the encyclopedia of birds a

List of Birds ixLIST OF BIRDS Adelie penguin 1 African fish eagle 5 African gray parrot 9 African harrier hawk 13 African pygmy falcon 17 American black vulture 21 American cliff swallow

BIRDS BIRDS

T H E E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F

T H E E n cyc lo pE d i a o f

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BIRDS

Copyright ©2007 by International Masters Publishing

Portions of this material were previously published

as part of the Wildlife Explorer reference set.

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Bibliography 1051 Photo Credits 1053

Introduction vii

INTRODUCTION

The Encyclopedia of Birds is a six-volume set designed to introduce the young

reader to the fascinating world of birds Birds, in all their variety, from the

forests of North America, to the beaches of South America, to the mountains of

Europe and the plains of Australia, share certain common features of anatomy and

physiology as well as habitat and breeding But there are also significant differences

among the populations as well as unique relationships in courtship routines,

nest-ing and life expectancy

In this reference work, the birds are arranged alphabetically and appear in

four-page spreads

Each bird featured includes the following information:

• Order, family, genus and species

• Habitat

• Behavior

• Breeding

• Food and Feeding

• Distribution and Range

• Vital Statistics

• Creature Comparisons

In addition, fun facts or unusual information is imparted in the “Did You

Know?” box and sidebar information often includes notes on conservation,

relat-ed species, unusual behavior or distinguishing features

An information panel in each section includes vital statistics on weight,

length, wingspan, sexual maturity, breeding season, number of eggs, incubation

period, fledging period, typical diet and lifespan

Richly enhanced by full-color photographs as well as drawings and labeled

diagrams, this wide-ranging set will be sure to fascinate and entertain bird lovers

of all ages

—Laurie E LikoffEditorial Director

viii What is a Bird?

WHAT IS A BIRD?

Generally speaking a bird is any member of the

class known as Aves that share certain common

characteristics and traits Birds are warm-blooded,

bipedal animals whose anatomy is characterized by

forelimbs modified through natural selection and

evo-lution to become wings, whose exterior is covered by

feathers, and that have, in most cases, hollow bones to

assist in flight

Most birds are diurnal, or active during the day,

but some are nocturnal, active during the evening

hours, such as owls, and still others feed either day or

night as needed

Many birds migrate long distances to find the

op-timum or ideal habitats, while others rarely range

from their original breeding spots

Shared characteristics of birds may include a bony

or hard beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled

eggs, a light but strong skeleton, and a high rate of

metabolism

Most birds are characterized by flight although

several well-known species, particularly those that

reside on islands, have now lost this ability Some

common flightless birds include the ostrich, penguin,

kiwi and now extinct Dodo

Birds feed on plants, seeds, insects, fish, carrion or

other birds Birds are also an important food source

for humans The most commonly eaten species is the

domestic chicken, although geese, pheasants, turkeys

and ducks are also common fare, particularly aroundThanksgiving Day and the holidays Birds grown forhuman consumption are known as poultry Humanshave caused the disappearance of some species due tohabitat destruction, hunting or over consumption.Other species of birds have come to depend onhuman activities for food and are so widespread as to

be considered a nuisance such as the common pigeon

or rock pigeon In North America, sparrows, starlings,and finches are also widespread Some birds havebeen used by humans to perform tasks, such as hom-ing pigeons in the days before modern communica-tions, and falcons to aid in hunting or for sport.Tropical birds are often sought after and kept as petsalthough some are now listed as endangered and theirtrafficking for this purpose has been restricted.The bird population, like many other fish andwildlife groups, is facing threats worldwide According

to Worldwatch Institute, bird populations are ing, with 1,200 species facing extinction in the nextcentury Among the most prevalent reasons cited arehabitat loss, predation by nonnative species, oil spillsand pesticide use, climate change and excessive rates

declin-of hunting and fishing All these threats make it evermore important to understand, appreciate and protectthe birds we see around us everyday

—Kenny Clements

List of Birds ix

LIST OF BIRDS

Adelie penguin 1

African fish eagle 5

African gray parrot 9

African harrier hawk 13

African pygmy falcon 17

American black vulture 21

American cliff swallow 25

Boat-billed heron 153Bohemian waxwing 157Broad-billed

hummingbird 161Brown creeper 165Brown pelican 169Brown skua 173Budgerigar 177Burrowing owl 181Canada goose 185Carrion crow 189Cattle egret 193Chaffinch 197Chiffchaff 201Cockatiel 205Common eider 209Common grackle 213Common guillemot 217Common kestrel 221Common loon 225Common nighthawk 229Common peafowl 233Common pheasant 237Common quail 241Common snipe 245Common tailorbird 249Common yellowthroat 253Cooper’s hawk 257Corncrake 261Crab plover 265

Double-wattled cassowary 273

Dwarf cassowary 281Eagle owl 285Eastern screech owl 289Eclectus parrot 293Egyptian plover 297Egyptian vulture 301

Emperor penguin 309

Eurasian avocet 317Eurasian buzzard 321Eurasian cuckoo 325Eurasian curlew 329Eurasian kingfisher 333Eurasian nuthatch 337Eurasian oystercatcher 341Eurasian robin 345Eurasian sparrowhawk 349Eurasian swift 353Eurasian woodcock 357European starling 361Feral pigeon 365Flightless cormorant 369Galapagos ground finches 373Goldcrest 377Golden eagle 381Golden oriole 385Golden pheasant 389Goliath heron 393Gouldian finch 397Gray-crowned crane 401Gray heron 405Gray partridge 409Graylag goose 413Great argus pheasant 417

