grzimek''s encyclopedia vol 6-7

Coastal tailed frog Ascaphus truei; 2.. Rocky Mountain tailed frog Ascaphus montanus.. Blue-toed rocket frog Colostethus dactylus; 4.. Blue-bellied poison frog Dendrobates minutus; 5.. S

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Second Edition

● ● ● ● Volume 6 Amphibians

William E Duellman, Advisory Editor

Neil Schlager, Editor Joseph E Trumpey, Chief Scientific Illustrator

Michael Hutchins, Series Editor

I n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n Z o o a n d A q u a r i u m A s s o c i a t i o n

Foreword vii

How to use this book ix

Advisory boards xii

Contributing writers xiv

Contributing illustrators xvi

Volume 6: Amphibians What is an amphibian? 3

Early evolution and fossil history 7

Structure and function 15

Reproduction 28

Larvae 39

Behavior 44

Amphibians and humans 51

Conservation 56

Order ANURA Frogs and toads 61

Family: New Zealand frogs 69

Family: Tailed frogs 77

Family: Fire-bellied toads and barbourulas 83

Family: Midwife toads and painted frogs 89

Family: Mesoamerican burrowing toads 95

Family: Clawed frogs and Surinam toads 99

Family: Asian toadfrogs 109

Family: Spadefoot toads 119

Family: Parsley frogs 127

Family: Ghost frogs 131

Family: Seychelles frogs 135

Family: Australian ground frogs 139

Family: Australian toadlets and water frogs 147

Family: Leptodactylid frogs 155

Family: Vocal sac-brooding frogs 173

Family: Three-toed toadlets 179

Family: True toads, harlequin frogs, and relatives 183

Family: Poison frogs 197

Family: Ruthven’s frogs 211

Family: Glass frogs 215

Family: Amero-Australian treefrogs 225

Family: True frogs 245

Family: Squeakers and cricket frogs 265

Family: Shovel-nosed frogs 273

Family: African treefrogs 279

Family: Asian treefrogs 291

Family: Narrow-mouthed frogs 301

Family: Madagascaran toadlets 317

Order CAUDATA Salamanders and newts 323

Family: Sirens and dwarf sirens 327

Family: Asiatic salamanders 335

Family: Asiatic giant salamanders and hellbenders 343 Family: Pacific giant salamanders 349

Family: Mole salamanders 355

Family: Newts and European salamanders 363

Family: Olms and mudpuppies 377

Family: Torrent salamanders 385

Family: Lungless salamanders 389

Family: Amphiumas 405

Order GYMNOPHIONA Caecilians 411

Family: American tailed caecilians 415

Family: Asian tailed caecilians 419

Family: Kerala caecilians 425

Family: Buried-eyed caecilians 431

Family: Tailless caecilians 435

For further reading 443

Organizations 446

Contributors to the first edition 447

Glossary 453

Amphibians species list 456

Geologic time scale 490

Index 491

Contents

4

1 Hamilton’s frog (Leiopelma hamiltoni); 2 Archey’s frog (Leiopelma archeyi); 3 Maud Island frog (Leiopelma pakeka); 4 Hochstetter’s frog(Leiopelma hochstetteri) (Illustration by Brian Cressman)

1 Coastal tailed frog (Ascaphus truei); 2 Rocky Mountain tailed frog (Ascaphus montanus) (Illustration by Dan Erickson)

frog (Discoglossus pictus) (Illustration by Patricia Ferrer)

1 Ailao moustache toad (Vibrissaphora ailaonica); 2 Bana leaf litter frog (Leptobrachium banae); 3 Burmese spadefoot toad (Xenophrys parva);

4 Schmidt’s lazy toad (Oreolalax schmidti); 5 Asian horned frog (Megophrys montana); 6 Slender mud frog (Leptolalax pelodytoides); 7 Annambroad-headed toad (Brachytarsophrys intermedia); 8 Asian mountain toad (Ophryophryne microstoma) (Illustration by Bruce Worden)

3

1 Plains spadefoot toad (Spea bombifrons); 2 Common spadefoot (Pelobates fuscus); 3 Couch’s spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus couchii) tration by Emily Damstra)

