Cost accounting 14th edition

Brief Contents 1 The Manager and Management Accounting 2 2 An Introduction to Cost Terms and Purposes 26 3 Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis 62 4 Job Costing 98 5 Activity-Based Costing and Ac

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Cost Accounting

A Managerial Emphasis

Fourteenth Edition

Charles T HorngrenStanford University

Srikant M DatarHarvard University

Madhav V RajanStanford University

Prentice Hall

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

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ISBN-13: 978-0-13-210917-8 ISBN-10: 0-13-210917-4

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Horngren, Charles T.,

Cost accounting : a managerial emphasis / Charles T Horngren, Srikant M Datar, Madhav V Rajan 14th ed.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-13-210917-8 (hbk : alk paper) 1 Cost accounting I Datar, Srikant M II Rajan, Madhav V III Title

HF5686.C8H59 2012

658.15'11 dc22 2010042908

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Brief Contents

1 The Manager and Management Accounting 2

2 An Introduction to Cost Terms and Purposes 26

3 Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis 62

4 Job Costing 98

5 Activity-Based Costing and Activity-Based Management 138

6 Master Budget and Responsibility Accounting 182

7 Flexible Budgets, Direct-Cost Variances, and Management Control 226

8 Flexible Budgets, Overhead Cost Variances, and Management Control 262

9 Inventory Costing and Capacity Analysis 300

10 Determining How Costs Behave 340

11 Decision Making and Relevant Information 390

12 Pricing Decisions and Cost Management 432

13 Strategy, Balanced Scorecard, and Strategic Profitability Analysis 466

14 Cost Allocation, Customer-Profitability Analysis, and Sales-Variance Analysis 502

15 Allocation of Support-Department Costs, Common Costs, and Revenues 542

16 Cost Allocation: Joint Products and Byproducts 576

17 Process Costing 606

18 Spoilage, Rework, and Scrap 644

19 Balanced Scorecard: Quality, Time, and the Theory of Constraints 670

20 Inventory Management, Just-in-Time, and Simplified Costing Methods 702

21 Capital Budgeting and Cost Analysis 738

22 Management Control Systems, Transfer Pricing, and Multinational Considerations 774

23 Performance Measurement, Compensation, and Multinational Considerations 806

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1 The Manager and Management

Strategic Decisions and the Management Accountant 5

Value Chain and Supply Chain Analysis and Key

Success Factors 5

Value-Chain Analysis 6

Supply-Chain Analysis 7

Key Success Factors 7

Decision Making, Planning, and Control: The Five-Step

Decision-Making Process 9

Key Management Accounting Guidelines 11

Cost-Benefit Approach 12

Behavioral and Technical Considerations 12

Different Costs for Different Purposes 12

Organization Structure and the Management

Accountant 13

Line and Staff Relationships 13

The Chief Financial Officer and the Controller 13

Professional Ethics 14

Institutional Support 14

Concepts in Action: Management Accounting Beyond

the Numbers

Typical Ethical Challenges 17

Problem for Self-Study 18 | Decision Points 18 | Terms to

Learn 19 | Assignment Material 19 | Questions 19 |

Exercises 20 | Problems 22 | Collaborative Learning

Problem 25

2 An Introduction to Cost Terms and

GM Collapses Under the Weight of its Fixed Costs

Costs and Cost Terminology 27

Direct Costs and Indirect Costs 28

Challenges in Cost Allocation 29

Factors Affecting Direct/Indirect Cost

Classifications 29

Cost-Behavior Patterns: Variable Costs and Fixed

Costs 30

Cost Drivers 32

Concepts in Action: How Zipcar Helps Reduce

Twitter’s Transportation Costs

Relevant Range 33

Relationships of Types of Costs 34

Total Costs and Unit Costs 35Unit Costs 35

Use Unit Costs Cautiously 35Business Sectors, Types of Inventory, InventoriableCosts, and Period Costs 36

Manufacturing-, Merchandising-, and Service-SectorCompanies 36

Types of Inventory 37Commonly Used Classifications of ManufacturingCosts 37

Inventoriable Costs 37Period Costs 38Illustrating the Flow of Inventoriable Costs and PeriodCosts 39