Great gray owl 441

Great gray shrike 445

Great horned owl 449

Great Indian hornbill 453

Great spotted woodpecker 457

Great white pelican 461

Razorbill 737Red crossbill 741Red Junglefowl 745

Red-and-yellow barbet 753Red-billed quelea 757Red-breasted goose 761Red-breasted merganser 765Red-headed woodpecker 769Red-tailed tropicbird 773Red-winged blackbird 777Reddish egret 781Reed warbler 785Rockhopper penguin 789Rose-ringed parakeet 793Ruby-throated

hummingbird 797

Ruddy duck 801Ruddy turnstone 805

Rufous hummingbird 813Sacred ibis 817Sacred kingfisher 821Saddle-bill stork 825Satin bowerbird 829Scarlet ibis 833Screamers 837Secretary bird 841

hornbill 893Southern yellow-billed

hornbill 897Spotted nutcracker 901Stone curlew 905Sulphur-crested cockatoo 909Sun bittern 913Superb lyrebird 917Swallow-tailed gull 921Tawny frogmouth 925

Toco toucan 933Torrent duck 937Trumpeter swan 941Tufted duck 945Tundra swan 949Turtle dove 953Verreaux’s eagle 957Victoria crowned pigeon 961Village weaver 965Wallcreeper 969Wandering albatross 973Water rail 977Waved albatross 981

Wood pigeon 1033Wood stork 1037

Yellow-billed cuckoo 1045

•Crowded breeding colonies of up to a quarter of a million birds stretch over rocky coastal slopes

•Parents take turns incubating their two eggs, each fasting for days while its mate is feeding out at sea

WHERE IN THE WORLD?

A circumpolar range

— limited by the northern and southern limits of Antarctica’s permanent pack ice — includes inshore waters and offshore islands

2 Adelie Penguin

The adelie penguin is anexcellent swimmer, but isclumsy on land With itslegs set so far back on itsbody, it has to walk upright andcan manage only an awkward,almost comical, shuffle on its short,stiff legs It hops nimbly over rocks andother low obstacles, but drops onto itsbreast at the top of ice slopes and tobog-gans over the ice — making betterprogress than by walking

An adelie penguin is rarely alone At sea it

feeds in flocks under pack ice; in breeding

seasons, it treks along bustling routes

between the water and its sprawling colonies.

LIFECYCLE

HABITAT

BEHAVIOR

?

• The word penguin

derives from pinguis, Latin

for fat This is a reference

to the thick layer of body fat which lies beneath a penguin’s plumage.

• An adelie penguin loses almost half its bodyweight

in the annual molt, which takes place on pack ice during February or March.

• Two colonies of adelie penguins in the Ross Sea,

at Cape Adare and Cape Crozier, hold 280,000 and 180,000 pairs, respectively.

• To land on beaches, adelie penguins surf in

sea and the colony.

The adelie penguin spends

nearly all its time at sea in pack

ice that surrounds Antarctica

When it comes ashore to

breed, it lands on barren

beaches and rocky coastal

slopes to gather in huge

num-bers After breeding, the

pen-guin then returns to sea,

swimming in groups to new

feeding grounds as winter ice

begins to push farther north

Adelie Penguin 3

The adelie penguin stays close to Antarctica’s pack ice to feed, since

krill (tiny crustaceans that form its main food) eat the algae that

grow on the underside of the ice Diving to 65 ft for krill and other

prey, the penguin can remain underwater for up to seven minutes

It catches faster-swimming prey — squid and fish — by putting on

sudden spurts of speed while cruising along underwater

Each feeding trip may last

four hours or more;

frequent-ly, the adelie feeds at night,

taking advantage of the

night-ly migration of krill and squid

to the surface Flocks also

travel many miles around the

fringes of the ice to exploit

the best feeding grounds

CONSERVATION

BREEDING

Relieved…

The pair share responsibility for

the young, taking turns incubating

the eggs and brooding the chicks

while the other feeds at sea.

4

Welcome

Standing face-to-face, with heads held high and bills to the sky, the pair makes a braying sound.This reaffirms the pair-bond.

2

BRIEF ENCOUNTER

Hello again…

Up to 80% of adelie penguins are

faithful to their partner of previous

years when they return to land.

The birds greet each other eagerly.

1

Penguins return to breedingcolonies in September Eachpair occupies, then defends,

a nest site before enacting complex mating rituals

Two chicks hatch followingsix weeks of incubation byboth sexes While one parentfeeds at sea, the other guardsand broods the young Aftertwo weeks, the adults feedtogether; all the colony’s chicks

in the same stage of growthjoin up in “crèches,” which offersecurity against predators, such

as gulls Chicks fledge aftereight weeks and head to sea

 S EABIRD CITY

Nests are densely packed;

neighbors squabble noisily.

 W AITING IN LINE

Before leaving to feed, groups gather on the shore.

 F ILLING MEAL

Chicks over two weeks old

are fed every two days.

4 Adelie Penguin

VITAL STATISTICS

The rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome)

is slightly smaller than the adelie and more widely

distributed over the Antarctic It shares the adelie’s dumpy

appearance and blackish-blue and white plumage, but has

more elaborate facial decorations

Above each eye and behind the cheeks is a thin crest

of golden tassels, which the rockhopper raises in courtship

displays A black crest at the back of its head is just as

mobile.The rockhopper also has a thick, compact bill

for catching crustaceans, such as krill

5–8 years

Arrives at nesting colonies

in Sept and Oct.; lays eggs from Nov 2 30–43 days 50–56 days

Crustaceans (amphipods and krill); some fish and squid Unknown; probably 10–15 years or more

RELATED SPECIES

•The Spheniscidae (the

penguins) is the only bird family in which all species are flightless and aquatic Its 17 members are divided into two groups Fish-eaters, such as the king penguin (below), have long, thin bills; species that feed on krill, like the adelie, have stubby bills.

W I N G S

Robust wings are used

to propel the penguin

in fluid and graceful

“underwater flying” at

a speed of 3–6 mph.

However, the penguin can

put on rapid spurts of

speed and reach 15 mph.

