other hand, shouldn’t we recognize advising and individual laboratory mentoring of under-graduates as significant teaching involvements? Shouldn’t promotion and tenure com-mittees broaden their vision of scholarship to include overall contributions of a faculty member to the field of study?

Sup-My impression is that most promotion and tenure committees include als who are primarily research-oriented Individuals who are mainly concerned with teaching are rarely on promotion and tenure committees—the cards seem stacked in the research direction Also, the argument is often given that it is easier to assess research productivity than it is to assess teaching effectiveness This problem can be addressed

individu-if more effort is put into teaching assessment In the School of Education at Syracuse University, a three-person teaching committee thoroughly assesses the teaching effec-

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tiveness of a faculty member who is being considered for tenure and/or promotion The committee observes teaching, analyzes syllabi, interviews students and alumni, etc., and reports its findings to the promotion and tenure committee for consideration This approach takes time and effort, but it enables teaching effectiveness to be a measurable, important component of the promotion and tenure process

Changing Attitudes Where should we place our emphasis in attempting to improve

undergraduate science education? Some of the critical areas are improving teaching competency and faculty attitudes toward teaching, enlightening administration and leadership, and placing greater emphasis on the introductory courses

Changing attitudes is often considered to be a long, gradual process My view is that attitudes can be changed in a moment of reflection We all have experienced such rapid attitude changes when an experience provides us with a view that we never thought of before Our attitude changes when we suddenly realize that “I never thought of it that way before.” So, professional development programs, workshops, seminars, meetings, etc are valuable because they may provide such insights Sharing and disseminating these insights does take time, and can be accelerated by accompanying changes in the rewards structures for faculty

An important approach for faculty development is the establishment of tive professional development programs for graduate students who will be the future professoriate Such programs can provide attitudes and teaching competencies that will enhance undergraduate education in the future Such a program has been in operation at Syracuse University for many years It involves a university-wide, mandatory orienta-tion program, with departmental follow-up throughout the year In the Department of Biology, the Teaching Assistant (TA) program involves peer videotaping and critiquing

effec-of teaching, meetings about teaching, formative and summative assessment, a credit course on the teaching of college science, and opportunities to have an indepen-dent, mentored teaching experience Outstanding TAs may be appointed as Teaching Associates They serve as mentors to new TAs, observe other TAs, complete the course

three-on college science teaching, teach special sectithree-ons, and develop a portfolio three-on teaching Upon completion of program requirements, these individuals are awarded a Certificate

in University Teaching Such a professional development program sends a message to the entire university community that teaching is important If such future professoriate programs become widespread, I believe we can expect positive changes in undergradu-ate science education in the future

Teaching an Introductory Course Another aspect of undergraduate science

education that deserves attention is the introductory college science course Oftentimes, the teaching of the introductory course is delegated to a junior faculty member Such faculty members are often not respected or appreciated for their role A common belief

is that anyone can teach the freshman course Not so! Faculty and administrators need

to recognize and appreciate the special talents that are needed to deal effectively with the large, heterogeneous, introductory course Also, this is perhaps the most important science course that students will experience in college It is the course that develops basic attitudes, knowledge, skills, and interest in science It provides the foundation for the future science education of students

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Assessment of teaching effectiveness often fails to consider the nature of the course being taught In my opinion, teaching a large introductory course—mostly first-year students, including a mixture of science majors and nonmajors and undecided majors—

is far more difficult and challenging than teaching an advanced undergraduate course to upperclass science majors With a large class of hundreds of students, student evalua-tions are not likely to be uniformly excellent No matter what is done, some students will love it, some students will hate it, and others will fall within these extremes With

a small, advanced course for science majors, students’ evaluations are more likely to be uniform Promotion and tenure committees need to consider such factors when making their decisions Also, universities and departments should provide substantial support for enhancing the quality of the introductory courses

Finally, improvement of undergraduate science education requires enlightened administrators Wherever there is good leadership, there tends to be progress and high morale among faculty One of the key roles of an administrator should be to help the faculty members do their job more effectively Excellent leadership provides encour-agement and support, recognizes and shows appreciation for accomplishments, and instills pride and enthusiasm in faculty members

Moving Forward We certainly do have a long way to go in improving

undergradu-ate science education The aspects of undergraduundergradu-ate education that I have discussed can help us move forward The mission is an increasingly important one for our nation, if

we want to have a scientifically literate population, as well as excellent scientists Each

of us should reflect on the relevant issues, and then, more importantly, do something to help improve undergraduate science on the local or national level

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Are Standards the Answer?

Science teaching is a complex and uncertain enterprise We seem to always be immersed in the next reform, and the reforms come and go I recall the curriculum reforms of the 1960s—BSCS, SMSG, PSSC, CHEMS, CBA, ESCP We had new cur-riculum materials and curriculum guides; teacher workshops were conducted to help implementation Many teachers attended summer institutes as preparation for teaching the new materials Although the basic curriculum materials were improved, this reform wave faded away United States students still were not attaining high scores on international comparison tests A new reform movement was needed

How to Set Standards Current reform efforts seem focused on development and

implementation of standards In science, we now have the Benchmarks of Project 2061 (AAAS, 1993) and the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) as guide-lines for development K–12 state and local standards We are trying to implement these standards I believe setting standards is very important, but there are many pitfalls, perils, and concerns