Manufacturing-Sector Example 39Recap of Inventoriable Costs and Period Costs 42Prime Costs and Conversion Costs 43

Measuring Costs Requires Judgment 44Measuring Labor Costs 44

Overtime Premium and Idle Time 44Benefits of Defining Accounting Terms 45Different Meanings of Product Costs 45

A Framework for Cost Accounting and CostManagement 47

Calculating the Cost of Products, Services, and OtherCost Objects 47

Obtaining Information for Planning and Control andPerformance Evaluation 47

Analyzing the Relevant Information for MakingDecisions 47

3 Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis 62

How the “The Biggest Rock Show Ever” Turned a Big Profit

Essentials of CVP Analysis 63Contribution Margins 64Expressing CVP Relationships 66Cost-Volume-Profit Assumptions 68Breakeven Point and Target Operating Income 68Breakeven Point 68

Target Operating Income 69Target Net Income and Income Taxes 70Using CVP Analysis for Decision Making 72Decision to Advertise 72

Decision to Reduce Selling Price 73Contents

iv

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CONTENTS 䊉 V

Sensitivity Analysis and Margin of Safety 73

Cost Planning and CVP 75

Alternative Fixed-Cost/Variable-Cost Structures 75

Operating Leverage 76

Effects of Sales Mix on Income 77

Concepts in Action: Fixed Costs, Variable Costs, and

the Future of Radio

CVP Analysis in Service and Nonprofit Organizations 80

Contribution Margin Versus Gross Margin 81

Problem for Self-Study 82 | Decision Points 83

APPENDIX:Decision Models and Uncertainty 84

Terms to Learn 86 | Assignment Material 87 |

Questions 87 | Exercises 87 | Problems 91 |

Collaborative Learning Problem 97

4 Job Costing 98

Job Costing and Nexamp’s Next Generation Energy and

Carbon Solutions

Building-Block Concepts of Costing Systems 99

Job-Costing and Process-Costing Systems 100

Job Costing: Evaluation and Implementation 102

Time Period Used to Compute Indirect-Cost

Rates 103

Normal Costing 104

General Approach to Job Costing 104

Concepts in Action: Job Costing on Cowboys Stadium

The Role of Technology 109

Underallocated and Overallocated Direct Costs 118

Adjusted Allocation-Rate Approach 118

Proration Approach 119

Write-Off to Cost of Goods Sold Approach 121

Choice Among Approaches 121

Variations from Normal Costing: A Service-Sector

Example 122

Broad Averaging and Its Consequences 139

Undercosting and Overcosting 140

Product-Cost Cross-Subsidization 140

Simple Costing System at Plastim Corporation 141Design, Manufacturing, and Distribution Processes 141

Simple Costing System Using a Single Indirect-CostPool 142

Applying the Five-Step Decision-Making Process atPlastim 144

Refining a Costing System 145Reasons for Refining a Costing System 145Guidelines for Refining a Costing System 146Activity-Based Costing Systems 146

Plastim’s ABC System 146Cost Hierarchies 149Implementing Activity-Based Costing 150Implementing ABC at Plastim 150Comparing Alternative Costing Systems 153Considerations in Implementing Activity-Based-Costing Systems 154

Concepts in Action: Successfully Championing ABC

Using ABC Systems for Improving Cost Managementand Profitability 156

Pricing and Product-Mix Decisions 156Cost Reduction and Process ImprovementDecisions 156

Design Decisions 157Planning and Managing Activities 158Activity-Based Costing and Department CostingSystems 158

ABC in Service and Merchandising Companies 159

Concepts in Action: Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing at Charles Schwab

6 Master Budget and Responsibility Accounting 182

“Scrimping” at the Ritz: Master Budgets

Budgets and the Budgeting Cycle 184Strategic Plans and Operating Plans 184Budgeting Cycle and Master Budget 185Advantages of Budgets 185

Coordination and Communication 185Framework for Judging Performance and FacilitatingLearning 186

Motivating Managers and Other Employees 186Challenges in Administering Budgets 187Developing an Operating Budget 187Time Coverage of Budgets 187Steps in Preparing an Operating Budget 188Financial Planning Models and Sensitivity Analysis 197

Concepts in Action: Web-Enabled Budgeting and Hendrick Motorsports

Budgeting and Responsibility Accounting 199

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Organization Structure and Responsibility 199