B O DY

Teardrop-shaped for reduced drag in water, the body is also insulated with

a thick layer of fat.

P LUMAGE

The feathers, like all penguins, are unique among birds: they’re of a uniform type over the entire body.

The shaft (rachis) is short and curved;

a second, smaller, down-covered

shaft (hyporachis) protrudes from

it for extra insulation.

J UVENILE

A juvenile, which takes at least five years to reach maturity, lacks the adult’s eye ring and has an all-black bill.

Adelie penguin Rockhopper penguin

CREATURE COMPARISONS

African Fish Eagle 5

•A first-rate fisher, the fish eagle skillfully seizes

prey, usually catching its quota early in the day

•Interlocked mating pairs engage in whirling

aerial courtship displays that can end in death

•Known throughout Africa for its song that peals

out continuously from sunrise to sunset

WHERE IN THE WORLD?

Throughout sub-Saharan Africa; from Senegal and Gambia in the west, east through Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Uganda

6 African Fish Eagle

During the breeding season displays become very intense Rareamong other eagles but common among sea and fish eagles, thewhirling ritual occurs when a courting pair soars, locks claws andthen falls wing over wing toward the ground The birds will notrelease until the display is over, which occasionally can end indeath if the entwined birds crash to the ground When thefemale is ready to mate, she lowers her head and raises her tail

so that her whole body is parallel to the ground.The male thenjumps or flies onto her back.The pair usually mates for life.Theybuild their large stick-nest in a tree and use this nest year afteryear, adding new material to it for each breeding season

LIFECYCLE

HABITAT

BREEDING

Whether lake, river or creek, water always abounds in the African

fish eagle’s territory Near Lake Victoria or the lakes of Kenyan Rift

Valley, a pair of eagles may require less than 1 sq mile of water to

find enough food If the pair inhabits an area next to a small river,

however, they may need 15 miles of water The African fish eagle

spends most of the day perched in a large tree that overlooks the

water, preferring fig and acacia trees

?

FOOD & FEEDING

The fish eagle hunts its prey from perches overlooking thewater If it is lucky, it will catch two live fish in about 10 minutesand be done hunting for the day Its favorites are catfish andlungfish, and it will occasionally snatch these from herons, peli-cans and storks Young flamingos, ducks, storks and herons aretargets, as are lizards and turtles The fish eagle plucks feathersfrom birds and scales fish before eating the animals

After food is ingested, it can be stored in a fleshy pouch inthe neck called a crop; this pouch will hold over 2 lbs of food Itallows the eagle to gorge itself when large amounts of food areavailable, then regurgitate it for later consumption

CONSERVATION

Current populations of theAfrican fish eagle remainstable.Very low levels ofpesticides are now found inthe food chain of the Africanfish eagle, but humans pres-ent the greatest threat tothe eagle’s future

Conservation of land andclean water is needed tomaintain the population

After awakening the continent with its song,

the African fish eagle strikes quickly to land

its daily meal, then retires to its perch to

closely guard its territory from intruders.

• An African fish eagle

in captivity lived 40

years, more than twice

the average lifespan of

one in the wild.

• The call of the African

fish eagle is so widely

heard that it is known as

“the voice of Africa.”

 S OARING SEARCH

An African fish eagle soars high above a lake that

provides an abundance of fish.

African Fish Eagle 7

BEHAVIOR

 G ROWING UP

The fish eagle’s plumage

goes through four stages

before adulthood.

Awakening before dawn, the eaglebegins its serenade, a songwell known across Africa

About 40 minutes beforesunrise, the air throughout thesub-Sahara fills with the chorus ofsinging pairs The calls serve as aterritorial signal The “tune” may

be produced in flight while theeagle searches for potentialprey When perched andsinging, the eagle theatricallythrows its head back and beltsout its song, which bears someresemblance to the call of theAmerican bald eagle.The Africanfish eagle sings this loud, cheerfulsong throughout the day, often infemale-initiated duets A pair willnormally remain together after thebreeding season

 P OWERFUL POSE

Perched high in a tree, the eagle towers above its territory.

Heavy load

It drags the perch, which is

too heavy to be carried while

flying, along the surface.The

eagle gathers speed and…

3

Predatory perch…

Sitting atop a tall tree, the

African fish eagle has a perfect

view of the lake in its square-

mile territory.

Swooping at 20 mph, the eagle glides with its feet extended and talons ready

to strike at a Nile perch.

2

Well-earned meal

…lifts its meal onto the bank.

The eagle uses its beak to pull the scales off the perch before enjoying its feast.

8 African Fish Eagle

VITAL STATISTICS

70 live in Africa.

CREATURE COMPARISONS

A FRICAN F ISH E AGLE

Adept at fishing, the keen-eyed African fish eagle spots prey from high

on its perch, then dives to “hook” its victim using dagger-sharp talons.

4 years

Varies according

to region 1–3

44 days 65–75 days

6 months to

1 year Large fish

Up to 15 years

in the wild

As its name implies, the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus

albicilla) has a white tail, but lacks the distinctive white head

of the African fish eagle Weighing in at 7–14 lbs the tailed is heavier than the African fish eagle and, in bothspecies, females are larger than the males.The white-tailedeagle inhabits Europe and Asia, but rarely Africa Like theAfrican fish eagle, it includes large areas of water in its terri-tory.The white-tailed eagle shares the scaly, fish-grabbingtalons and the dietary habits of the African fish eagle, subsistingmainly on freshly caught fish

white-African fish eagle White-tailed eagle

J UVENILE

Lacking full adult plumage, the brown, immature eagle is often con- fused with the osprey and palm-nut vulture.

B I L L

The very powerful hooked beak

is rarely used for killing Instead,

it shreds and tears prey into

smaller pieces.

F EET

The rough spicules on the soles of its bright yellow feet help the African fish eagle grip its slippery prey.