Setting standards involves trying to get a consensus about a social decision The process is not like making a scientific measurement When 100 people measure a fly’s wing, they will come up with a similar measurement When 100 people try to make a social decision, there will be many differing opinions and the resulting standards will

not represent generalizable truth Although the argument is that we should base standards

on educational research, such research is often of questionable generalizability

Some standards are common sense and do not require an empirical research base For example, who would argue against the idea that young children learn science best

by doing and through inquiry? On the other hand, adult learners may not need to have a

hands-on experience Adult learners may simulate an experience dictated by a lecture, and learn efficiently and effectively Indeed, one of the best lectures I ever heard as an adult was given by Dr Paul Brandwein on why we shouldn’t lecture

It All Depends Much of what we argue for in education depends What works in

one class with a particular teacher and a particular subject may not work on another day with a different teacher and with a different subject Absolute generalizations are difficult

to derive We can almost always think of some exceptions and how everything depends

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For example, a popular axiom in modem science education is less is more There is

too much knowledge in science, so we should be more selective and teach less content in

greater depth However, the wisdom of less is more depends on what level of student you

are teaching In teaching biology to college freshmen, my intent is to provide insights into every possible topic in biology I don’t want to omit the electron microscope and have the student find out about it as a senior, and regret not having learned about it sooner My

view is that, at the introductory course level, more is more Expose students to as much

as possible, so that they can then know what to choose for study in greater depth later on

Thus, the less is more theme depends.

Assessment concerning attainment of standards also depends Although criteria and scoring rubrics may be available, objective, valid assessment data is difficult to obtain Outcomes of assessment often depend on complex factors that need to be considered For example, my success in accomplishing standards may well be greater with a small class

of juniors who are biology majors than in a large class of freshmen who are nonscience students Such variables should be considered in committee reviews for promotion and tenure

How to Develop Standards Another issue is: “Who actually writes the standards?” I

had the occasion to talk to the individual at the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences who was heading up the development of the National Science Education Standards He seemed proud of the fact that input was being sought from all over the country

I asked him, “What happens to any suggestion that I might have concerning the standards?”

He replied, “It goes into the computer database.”

“No,” I said, “I mean what actually happens to my suggestion?”

It turned out that my suggestion would be read and considered by about a dozen select individuals If they liked my suggestion, it might get adopted If not, my suggestion would be discarded

Perhaps this is the only efficient way to develop standards Someone has to actually take responsibility for doing it Usually, experienced, knowledgeable, astute individu-als are chosen to do the job They seek input and try to do the best they can to develop standards that lean toward a consensus Yet, our goals in science teaching are not fixed entities in nature that we are trying to identify There are many uncontrolled variables, and the standards must be established by human beings living in a society As such, there are many controversies and uncertainties However, we have to do the best we can do

The Past, Present, and Future We must look to the future when developing

stan-dards The Benchmarks developed by Project 2061 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science represent futuristic thinking The Project 2061 title was based

on Halley’s comet passing by the earth in 1985 What kind of science education will be needed by the time Halley’s comet returns in 2061? Jim Rutherford led this long-term reform movement to define what every student should know and be able to do in science, mathematics, and technology when they graduated from high school by the year 2061 Who knows what will be needed then? But we have to make such projections and recruit the best minds to help develop futuristic standards

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In our current reform efforts, we often tend to give new names to old ideas and common sense, and our jargon increases Oftentimes, the verbiage increases without critical reflection and reality checks We now are informed about the importance of cooperative learning, constructivism, active learning, authentic assessment, standards, inquiry, problem-solving, and a variety of other conceptual frameworks Considerable research supports the value of these frameworks, but consistent generalizations are dif-ficult to obtain.

Sometimes, contemporary standards have been articulated many times in the past I came across a science education methods book published in 1907 (Lloyd and Bigelow, 1907) The authors stated, “In the teaching of every science in a secondary school, no occasion should be neglected for giving training in scientific observing and scientific thinking.” Also, “Suggestions and questions start the pupil on the road and he is left to proceed independently on the way to discovery and testing of truth concerning the points

in question…” and finally, “…it should be the constant aim of the teacher to lead the pupils to apply as far as possible the principles of the scientific method in discovering truth for themselves.” Sounds fairly modern, doesn’t it?

In our zeal to develop standards and accomplish reform, we should keep in mind that development of standards cannot be an end in itself Raising the bar does not make the student jump higher We must focus on working with the student, and starting where the student is We must set realistic, reasonable standards, and we must assess the level of the student and provide practice, feedback, reinforcement, and encouragement to reach toward attainment of attainable standards Appropriate incentives and strategies are needed for effective implementation of standards

Teachers Must Believe Current attempts to implement standards are admirable, but

the task is difficult Teachers must internalize standards, and be made to feel that dards are not being imposed in a dictatorial manner from on high Teachers must believe

stan-in the standards and their importance Along with contstan-inuous emphasis on standards,

we need to place strong emphasis on identifying, recruiting, and preparing new science teachers Also, we must provide requirements and incentives for continuing professional development for experienced teachers The image of teaching as a profession needs to

be enhanced I was telling young students about the virtues of teaching I pointed out the lack of respect for teachers in our society

I said, “Doctors and lawyers get lots of respect Teachers don’t.”

A 14-year-old student responded, “But, without teachers, there wouldn’t be any tors, or lawyers, or anybody.”

doc-Wise words to consider as we move forward in our current reform efforts

References

American Association for the Advancement of Science 1993 Benchmarks for science literacy Oxford Univ Press, New York.

Lloyd, F.E., and M.A Bigelow 1907 The teaching of biology, Longmans, Green & Co., New York.

National Research Council 1996 National science education standards National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

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