Feedback 200

Responsibility and Controllability 200

Human Aspects of Budgeting 201

Budgetary Slack 201

Kaizen Budgeting 203

Budgeting in Multinational Companies 203

APPENDIX:The Cash Budget 206

7 Flexible Budgets, Direct-Cost Variances,

and Management Control 226

The NBA: Where Frugal Happens

Static Budgets and Variances 227

The Use of Variances 227

Static Budgets and Static-Budget Variances 228

Concepts in Action: Starbucks Reduces Direct-Cost

Variances to Brew a Turnaround

Summary of Variances 239

Journal Entries Using Standard Costs 240

Implementing Standard Costing 241

Standard Costing and Information Technology 241

Wide Applicability of Standard Costing 242

Management Uses of Variances 242

Multiple Causes of Variances 242

When to Investigate Variances 242

Performance Measurement Using Variances 243

Organization Learning 243

Continuous Improvement 244

Financial and Nonfinancial Performance

Measures 244

Benchmarking and Variance Analysis 244

APPENDIX:Market-Share and Market-Size Variances 248

8 Flexible Budgets, Overhead Cost Variances, and Management Control 262

Overhead Cost Variances Force Macy’s to Shop for Changes in Strategy

Planning of Variable and Fixed Overhead Costs 263Planning Variable Overhead Costs 264

Planning Fixed Overhead Costs 264Standard Costing at Webb Company 264Developing Budgeted Variable Overhead Rates 265Developing Budgeted Fixed Overhead Rates 266Variable Overhead Cost Variances 267

Flexible-Budget Analysis 267Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance 267Variable Overhead Spending Variance 269Journal Entries for Variable Overhead Costs andVariances 270

Fixed Overhead Cost Variances 271Production-Volume Variance 272Interpreting the Production-Volume Variance 273Journal Entries for Fixed Overhead Costs andVariances 274

Integrated Analysis of Overhead Cost Variances 2764-Variance Analysis 277

Combined Variance Analysis 278Production-Volume Variance and Sales-VolumeVariance 278

Concepts in Action: Variance Analysis and Standard Costing Help Sandoz Manage Its Overhead Costs

Variance Analysis and Activity-Based Costing 281Flexible Budget and Variance Analysis for DirectLabor Costs 282

Flexible Budget and Variance Analysis for FixedSetup Overhead Costs 284

Overhead Variances in Nonmanufacturing Settings 285Financial and Nonfinancial Performance

Measures 286

9 Inventory Costing and Capacity Analysis 300

Lean Manufacturing Helps Companies Reduce Inventory and Survive the Recession

Variable and Absorption Costing 301Variable Costing 301

Absorption Costing 302Comparing Variable and Absoption Costing 302Variable vs Absorption Costing: Operating Income andIncome Statements 303

Comparing Income Statements for One Year 303Comparing Income Statements for Three Years 305

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CONTENTS 䊉 VII

Variable Costing and the Effect of Sales and

Production on Operating Income 308

Absorption Costing and Performance Measurement 309

Undesirable Buildup of Inventories 310

Proposals for Revising Performance Evaluation 311

Comparing Inventory Costing Methods 312

Absorption Costing and Alternative

Denominator-Level Capacity Concepts 314

Effect on Budgeted Fixed Manufacturing Cost

Rate 315

Choosing a Capacity Level 316

Product Costing and Capacity Management 316

Pricing Decisions and the Downward Demand

Spiral 317

Performance Evaluation 318

Concepts in Action: The “Death Spiral” and the End of

Landline Telephone Service

External Reporting 320

Tax Requirements 322

Planning and Control of Capacity Costs 323

Difficulties in Forecasting Chosen Denominator-Level

APPENDIX:Breakeven Points in Variable Costing and

Absorption Costing 327

10 Determining How Costs Behave 340

Management Accountants at Cisco Embrace

Opportunities, Enhance Sustainability

Basic Assumptions and Examples of Cost Functions 341

Basic Assumptions 342

Linear Cost Functions 342

Review of Cost Classification 343

Identifying Cost Drivers 344

The Cause-and-Effect Criterion 345

Cost Drivers and the Decision-Making Process 345

Cost Estimation Methods 346

Industrial Engineering Method 346

Conference Method 346

Account Analysis Method 347

Quantitative Analysis Method 347

Steps in Estimating a Cost Function Using QuantitativeAnalysis 348

High-Low Method 350Regression Analysis Method 352Evaluating Cost Drivers of the Estimated CostFunction 353