S KULL

The skull is lightweight, with reduced jaws, large eye sockets (A) and no teeth, for better flight efficiency.

A

African Gray Parrot 9

•Gathers in flocks of hundreds at nightfall

to roost high in the rainforest canopy

•Utters a range of screams, shrieks and whistles in the wild, but in captivity may mimic any sound that it hears

A FRICAN G RAY P ARROT

WHERE IN THE WORLD?

In a range of forest types, but especially rainforest, in equatorial Africa: from Sierra Leone and Guinea- Bissau to Tanzania and Kenya in the east and south to the Congo–Angola border

10 African Gray Parrot

Flying home near dusk, African grays congregate at theirroosting sites, usually in tall trees at the forest edge or a clearing

in the forest Where available, they also roost on small islandsnear the coast or in the middle of a large river, provided there’splenty of treecover Some roosts may have hundreds, eventhousands, of birds

African grays fly fast, with characteristic shallow and rapidwingbeats While in flight, they whistle and shriek constantly,creating a huge amount of noise Although they’re nearly alwaysseen high in the forest canopy, African grays may sometimesvisit the ground, since small pieces of quar tz have been found

in their stomachs These mineral fragments are probably

impor tant in assisting the gizzard, or muscular stomach, to grind

down the hard nuts and berries that form the basis of theparrot’s diet

Tool-use in birds is an uncommon phenomenon, but it hasbeen recorded in the African gray parrot One bird was seenpreening its feathers with a small splinter of wood held in its bill

Although the African gray parrot is one

of the most familiar of all cagebirds and is

kept in captivity the world over, much of its

behavior in the wild remains a mystery.

Primary forest with open

glades is the preferred

habitat of the African

gray, but it also exploits

mature secondary forest

and oil palm plantations.

 F RUITS OF THE FOREST

African grays feed using their tongue, bill and feet.

CONSERVATION

The African gray parrot isn’t in any immediate danger because

it occurs over a wide range However, in many areas of

east-ern and central Africa, populations are disappearing because of

forest distribution, and although they are bred in captivity for

sale, many are still being taken from the wild

The African gray parrot lives in

dense lowland rainforest and

areas of open (secondary)

forest, spending nearly all its

time in the treetops At

certain times of year, when

trees are fruiting, it’ll visit

wooded areas of savannah In

the eastern Congo, the parrot

frequents upland forest at

6,600'; it also occurs at

sea level, in mangrove swamps

along the West African coast

The African gray is an

adaptable species and takes

advantage of large oil palm

plantations in West Africa The

plantations provide nesting

sites and a rich and reliable

food source: oil palm nuts

African Gray Parrot 11

Little is known about the breeding of African grays inthe wild, but they generally breed in the dry season

The nest is usually in a knothole or brokentree limb 70–100' above ground The femalelays 2–4 white eggs on a bed of wood dust atthe bottom of the nest hole and incubates theclutch alone Once the chicks hatch after about

a month, the male brings food while his mate tinues to brood them.They fledge at 2–3 months

The frugivorous (fruit-eating)

diet of the African gray is

var-ied, comprised of seeds, nuts

and berries of many forest

trees The species feeds mainly

in the canopy; small parties of

parrots clamber noisily on the

branches in an energetic quest

for ripe fruit

Once African grays finish

feeding in a particular tree, they

are reluctant to fly and instead

make use of their climbing skills

to move to the next feeding

place However, they will fly 3

miles out to sea to offshore

islands containing fruiting trees

• Famous for its ability

to mimic sounds, including those produced by objects, such as creaking doors or ringing telephones, the African gray can copy the human voice with remarkable realism One bird had a “vocabulary”

of over 800 words.

• A roost with 5,000– 10,000 African gray parrots gathers each night at an oil palm plantation in Gabon.

• Several hundred pairs of African grays may nest in a loose colony scattered over

a wide area Pairs nest 30–100 ' apart, and there’s usually one nest per tree.

BREEDING

NUT-CRACKER

Extract and swallow

Using its thick, fleshy tongue, the parrot removes the kernel and manipulates it, before crushing and swallowing it.

4

Crack open

Applying a tremendous amount of pressure with its powerful bill, the parrot cracks open the nut’s hard casing to reveal a nutritious kernel.

3

Pluck and grip

An African gray parrot can use either its bill or one of its feet

to pluck off a ripe nut and then grasp it tightly.

2

䊲 C OMING IN TO ROOST

Although many aspects of

its lifestyle are unknown,

the African gray parrot is

difficult to miss at

night-fall, when it

congre-gates to roost in

large and very

vocal flocks.

12 African Gray Parrot

A FRICAN G RAY P ARROT

Dextrous feet and a large, hooked bill double up as the African gray parrot’s versatile feeding and climbing tools in the forest canopy.

2–4, usually 3 3–4 weeks

10 weeks

1 year

Seeds, nuts, fruit; may raid maize crops Unknown in wild; 20 years

in captivity

VITAL STATISTICS

RELATED SPECIES

• There are 340 species

in the parrot family

Psittacidae; most are

found in tropical and subtropical regions Close relations in this family include the lories and lorikeets, cockatoos and the cockatiel, macaws, conures, parakeets and amazons Parrots range from the small lovebirds

of Africa to large macaws

of South America These adaptable birds are found in many habitats.

The rose-ringed parakeet, Psittacula krameri, with

the African gray parrot, are two of only

20 or so parrot species in Africa.Theparakeet looks very different from theAfrican gray with a lighter, slimmerbuild and long pointed tail.The parakeet occursacross open, semidesert habitats of West and East Africa; the

parrot is almost exclusively a forest dweller Flocks of parakeets

are commonly found in agricultural areas, where they sometimes

become serious pests when crops are ripe

CREATURE COMPARISONS

African gray parrot Rose-ringed

parakeet

T ONGUE

The tongue is thick, fleshy and very mobile After cracking open nuts, the parrot uses its tongue to deftly remove the kernels.