1 Southern gastric brooding frog (Rheobatrachus silus); 2 Hip pocket frog (Assa darlingtoni); 3 Moss frog (Crinia nimbus); 4 Eungella torrentfrog (Taudactylus eungellensis); 5 Sandhill frog (Arenophryne rotunda) (Illustration by Barbara Duperron)

4 Budgett’s frog (Lepidobatrachus laevis); 5 Golden coqui (Eleutherodactylus jasperi); 6 Helmeted water toad (Caudiverbera caudiverbera);

7 Perez’s snouted frog (Edalorhina perezi); 8 Emerald forest frog (Hylorina sylvatica) (Illustration by Dan Erickson)

4

5

6 1

1 Green toad (Bufo viridis); 2 Chirinda toad (Stephopaedes anotis); 3 Houston toad (Bufo houstonensis); 4 Long-fingered slender toad nia longidigita); 5 Brown tree toad (Pedostibes hosii); 6 Common Sunda toad (Bufo melanostictus) (Illustration by Brian Cressman)

4 3

1 Trinidad poison frog (Mannophryne trinitatis); 2 Venezuelan skunk frog (Aromobates nocturnus); 3 Blue-toed rocket frog (Colostethus dactylus); 4 Blue-bellied poison frog (Dendrobates minutus); 5 Stephen’s rocket frog (Colostethus stepheni) (Illustration by Joseph E Trumpey)

caeruleo-9 8

6

3

2

5 4

7

1 Phantasmal poison frog (Epipedobates tricolor); 2 Green poison frog (Dendrobates auratus); 3 Amazonian poison frog (Dendrobates maculatus); 4 Golden dart-poison frog (Phyllobates terribilis); 5 Brazilian poison frog (Dendrobates vanzolinii); 6 Harlequin poison frog (Den-drobates histrionicus); 7 Strawberry poison frog (Dendrobates pumilio); 8 Brazil nut poison frog (Dendrobates castaneoticus); 9 Imitating poisonfrog (Dendrobates imitator) (Illustration by Joseph E Trumpey)

1 Crowned forest frog (Astylosternus diadematus); 2 Common squeaker (Arthroleptis stenodactylus); 3 Tanner’s litter frog (Arthroleptis tanneri);

4 Hairy frog (Trichobatrachus robustus); 5 Bush squeaker (Arthroleptis wahlbergii); 6 Ugandan squeaker (Schoutedenella poecilonotus) tration by Wendy Baker)

1 Spotted snout-burrower (Hemisus guttatus); 2 Marbeled snout-burrower (Hemisus sudanensis) (Illustration by Gillian Harris)

5 6

7

8

9

1 Forest bright-eyed frog (Boophis erythrodactylus); 2 Buerger’s frog (Buergeria buergeri); 3 Kinugasa flying frog (Rhacophorus arboreus);

4 Luzon bubble-nest frog (Philautus surdus); 5 Eiffinger’s Asian treefrog (Chirixalus eiffingeri); 6 Painted Indonesian treefrog (Nyctixalus pictus);

7 Gray treefrog (Chiromantis xerampelina); 8 Betsileo golden frog (Mantella betsileo); 9 Free Madagascar frog (Mantidactylus liber) (Illustration

by Brian Cressman)

3 2

1 Greater siren (Siren lacertina); 2 Northern dwarf siren (Pseudobranchus striatus); 3 Lesser siren (Siren intermedia) (Illustration by Joseph E.Trumpey)

3

1 One-toed amphiuma(Amphiuma pholeter); 2 Two-toed amphiuma (Amphiuma means); 3 Three-toed amphiuma (Amphiuma tridactylum) tration by Dan Erickson)

3

4

1 Ceylon caecilian (Ichthyophis glutinosus); 2 Bannan caecilian (Ichthyophis bannanicus); 3 Pattipola caecilian (Ichthyophis orthoplicatus);

4 Koh Tao Island caecilian (Ichthyophis kohtaoensis) (Illustration by Marguette Dongvillo)

1 Kannan caecilian (Uraeotyphlus narayani); 2 Red caecilian (Uraeotyphlus oxyurus) (Illustration by John Megahan)

3

1 Frigate Island caecilian (Hypogeophis rostratus); 2 Cayenne caecilian (Typhlonectes compressicauda); 3 Mexican caecilian (Dermophis canus) (Illustration by Brian Cressman)

mexi-Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Second Edition

● ● ● ● Volume 7 Reptiles

James B Murphy, Advisory Editor

Neil Schlager, Editor Joseph E Trumpey, Chief Scientific Illustrator

Michael Hutchins, Series Editor

I n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n Z o o a n d A q u a r i u m A s s o c i a t i o n