Choosing Among Cost Drivers 354

Concepts in Action: Activity-Based Costing:

Identifying Cost and Revenue Drivers

Cost Drivers and Activity-Based Costing 356Nonlinear Cost Functions 357

Learning Curves 358Cumulative Average-Time Learning Model 359Incremental Unit-Time Learning Model 360Incorporating Learning-Curve Effects into Prices andStandards 361

Data Collection and Adjustment Issues 362

APPENDIX:Regression Analysis 367

11 Decision Making and Relevant Information 390

Relevant Costs, JetBlue, and Twitter

Information and the Decision Process 391The Concept of Relevance 392

Relevant Costs and Relevant Revenues 393Qualitative and Quantitative Relevant Information 394

An Illustration of Relevance: Choosing Output Levels 394

One-Time-Only Special Orders 394Potential Problems in Relevant-Cost Analysis 397Insourcing-versus-Outsourcing and Make-versus-BuyDecisions 397

Outsourcing and Idle Facilities 397Strategic and Qualitative Factors 399

Concepts in Action: Pringles Prints and the Offshoring

of Innovation

International Outsourcing 400Opportunity Costs and Outsourcing 401The Opportunity-Cost Approach 402Carrying Costs of Inventory 403Product-Mix Decisions with Capacity Constraints 405Customer Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, andRelevant Costs 406

Relevant-Revenue and Relevant-Cost Analysis ofDropping a Customer 408

Relevant-Revenue and Relevant-Cost Analysis ofAdding a Customer 409

Relevant-Revenue and Relevant-Cost Analysis ofClosing or Adding Branch Offices or Segments 409

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Irrelevance of Past Costs and Equipment-Replacement

Decisions 410

Decisions and Performance Evaluation 412

APPENDIX:Linear Programming 416

12 Pricing Decisions and Cost

Target Pricing and Tata Motors’ $2,500 Car

Major Influences on Pricing Decisions 433

Customers, Competitors, and Costs 434

Costing and Pricing for the Short Run 434

Relevant Costs for Short-Run Pricing Decisions 435

Strategic and Other Factors in Short-Run Pricing 435

Effect of Time Horizon on Short-Run Pricing

Decisions 435

Costing and Pricing for the Long Run 436

Calculating Product Costs for Long-Run Pricing

Decisions 436

Alternative Long-Run Pricing Approaches 437

Target Costing for Target Pricing 439

Understanding Customers’ Perceived Value 439

Doing Competitor Analysis 439

Implementing Target Pricing and Target Costing 440

Concepts in Action: Extreme Target Pricing and Cost

Cost-Plus Target Rate of Return on Investment 445

Alternative Cost-Plus Methods 446

Cost-Plus Pricing and Target Pricing 447

Life-Cycle Product Budgeting and Costing 447

Life-Cycle Budgeting and Pricing Decisions 448

Customer Life-Cycle Costing 449

Additional Considerations for Pricing Decisions 450

Price Discrimination 450

Peak-Load Pricing 450

International Considerations 451

Antitrust Laws 451

Problem for Self-Study 452 | Decision Points 454 | Terms

to Learn 455 | Assignment Material 455 | Questions 455

| Exercises 456 | Problems 460 | Collaborative Learning

Strategy Implementation and the Balanced Scorecard 470

The Balanced Scorecard 470Strategy Maps and the Balanced Scorecard 471Implementing a Balanced Scorecard 474Aligning the Balanced Scorecard to Strategy 475Features of a Good Balanced Scorecard 475Pitfalls in Implementing a Balanced Scorecard 476Evaluating the Success of Strategy and

Implementation 477Strategic Analysis of Operating Income 478Growth Component of Change in OperatingIncome 479