F EET

Long, dextrous toes (two point forward, the other two

backward) let the African gray parrot climb effortlessly

along branches and grasp larger food items.

B I L L

Hooked and powerful,

the bill can crack tough nuts and

shred fibrous fruit.The parrot also

uses its bill, as well as its feet, to grip

branches and haul itself through

the treetops.

P LUMAGE

The characteristic red color of the tail presents a striking contrast with the gray body plumage In older birds, scarlet feathers eventually begin to appear among the body feathers.

E YES

Eyes are positioned at the center of the sides of the head, which means that the parrot can detect movement from behind

by moving its head only fractionally

to one side

or the other.

African Harrier Hawk 13

•Unique jointed knees allow it

double-to grab victims from deep inside holes, cracks and crevices

•Its broad wings, long tail and long legs present a large, formidable figure despite its small size

WHERE IN THE WORLD?

Found only in Africa: South Africa, east to Natal, north to Botswana, northern Namibia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique, then north to the Sahara Desert

14 African Harrier Hawk

LIFECYCLE

HABITAT

BREEDING The African harrier hawk is like many

other raptors, except for its unfeathered

face, which blushes to a deep red when

startled or during mating displays.

Courtship for the African harrier hawk occurs in the air At the onset of the breeding season, the pair can be seen soaring together

in display flights involving shallow dives and upward swoops accompanied by drawn-out whistles These displays usually end in along glide to the nest area

The stick nest is built in a tree by both sexes, usually from30–150' from the ground, and is lined with green leaves Usually 2eggs are laid and both sexes incubate After about 35 days, the eggshatch at different intervals and

the younger sibling usually dies

of starvation as its older siblingtakes all the food

䊴 T REE HOUSE

The harrier hawk prefers

to perch in tall trees.

BEHAVIOR

The African harrier hawk’s most unusual behavior is that it blushes.Whereas most raptors have feathered faces, this hawk’s face isunfeathered to assist it in probing into holes for food Unexpecteddisturbances, such as a branch snapping, can trigger the face (normally pale yellow) to blush a deep red Encounters betweenbreeding pairs also result in blushing; this is believed to represent an appeasement signal, especially duringcourtship, and switches in incubation duty

䊲T AKING A BREAK

The hawk lands to rest and scans the area.

?

• The African harrier

hawk is also known as the

gymnogene, which means

bare cheeks.

• Only found on the

island of Madagascar, the

Madagascar harrier hawk is

sometimes considered to

be just a subspecies of the

African harrier hawk.

The African harrier hawk

frequents a variety of landscapes

throughout its range in central

and southern Africa, including

forest, woodland and savannah

It is most often found at the top

of tall trees fringing the larger

rivers or in hilly country where

there are deep ravines and

steep hillsides

䊳 H IGH IN THE SKY

The surviving chick fledges between 49–60 days.

African Harrier Hawk 15

The African harrier hawk seeks out elusive prey With its ability to

bend its legs forward and backward, this hawk can reach deep

into holes or crevices and grab prey that is safe from other

raptors.The African harrier hawk shows a variety of hunting skills:

it climbs around on the branches of trees, using its wings for

balance; it hangs upside down for long periods of time as it

explores nooks and crannies for a hidden meal; it soars slowly

along the edge of hillsides and ravines and scans carefully for

potential prey

Unlike other raptors, this hawk is not a very powerful bird

and normally settles for prey about as large as a lizard In certain

parts of its range, the African harrier hawk is known to eat

the fruit of the oil palm, but mostly its diet consists of lizards, small

birds, insects and rodents

FOOD & HUNTING

CONSERVATION

Although population numbers are unknown, the African harrier hawk is fairly common throughout its entire range and is not currently in danger As are all members of thehawk family, the African harrier hawk is protected by lawfrom hunters and is not allowed to be kept without a per-mit.The African harrier hawk and the other member of its

genus, the Madagascar harrier hawk (Polyboroides radiatus),

are both listed in Appendix II of CITES (Convention forInternational Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora) and are not allowed to be exported

Chase…

Spotting an agama lizard on the

ground, the harrier hawk swoops

down to try to snatch the lizard

with its outstretched talons.

Bending its leg backward, the African harrier hawk is able to reach deep into the nest to snatch a nestling.

Hang…

Flapping its wings for balance, the hawk hangs upside down by one foot and reaches into a weaver’s nest with the other.

3

Wedge…

Failing to catch the lizard, the hawk pushes its head into the rock crevice and grabs the lizard with its bill.

OPPORTUNISTIC RAIDER

16 African Harrier Hawk

VITAL STATISTICS

A FRICAN H ARRIER H AWK

The African harrier hawk is uniquely equipped for a life as a stealthy hunter; it has extremely keen vision for locating elusive prey.

Spring and Summer Usually 2, but only

1 survives About 35 days 49–60 days

1 year

Lizards, birds, insects and rodents Unknown

RELATED SPECIES

•The family Accipitridae

contains 208 species of eagles, hawks, kites and Old World vultures The African harrier hawk shares its genus,

Polyboroides, with the

Madagascar harrier hawk,

P radiatus Other species

of hawk include the red-shouldered hawk,

Buteo lineatus, the

red-tailed hawk, B.

jamaicensis, and the

sharp-shinned hawk,

Accipiter striatus.

At 20", the eastern chanting goshawk, Melierax

poliopterus, is slightly smaller than the African harrier

hawk.The goshawk inhabits dry open woodland and

semi-desert areas of eastern Africa, compared to the forest,

woodland and savannah habitats of the harrier hawk.The

goshawk’s feeding methods differ from the harrier: it feeds

mostly on lizards and insects that it spots from a perch, or

the goshawk may take small birds after a vigorous pursuit

This contrasts with the harrier hawk, which extracts its prey

from holes or flies slowly when searching for prey

to the feathers.