Foreword vii

How to use this book x

Advisory boards xiii

Contributing writers xv

Contributing illustrators xvi

Volume 7: Reptiles

What is a reptile? 3

Evolution of the reptiles 12

Structure and function 23

Behavior 34

Reptiles and humans 47

Conservation 59

Order TESTUDINES

Turtles and tortoises 65

Family: Pig-nose turtles 75

Family: Australo-American sideneck turtles 77

Family: Seaturtles 85

Family: Snapping turtles 93

Family: Central American river turtles 99

Family: Leatherback seaturtles 101

Family: New World pond turtles 105

Family: Eurasian pond and river turtles, and

Neotropical wood turtles 115

Family: American mud and musk turtles 121

Family: African sideneck turtles 129

Family: Big-headed turtles 135

Family: Afro-American river turtles 137

Family: Alligators and caimans 171

Family: Crocodiles and false gharials 179

Order SPHENODONTIA

Tuatara

Family: Tuatara 189

Order SQUAMATA

Lizards and snakes 195

Family: Angleheads, calotes, dragon lizards, and relatives 209 Family: Chameleons 223 Family: Anoles, iguanas, and relatives 243 Family: Geckos and pygopods 259 Family: Blindskinks 271 Family: Wormlizards 273 Family: Mole-limbed wormlizards 279 Family: Florida wormlizards 283 Family: Spade-headed wormlizards 287 Family: Night lizards 291 Family: Wall lizards, rock lizards, and relatives 297 Family: Microteiids 303 Family: Whiptail lizards, tegus, and relatives 309 Family: Girdled and plated lizards 319 Family: Skinks 327 Family: Alligator lizards, galliwasps, glass lizards, and relatives 339 Family: Knob-scaled lizards 347 Family: Gila monsters and Mexican beaded lizards 353 Family: Monitors, goannas, and earless monitors 315 Family: Early blindsnakes 369 Family: Slender blindsnakes 373 Family: Blindsnakes 379 Family: False blindsnakes 387 Family: Shieldtail snakes 391 Family: Pipe snakes 395 Family: False coral snakes 399 Family: Sunbeam snakes 401 Family: Neotropical sunbeam snakes 405 Family: Boas 409 Family: Pythons 419 Family: Splitjaw snakes 429 Family: Woodsnakes and spinejaw snakes 433 Family: File snakes 439 Family: Vipers and pitvipers 445 Family: African burrowing snakes 461 Family: Colubrids 465 Family: Cobras, kraits, seasnakes, death adders, and relatives 483 For further reading 501

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia v

3

1 Kemp’s ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii); 2 Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta); 3 Green seaturtle (Chelonia mydas) (Illustration by PatriciaFerrer)

3

1 Yellow-margined box turtle (Cistoclemmys flavomarginata); 2 Painted terrapin (Callagur borneoensis); 3 Chinese stripe-necked turtle (Ocadiasinensis) (Illustration by Wendy Baker)

3

1 White-lipped mud turtle (Kinosternon leucostomum); 2 Stinkpot (Sternotherus odoratus); 3 Yellow mud turtle (Kinosternon flavescens) (Illustration by Jacqueline Mahannah)

3

1 Helmeted turtle (Pelomedusa subrufa); 2 East African serrated mud turtle (Pelusios sinuatus); 3 East African black mud turtle (Pelusios niger) (Illustration by Barbara Duperron)

3

1 South American river turtle (Podocnemis expansa); 2 Yellow-spotted river turtle (Podocnemis unifilis); 3 Madagascan big-headed turtle nochelys madagascariensis) (Illustration by Jonathan Higgins)

(Erym-5 4

3 2

1 Desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii); 2 Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni); 3 Galápagos tortoise (Geochelone nigra); 4 Pancake tortoise(Malacochersus tornieri); 5 South American yellow-footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata) (Illustration by Joseph E Trumpey)

1 Female Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis); 2 Spiny softshell (Apalone spinifera); 3 Indian flapshell turtle (Lissemys punctata) (Illustration by Gillian Harris)

croc-2

1 Sphenodon guntheri; 2 Sphenodon punctatus (Illustration by Brian Cressman)

Tuatara means “spiny back” in Maori (Photo by Hans Reinhard/Photo

Researchers, Inc Reproduced by permission.)