Price-Recovery Component of Change in OperatingIncome 481

Productivity Component of Change in OperatingIncome 482

Further Analysis of Growth, Price-Recovery, andProductivity Components 483

Concepts in Action: The Growth Versus Profitability Choice at Facebook

Applying the Five-Step Decision-Making Framework toStrategy 485

Downsizing and the Management of ProcessingCapacity 486

Engineered and Discretionary Costs 486Identifying Unused Capacity for Engineered andDiscretionary Overhead Costs 487

Managing Unused Capacity 487

APPENDIX:Productivity Measurement 492

14 Cost Allocation, Customer-Profitability Analysis, and Sales-Variance Analysis 502

Minding the Store: Analyzing Customers, Best Buy Decides Not All Are Welcome

Purposes of Cost Allocation 503Criteria to Guide Cost-Allocation Decisions 504Cost Allocation Decisions 506

Allocating Corporate Costs to Divisions andProducts 508

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Presenting Profitability Analysis 515

Using the Five-Step Decision-Making Process to

Manage Customer Profitability 517

Concepts in Action: iPhone “Apps” Challenge

Customer Profitability at AT&T

APPENDIX:Mix and Yield Variances for Substitutable

Inputs 525

15 Allocation of Support-Department Costs,

Common Costs, and Revenues 542

Cost Allocation and the Future of “Smart Grid” Energy

Infrastructure

Allocating Support Department Costs Using the

Single-Rate and Dual-Single-Rate Methods 543

Single-Rate and Dual-Rate Methods 544

Allocation Based on the Demand for (or Usage of)

Computer Services 544

Allocation Based on the Supply of Capacity 545

Single-Rate Versus Dual-Rate Method 546

Budgeted Versus Actual Costs, and the Choice of

Allocaton Base 547

Budgeted Versus Actual Rates 547

Budgeted Versus Actual Usage 548

Allocating Costs of Multiple Support Departments 550

Direct Method 550

Step-Down Method 551

Reciprocal Method 553

Overview of Methods 556

Allocating Common Costs 557

Stand-Alone Cost-Allocation Method 557

Incremental Cost-Allocation Method 557

Cost Allocations and Contract Disputes 558

Contracting with the U.S Government 559

Fairness of Pricing 559

Concepts in Action: Contract Disputes over

Reimbursable Costs for the U.S Department

16 Cost Allocation: Joint Products and Byproducts 576

Joint Cost Allocation and the Production of Ethanol Fuel

Joint-Cost Basics 577Allocating Joint Costs 579Approaches to Allocating Joint Costs 579Sales Value at Splitoff Method 580Physical-Measure Method 582Net Realizable Value Method 583Constant Gross-Margin Percentage NRV Method 584Choosing an Allocation Method 586

Not Allocating Joint Costs 587Irrelevance of Joint Costs for Decision Making 587Sell-or-Process-Further Decisions 587

Joint-Cost Allocation and Performance Evaluation 588

Pricing Decisions 589Accounting for Byproducts 589

Concepts in Action: Byproduct Costing Keeps Wendy’s Chili Profitable and on the Menu

Production Method: Byproducts Recognized at TimeProduction Is Completed 591

Sales Method: Byproducts Recognized at Time ofSale 592

17 Process Costing 606

ExxonMobil and Accounting Differences in the Oil Patch

Illustrating Process Costing 607Case 1: Process Costing with No Beginning or EndingWork-in-Process Inventory 608

Case 2: Process Costing with Zero Beginning and SomeEnding Work-in-Process Inventory 609

Physical Units and Equivalent Units (Steps 1 and 2) 610

Calculation of Product Costs (Steps 3, 4, and 5) 611Journal Entries 612

Case 3: Process Costing with Some Beginning and SomeEnding Work-in-Process Inventory 613

Weighted-Average Method 614First-In, First-Out Method 617

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Comparison of Weighted-Average and FIFO