CREATURE COMPARISONS

L E G S & FEET

The hawk’s intertarsal joint, or “knee,”

can bend backward and forward, allowing the

bird to reach deep into holes to snatch prey.

W I N G S

The long, broad wings, paired with a small body, give this hawk its exceptional ability to sail slowly near the ground or the edges of hillsides while scanning for prey.

Eastern Chanting goshawk African

Harrier hawk

African Pygmy Falcon 17

•Rapid and agile in flight, it darts through the air with short, quick bursts of speed

•Female easily distinguished from the male by her deep chestnut back

•Small raptor with powerful talons and

a hooked beak for hunting prey

WHERE IN THE WORLD?

Found exclusively in eastern and southern Africa: parts of Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, Transvaal, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa

18 African Pygmy Falcon

LIFECYCLE

HABITAT

Unlike other birds of prey that build a large

solitary nest, the African pygmy falcon lives

alongside a friendly host, the sociable weaver,

and adopts a chamber in the weaver nest.

Hanging

The entrance is located at the bottom of the nest colony; the falcon hangs upside down in order to enter the nest chamber.

2

Flying

A female pygmy falcon flies toward a large nest colony of sociable weavers that the falcon exploits for its own use.

1

BREEDING

The African pygmy falcon mostly feeds on insects and lizards, thoughoccasionally rodents and small birds are consumed In spite of itssmall size, the African pygmy falcon is a voracious predator, like birds

of prey Perching from a tall tree, the pygmy falcon watches theground below for movement from a potential meal Once its victim

is sighted, the pygmy falcon quickly dives to the ground, snatching itsvictim in its talons, and taking it back to the perch to be eaten Likeall falcons, the African pygmyfal-

con regurgitates 1–2 pelletsdaily, which contain all the indi-gestible food fragments, such asfur and bones

FOOD & HUNTING

UNWANTED HOUSEGUEST

?

• Unlike other falcons, the eggs of the pygmy falcon are pure white, consistent with many birds that lay eggs in concealed nests.

• The pygmy falcon’s range is dictated by that of the sociable weaver; it even avoids otherwise suitable savannah habitat that is devoid of weaver nests.

• In the Kalahari region of Africa, pygmy falcons occupy about one out of every four sociable weaver colonies.

䊱 T REETOP

A female falcon perches

at the top of a tall tree.

The African pygmy falcon lives

in two distinct and widely

separated populations in Africa:

one in the southwestern part of

the continent and the other in

the northeast In either part of

the continent, the pygmy falcon

inhabits the arid and semiarid

savannah and scrubland, which

features sparse groundcover

and scattered large trees

dotting the landscape The

African pygmy falcon typically

avoids open forests and forest

edges This falcon also frequents

the huge nests of weavers,

especially the sociable weaver,

Philetairus socius, sharing its

roosting and nesting site

The pygmy falcon occasionally

shares the nests of the

white-headed buffalo weaver and

those of the sparrow weaver

䊳 T ASTY MEAL

A male African pygmy falcon feasts upon a large lizard in the savannah.

African Pygmy Falcon 19

Striking…

The pygmy falcon strikes and kills a

sociable weaver chick; this is

uncommon, but necessary, when

food is scarce.

The pygmy falcon brings the dead weaver chick back to its nest chamber to feed it to its own young, hungry family.

4

CONSERVATION

The African pygmy falcon is

a fairly common residentthroughout its range and isnot currently endangered It

is listed in Appendix II ofCITES (Convention inInternational Trade inEndangered Species),which regulates theimport and export of animals for the pet trade.Since its range is dependentupon weavers for nesting,the pygmy falcon has a verylimited distribution Due toits small size, it falls victim

to predators, including larger birds of prey found

in the same habitat

BEHAVIOR

Courtship begins in the summer and includes the male feeding

his mate The female performs exaggerated tail-wagging

dis-plays No nest is built; instead the pair moves into a chamber in

the nest colony of sociable weavers, which is comprised of a

huge haystack structure built into a tree and contains chambers

of up to 50 active weaver nests Each chamber is enclosed and

is reached from below through a narrow vertical tunnel.The

fal-con pair evicts 1–2 pairs of weavers from their nests, then the

female lays from 2–4 eggs While both parents incubate for

about 30 days, the female’s share of the task is larger The male

provides his mate, and later the chicks, with food.The chicks are

helpless at birth, but fledge in 28–30 days They remain with

their parents for 1–2 months after fledging before becoming

of their small size, African pygmyfalcons are able to share thenest colony of sociable weavers

These huge nests provide asafe, weatherproof environmentfor the falcons The falcons donot bother the weavers beyondthe eviction of 1–2 pairs and occasionally killing a chick whenother food is scarce While the falcon pairs enjoy the benefits of the weavers’ work,the weavers gain a pair of bodyguards to protect themfrom snakes, such as cobras, thatprey upon the nest chambers

The sociable weavers happilycontinue to add and maintainthe nest in spite of having anuninvited roommate

20 African Pygmy Falcon

CREATURE COMPARISONS

VITAL STATISTICS

A FRICAN P YGMY F ALCON

Despite its small size, the pygmy falcon is a bold predator armed with

sharp talons and a strong, hooked beak for catching and killing its prey.

2–4;

usually 3 28–30 days 27–40 days

1 year

Mostly insects and lizards; also rodents and small birds Unknown

RELATED SPECIES

•The African pygmy falcon is 1 of 2 species in

the genus Polihierax;

the other is the

white-rumped falcon, P insignis The family Falconidae

contains 64 species in 10 genera of falcons, falconets, kestrels, caracaras and hobbies Close relatives

of the African pygmy falcon include the crested

caracara, Caracara

plancus, the peregrine

falcon, Falco peregrinus,

and the brown falcon,

F berigora.