3

4 5

6

7

1 Toad-headed agama (Phrynocephalus mystaceus); 2 Brown garden lizard (Calotes versicolor); 3 Spiny-tailed agama (Uromastyx acanthinurus);

4 Earless dragon (Tympanocryptis cephalus); 5 Spiny agama (Agama hispida); 6 Flying lizard (Draco volans); 7 Sailfin lizard (Hydrosaurus boinensis); 8 Butterfly agama (Leiolepis belliana); 9 Leaf-horned agama (Ceratophora tennentii) (Illustration by Amanda Humphrey)

3

4 5

1 Male KwaZulu-Natal Midlands dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion thamnobates); 2 Armored chameleon (Brookesia perarmata); 3 Female minorchameleon (Furcifer minor); 4 Short-tailed chameleon (Rhampholeon brevicaudatus) hatchling; 5 Female jeweled chameleon (Furcifer campani).(Illustration by Joseph E Trumpey)

7 3

4

5

6

1 Male common chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus); 2 Desert iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis); 3 Male zebra-tailed lizard (Callisaurus draconoides);

4 Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard (Uma inornata); 5 Green anole (Anolis carolinensis); 6 Male common lesser earless lizard (Holbrookia ulata); 7 Male cape spinytail iguana (Ctenosaura hemilopha) (Illustration by Bruce Worden)

3

1 Cuban night lizard (Cricosaura typica); 2 Yellow-spotted night lizard (Lepidophyma flavimaculatum); 3 Desert night lizard (Xantusia vigilis) lustration by John Megahan)

3

1 Sand lizard (Lacerta agilis); 2 Six-lined grass lizard (Takydromus sexlineatus); 3 Western sandveld lizard (Nucras tessellata) (Illustration byGillian Harris)

3

1 Gymnophthalmus underwoodi; 2 Bachia bresslaui; 3 Neusticurus ecpleopus (Illustration by Barbara Duperron)

4

5

1 Giant ameiva (Ameiva ameiva); 2 Six-lined racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus); 3 Desert grassland whiptail (Cnemidophorus uniparens);

4 Crocodile tegu (Crocodilurus lacertinus); 5 Caiman lizard (Dracaena paraguayensis) (Illustration by Jacqueline Mahannah)

3

1 Cape flat lizard (Platysaurus capensis); 2 Madagascan plated lizard (Zonosaurus madagascariensis); 3 Giant girdled lizard (Cordylus teus) (Illustration by Wendy Baker)

1 Newman’s knob-scaled lizard (Xenosaurus newmanorum); 2 Knob-scaled lizard (Xenosaurus grandis) (Illustration by Brian Cressman)

Three defensive postures of the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) (Illustration by John Megahan)

1

2

3

2

1 Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum); 2 Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) (Illustration by Brian Cressman)

7

8

9

1 Russel’s viper (Daboia russelii); 2 Fea’s viper (Azemiops feae); 3 Horned viper (Cerastes cerastes); 4 Green bush viper (Atheris squamigera);

5 Common adder (Vipera berus); 6 Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus); 7 Rhombic night adder (Causus rhombeatus); 8 Gaboon adder (Bitisgabonica); 9 Levantine viper (Macrovipera lebetina) (Illustration by Dan Erickson)

6

7

1 Red-bellied black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus); 2 Half-girdled snake (Simoselaps semifasciatus); 3 Brown snake (Pseudonaja textilis);

4 Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus); 5 Yellow-bellied seasnake (Pelamis platurus); 6 Olive seasnake (Aipysurus laevis); 7 Bandy-bandysnake (Vermicella annulata) (Illustration by Dan Erickson)

1 North American coral snake (Micrurus fulvius); 2 Sea krait (Laticauda colubrina); 3 Turtle-headed seasnake (Emydocephalus annulatus);

4 Forest cobra (Naja melanoleuca); 5 Black-necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis); 6 King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah); 7 Tiger snake (Notechisscutatus); 8 Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus); 9 Black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) (Illustration by Dan Erickson)