Methods 620

Transferred-In Costs in Process Costing 621

Transferred-In Costs and the Weighted-Average

Method 622

Transferred-In Costs and the FIFO Method 624

Points to Remember About Transferred-In Costs 625

Hybrid Costing Systems 626

Overview of Operation-Costing Systems 626

Concepts in Action: Hybrid Costing for Customized

Shoes at Adidas

Illustration of an Operation-Costing System 627

Journal Entries 629

APPENDIX:Standard-Costing Method of Process

Costing 632

18 Spoilage, Rework, and Scrap 644

Rework Delays the Boeing Dreamliner by Three Years

Defining Spoilage, Rework and Scrap 645

Two Types of Spoilage 646

Normal Spoilage 646

Abnormal Spoilage 646

Spoilage in Process Costing Using Weighted-Average

and FIFO 647

Count All Spoilage 647

Five-Step Procedure for Process Costing with

Spoilage 648

Weighted-Average Method and Spoilage 649

FIFO Method and Spoilage 649

Journal Entries 652

Inspection Points and Allocating Costs of Normal

Spoilage 652

Job Costing and Spoilage 655

Job Costing and Rework 656

Accounting for Scrap 657

Recognizing Scrap at the Time of Its Sale 657

Recognizing Scrap at the Time of Its Production 658

Concepts in Action: Managing Waste and

Environmental Costs at KB Home

APPENDIX:Standard-Costing Method and Spoilage 661

19 Balanced Scorecard: Quality, Time, and the Theory of Constraints 670

Toyota Plans Changes After Millions of Defective Cars Are Recalled

Quality as a Competitive Tool 671The Financial Perspective: Costs of Quality 672The Customer Perspective: Nonfinancial Measures ofCustomer Satisfaction 675

The Internal-Business-Process Perspective: AnalyzingQuality Problems and Improving Quality 675Nonfinancial Measures of Internal-Business-ProcessQuality 678

The Learning-and-Growth Perspective: QualityImprovements 678

Making Decisions and Evaluating QualityPerformance 678

Time as a Competitive Tool 680Customer-Response Time and On-TimePerformance 681

Bottlenecks and Time Drivers 682

Concepts in Action: Overcoming Wireless Data Bottlenecks

Relevant Revenues and Relevant Costs of Time 684Theory of Constraints and Throughput-MarginAnalysis 686

Managing Bottlenecks 686Balanced Scorecard and Time-Related Measures 688

20 Inventory Management, Just-in-Time, and Simplified Costing Methods 702

Costco Aggressively Manages Inventory to Thrive in Tough Times

Inventory Management in Retail Organizations 703Costs Associated with Goods for Sale 703Economic-Order-Quantity Decision Model 704When to Order, Assuming Certainty 707Safety Stock 707

Estimating Inventory-Related Relevant Costs and TheirEffects 709

Considerations in Obtaining Estimates of RelevantCosts 709

Cost of a Prediction Error 709Conflict Between the EOQ Decision Model andManagers’ Performance Evaluation 710Just-in-Time Purchasing 711

JIT Purchasing and EOQ Model Parameters 711Relevant Costs of JIT Purchasing 711

Supplier Evaluation and Relevant Costs of Qualityand Timely Deliveries 712

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CONTENTS 䊉 XI

JIT Purchasing, Planning and Control, and

Supply-Chain Analysis 713

Inventory Management, MRP and JIT Production 714

Materials Requirements Planning 714

JIT Production 715

Features of JIT Production Systems 715

Financial Benefits of JIT and Relevant Costs 715

JIT in Service Industries 716

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems 716

Concepts in Action: After the Encore: Just-in-Time

Live Concert Recordings

Performance Measures and Control in JIT

Production 718

Effect of JIT Systems on Product Costing 718

Backflush Costing 718

Simplified Normal or Standard Costing Systems 718

Accounting for Variances 722

Special Considerations in Backflush Costing 726

Lean Accounting 726

Problem 737

21 Capital Budgeting and Cost Analysis 738

Target’s Capital Budgeting Hits the Bull’s-Eye

Stages of Capital Budgeting 739

Discounted Cash Flow 741

Net Present Value Method 742

Internal Rate-of-Return Method 743

Comparison of Net Present Value and Internal

Rate-of-Return Methods 745

Sensitivity Analysis 745

Payback Method 746

Uniform Cash Flows 746

Nonuniform Cash Flows 747

Accrual Accounting Rate-of-Return Method 749

Relevant Cash Flows in Discounted Cash Flow

Analysis 750

Relevant After-Tax Flows 750

Categories of Cash Flows 752

Project Management and Performance Evaluation 755

Post-Investment Audits 756

Performance Evaluation 756

Strategic Considerations in Capital Budgeting 757

Investment in Research and Development 757

Customer Value and Capital Budgeting 757

Concepts in Action: International Capital Budgeting

at Disney

APPENDIX:Capital Budgeting and Inflation 762

Collaborative Learning Problem 772 | Answers to Exercises

in Compound Interest (Exercise 21-16) 772

22 Management Control Systems, Transfer Pricing, and Multinational

Benefits of Decentralization 777Costs of Decentralization 778Comparison of Benefits and Costs 779Decentralization in Multinational Companies 779Choices About Responsibility Centers 779Transfer Pricing 780