Reaching 7'' long, the collared falconet (Microhierax

caerulescens) is slightly smaller than the African pygmy falcon

and is one of the smallest of the raptors.The collared

falconet has a glossy black back with white on its forehead,

collar and sides of face; it has a chestnut chin and belly,

compared to the pygmy falcon, which is mostly gray above

and white underneath Unlike the African pygmy falcon, which

inhabits the semiarid and arid savannah, the collared falconet is

mainly found at the edge of temperate forests Despite their

small size, both birds are bold predators, like their larger relatives

F EET

Strong toes with sharp, curved talons are used as weapons when hunting.Three toes face forward while the hind toe

(hallux) is backward, allowing the falcon

to firmly grip and crush its prey.

M ALE

The male is easily distinguished from

the female by his full-gray back,

but has a similar white front

and face Like the female,

the male has a barred tail and black flight feathers with white spots.

F EMALE

The female pygmy falcon is mainly gray above and white below, including the forehead and face She has a white neck ring and a rich, deep chestnut back.

B I L L

Like all birds of prey, the falcon’s bill is sharp and hooked for tearing flesh At the base of the bill is an area

of bare skin called the cere;

this skin protects the nostrils while the bird is feeding.

T AIL

The long, broad tail aids in

steering when the falcon dives for

prey It also acts as a brake when landing.

E YES

Large eyes provide acute vision for capturing small prey on the open savannah.

The fovea, a depression in

the retina, serves to magnify images.

Collared falconet African

pygmy falcon

American Black Vulture 21

in the sky

•Though it searches out the most putrid food, it does not rely

on smell to find a meal,

as some vultures do

•Performs a useful sanitation service by cleaning up garbage dumps and removing dead animals from highways

WHERE IN THE WORLD?

Found in the tropical and warm temperate regions of central and western Canada, throughout most of the U.S and Mexico, and south to southern South America

22 American Black Vulture

HABITAT

BREEDING

The American black vulture spends most of

its time soaring high above the ground,

waiting for death to strike and leave behind

the carrion it craves.

?

• On hot days, the black

vulture cools off by wetting

its legs with its urine.

• The black vulture

returns to roost when the

air cools and the warm

thermal currents dissipate.

• Before sanitation services were developed, black vultures were commonplace

at meat markets throughout the U.S where they cleaned

up scraps, keeping the areas clean and free of disease.

The black vulture lives in a variety of Western Hemisphere habitats,

including coastal lowlands, forests, jungles and deserts It flocks to

open grasslands, the edges of cities and even to downtown urban

areas, where the vulture ridesthe thermal air currents risingfrom the canyons of skyscrapers

No matter what the habitat, thebirds are most likely to be foundnear something dead or rotting

The black vulture frequents citydumps, sewers, slaughterhousesand highways with roadkill It alsosearches mangrove stands andother wooded areas where babybirds are left unprotected Afterspending the day gliding and circling, it will return to roost,usually in tall trees When notfeeding, the black vulture issomewhat social, and is oftenfound roosting with other birds,especially turkey vultures

Breeding begins in January and continues until July Male black tures compete with other males for a female’s attention, struttingpast her with their wings partially spread and rapidly bobbing theirheads The female picks a suitable mate and a pair-bond forms.After mating, the pair usually does not build a nest Instead, eggsare laid in hollow bases of trees or stumps, seldom more than10–15' off the ground, or even in crannies of tall city buildings Eggsnumber from 1 to 3, and have green, blue or olive tint and brownsplotches Both parents share incubation duty for 32–39 days.Nestlings are born helpless and naked but quickly acquire downyfeathers The parents bring back digested food and regurgitate itinto the chicks’ mouths Chicks can fly after 63–70 days, but usual-

vul-ly do not leave the nest until they are 2–3 months old

LIFECYCLE

American Black Vulture 23

FOOD & FEEDING

PICK AND CHOOSE

Most of the black vulture’s diet consists of carrion and garbage;

it supplements this menu with bird nestlings, such as baby

herons, and young turtles that have just hatched When pressed

for food, the black vulture will also attack larger live prey, such as

calves, lambs, skunks and opossums.The vulture uses its thick bill

with a hooked end to tear into flesh.Though it has strong claws

for gripping prey, its talons are not sharp enough for it

to strike from the air, as a hawk or eagle can Black vultures

congregate around a kill and grab what they can

BEHAVIOR

A course of carrion

A dead donkey makes an inviting meal as black vultures drive away two turkey vultures trying

to join the feast.

Nest robber

Raiding a colony of egrets and herons, a vulture makes quick work of an unguarded nestling in its mangrove home.

A dump of delights…

A group of black vultures searches a garbage dump for a morning snack, while a single bird suns itself.

The black vulture snatches up baby turtles just after they hatch, before they can reach the safety

of the sea.

2

Black vultures begin their day soaring

on air thermals in their continual

search for food They glide in circles

and flap their wings periodically

Groups can range in number from a

few vultures to over 100 birds When

food is spotted, the black vultures pour

down from the sky When it is not

flying, the vulture often perches with its

wings spread in the sun The black

vulture will mix with turkey vultures at

roosting areas, usually in tall trees In

Nor th America, the black vulture

migrates to warmer climates, where it

The black vulture can be social when not eating and

is often found roosting in trees with other vultures.

24 American Black Vulture

CREATURE COMPARISONS

VITAL STATISTICS

1–3, usually 2 32–39 days 63–70 days

1 year

Mostly carrion; young herons, ducks, lambs; rotten and ripe fruit and vegetables

11 years

RELATED SPECIES

•The family Cathartidae

is limited to the Western Hemisphere and includes

7 species in two genera:

the Andean condor (Vultur

gryphus), California condor (V californianus), king

and black vulture The California condor is among the rarest.

The turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) has a slightly

larger wing span than the American black vultureand weighs slightly less.The turkey

vulture is easily identified by the redskin on its head that, at a distance,resembles a turkey.The turkeyvulture uses it eyesight to spot a carrion mealbut, unlike the black vulture, it also uses ahighly developed sense of smell Both vulturesoften roost in the same trees

E YES

The vulture’s vision is very acute, allowing it to find its prey as it soars high in the sky.

vulture doesn’t often

need to attack living targets.

B I L L

The bill is thick, rounded

and hooked; it is used

for tearing the flesh of

dead animals.

H EAD

The heads of both adults and young are bare and wrinkled, allowing the face to be kept clean when eating carrion.

American black vulture Turkey vulture

I N FLIGHT

The black vulture is distinguished in flight by its short, square tail, which scarcely reaches past the hind legs, and wings with a flash of white at the tip It makes several rapid flaps

in a short glide; its flight is more labored than that of other vultures.

PROFILE A MERICAN B LACK V ULTURE

The American black vulture uses its keen eyesight to spot its carrion meals; its bullying nature keeps others away while it eats.

American Cliff Swallow 25

•Elegantly colored small bird that forages for

insect prey while in flight

•Chases after swarms of insects with its tiny

mouth wide open

•Groups gather mud to build nests in colonies

on cliffs, canyons, bridges or buildings

WHERE IN THE WORLD?

Found in North America, from Alaska south throughout most of the U.S to central Mexico;

winters in South America from Brazil to Argentina

26 American Cliff Swallow

HABITAT

The extremely social American cliff swallow’s

life revolves around its flock: it forages,

preens, gathers mud, sunbathes, nests,

migrates and winters in large groups.

BEHAVIOR

?

• Cliff swallows choose

mud with high clay and

silt content; this makes the

nest less likely to crumble

when dry, important when

walls are shared.

• Cliff swallows often trespass into each other’s nests Most do nothing once inside, but occasionally one will steal fresh mud or toss

an egg out of the nest.

American cliff swallows are very social Large flocks foragetogether in flight throughout the day; birds have been timed at

up to almost 30 mph In cool and cloudy weather, the swallowgives a “squeak” call to announce the discovery of an insectswarm.This call attracts other birds to the food source

The birds preen their feathers and sunbathe together at theirdaytime perches on wires, small twigs and rooftops, and theyroost together at night, clinging to reeds and tall grasses

To protect their young against enemies, such as Americankestrels, black-billed magpies, bull snakes and rats, the cliffswallows build sheltered nests in large colonies Central nests

are sought after, becausethe nests at the edges

of a colony are morevulnerable to attack Butthere is not always safety

in numbers: ver y large,conspicuous coloniesattract predators Cliffswallows usually givealarm calls and surroundthe predator in a loosegroup to drive it off

The cliff swallow migrates to its North American breeding grounds,

arriving from March to May.True to its name, the bird has historically

nested on the sides of steep cliffs Though the cliff swallow still

settles along the cliffs and canyons of western North America, it has

adapted to alternative nesting sites across the U.S.: many bridges,

dams or buildings offer protective overhangs and suitable vertical

surfaces on which to attach a nest Swallows also need open areas

for foraging and a water source for the mud necessary to build

their nests In the fall, the birds

and their young are among the

earliest migrants south; large

flocks fly to South America

䊲 H ISTORICAL SITE

Cliff swallows often return

to cliffs each year.

CONSERVATION

American cliff swallows areabundant throughout theirrange and are currentlynot threatened.Theiradaptability in nesting siteshas led to the expansion oftheir range across theUnited States

FOOD & FEEDING

The American cliff swallow feeds entirely on insects caught inflight The bird chases after flying ants, wasps, grasshoppers,dragonflies, mosquitoes and beetles, including the destructivecotton-boll weevils; the swallow’s menu includes 84 insectfamilies from 10 orders The bird holds its tiny, gaping mouth aswide as it can to scoop up hundreds of insects as it darts along.Foraging in large groups of up to 2,000 birds, the cliff swallowsearches for swarms of insects.The birds tend to focus on areas

of relatively high altitudes; however, in cool and cloudy weatherthe cliff swallows feed just above the ground or water surfacedue to lack of visibility and decreased availability of swarminginsects In this damp and dreary climate, the bird tends to foragealone Groups always tend to follow each other; if one is feeding

on a big swarm, another will follow to scout out the area Thisholds true for solitary feeding birds as well American cliffswallows never have a problem sharing their food sources

American Cliff Swallow 27

The American cliff

swallow gathers mud

pellets, one by one, to

build its nest.

Construction…

A male transports the mud in his bill back to his nest and adds it to the lip on the walls of the slowly forming cup-shaped structure.

2

Production…

Many cliff swallows have built their nests on the underside of the bridge All birds within the colony are at the same stage of breeding.

Juveniles from many colonies form

a protective crèche and gather along a telephone wire, anxiously awaiting their parents’ return.

1

Cliff swallows arrive at their breeding areas by May.The birds aremore comfortable in flight; on land, they shuffle along when gathering mud to build their mud nests They often reuse nestsleft from the previous summer and need to add mud only to thenest’s entrance, a narrow tunnel that usually points downward

The cliff swallow generally nests in dense colonies on cliffs, banks,dams and bridges; groups of

several thousand nests havebeen observed Swallowsoften fight for safer, centrallylocated nests in thesecolonies The female swallowincubates the 4–5 eggs for up

to 16 days; after hatching, thechicks are able to fly by 24days, but still rely on their parents for food.The juvenilesgather to form large crèchesand depart with their parentsfor wintering grounds fromJuly to September

䊲 C UTE COUPLE

A male cliff swallow joins the female for added protection as she incubates the 4–5 eggs inside her cliffside nest.

䊲 D ENSE COLONY

Hundreds of nests are packed close together.