Criteria for Evaluating Transfer Prices 780Calculating Transfer Prices 781

An Illustration of Transfer Pricing 781Market-Based Transfer Prices 784Perfectly-Competitive-Market Case 784Distress Prices 784

Imperfect Competition 785Cost-Based Transfer Prices 785Full-Cost Bases 785

Variable-Cost Bases 787Hybrid Transfer Prices 787Prorating the Difference Between Maximum andMinimum Transfer Prices 788

Negotiated Pricing 788Dual Pricing 789

A General Guideline for Transfer-Pricing Situations 790Multinational Transfer Pricing and Tax

Considerations 791Transfer Pricing for Tax Minimization 792

Concepts in Action: Transfer Pricing Dispute Temporarily Stops the Flow of Fiji Water

Transfer Prices Designed for Multiple Objectives 793Additional Issues in Transfer Pricing 794

23 Performance Measurement, Compensation, and Multinational Considerations 806

Misalignment Between CEO Compensation and Performance at AIG

Financial and Nonfinancial Performance Measures 807Accounting-Based Measures for Business Units 808Return on Investment 809

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Residual Income 810

Economic Value Added 812

Return on Sales 813

Comparing Performance Measures 813

Choosing the Details of the Performance Measures 814

Alternative Time Horizons 814

Alternative Definitions of Investment 815

Alternative Asset Measurements 815

Target Levels of Performance and Feedback 818

Choosing Target Levels of Performance 818

Choosing the Timing of Feedback 818

Performance Measurement in Multinational

Benchmarks and Relative Performance Evaluation 823

Performance Measures at the Individual Activity

Strategy and Levers of Control 826Boundary Systems 826

Belief Systems 827Interactive Control Systems 827

Appendix A 839 Appendix B: Recommended Readings—available online www.pearsonhighered.com/horngren

Appendix C: Cost Accounting in Professional Examination—available online

www.pearsonhighered.com/horngren Glossary 846

Author Index 857 Company Index 858 Subject Index 860

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About the Authors

Charles T Horngrenis the Edmund W Littlefield Professor of Accounting, Emeritus, at

Stanford University A Graduate of Marquette University, he received his MBA from

Harvard University and his PhD from the University of Chicago He is also the recipient

of honorary doctorates from Marquette University and DePaul University

A certified public accountant, Horngren served on the Accounting Principles Board

for six years, the Financial Accounting Standards Board Advisory Council for five years,

and the Council of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants for three years

For six years, he served as a trustee of the Financial Accounting Foundation, which

over-sees the Financial Accounting Standards Board and the Government Accounting

Standards Board Horngren is a member of the Accounting Hall of Fame

A member of the American Accounting Association, Horngren has been its president

and its director of research He received its first Outstanding Accounting Educator

Award The California Certified Public Accountants Foundation gave Horngren its

Faculty Excellence Award and its Distinguished Professor Award He is the first person to

have received both awards

The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants presented its first

Outstanding Educator Award to Horngren

Horngren was named Accountant of the Year, Education, by the national professional

accounting fraternity, Beta Alpha Psi

Professor Horngren is also a member of the Institute of Management Accountants,

from whom he received its Distinguished Service Award He was also a member of the

Institutes’ Board of Regents, which administers the Certified Management Accountant

examinations

Horngren is the author of other accounting books published by Prentice Hall:

Introduction to Management Accounting, 15th ed (2011, with Sundem and Stratton);

Introduction to Financial Accounting, 10th ed (2011, with Sundem and Elliott);

Accounting, 8th ed (2010, with Harrison and Bamber); and Financial Accounting, 8th ed.

(2010, with Harrison)

Horngren is the Consulting Editor for the Charles T Horngren Series in Accounting

Srikant M Datar is the Arthur Lowes Dickinson Professor of Business Administration and

Senior Associate Dean at Harvard University A graduate with distinction from the

University of Bombay, he received gold medals upon graduation from the Indian Institute

of Management, Ahmedabad, and the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India

A chartered accountant, he holds two master’s degrees and a PhD from Stanford

University

Cited by his students as a dedicated and innovative teacher, Datar received the George

Leland Bach Award for Excellence in the Classroom at Carnegie Mellon University and

the Distinguished Teaching Award at Stanford University

Datar has published his research in leading accounting, marketing, and operations

management journals, including The Accounting Review, Contemporary Accounting

Research, Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance, Journal of Accounting and

Economics, Journal of Accounting Research, and Management Science He has also

served on the editorial board of several journals and presented his research to corporate

executives and academic audiences in North America, South America, Asia, Africa,

Australia, and Europe

Datar is a member of the board of directors of Novartis A.G., ICF International,

KPIT Cummins Infosystems Ltd., Stryker Corporation, and Harvard Business Publishing,

and has worked with many organizations, including Apple Computer, AT&T, Boeing, Du

Pont, Ford, General Motors, HSBC, Hewlett-Packard, Morgan Stanley, PepsiCo, TRW,

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Visa, and the World Bank He is a member of the American Accounting Association andthe Institute of Management Accountants.

Madhav V Rajanis the Gregor G Peterson Professor of Accounting and Senior AssociateDean at Stanford University From 2002 to 2010, he was the area coordinator foraccounting at Stanford’s Graduate School of Business

Rajan received his undergraduate degree in commerce from the University of Madras,India, and his MS in accounting, MBA, and PhD degrees from the Graduate School ofIndustrial Administration at Carnegie Mellon University In 1990, his dissertation wonthe Alexander Henderson Award for Excellence in Economic Theory

Rajan’s primary area of research interest is the economics-based analysis of ment accounting issues, especially as they relate to internal control cost allocation, capitalbudgeting, quality management, supply chain, and performance systems in firms He haspublished his research in leading accounting and operations management journals includ-

manage-ing The Accountmanage-ing Review, Review of Financial Studies, Journal of Accountmanage-ing Research, and Management Science In 2004, he received the Notable Contribution to

Management Accounting Literature Award

Rajan has served as the Departmental Editor for Accounting at Management Science,

as well as associate editor for both the accounting and operations areas From 2002 to

2008, Rajan served as an editor of The Accounting Review He is also currently an ciate editor for the Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance Rajan is a member of

asso-the management accounting section of asso-the American Accounting Association and hastwice been a plenary speaker at the AAA Management Accounting Conference

Rajan has won several teaching awards at Wharton and Stanford, including theDavid W Hauck Award, the highest undergraduate teaching honor at Wharton Rajanhas taught in a variety of executive education programs including the Stanford ExecutiveProgram, the National Football League Program for Managers, and the NationalBasketball Players Association Program, as well as custom programs for firms includingnVidia, Genentech, and Google

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make Why? Because success in any organization—from the smallest corner store to the

largest multinational corporation—requires the use of cost accounting concepts and

prac-tices Cost accounting provides key data to managers for planning and controlling, as well

as costing products, services, even customers This book focuses on how cost accounting

helps managers make better decisions, as cost accountants are increasingly becoming

inte-gral members of their company’s decision-making teams In order to emphasize this

promi-nence in decision-making, we use the “different costs for different purposes” theme

throughout this book By focusing on basic concepts, analyses, uses, and procedures

instead of procedures alone, we recognize cost accounting as a managerial tool for business

strategy and implementation

We also prepare students for the rewards and challenges they face in the professional

cost accounting world of today and tomorrow For example, we emphasize both the

development of analytical skills such as Excel to leverage available information

technol-ogy and the values and behaviors that make cost accountants effective in the workplace

Hallmark Features of Cost Accounting

䊉 Exceptionally strong emphasis on managerial uses of cost information

䊉 Clarity and understandability of the text

䊉 Excellent balance in integrating modern topics with traditional coverage

䊉 Emphasis on human behavior aspects

䊉 Extensive use of real-world examples

䊉 Ability to teach chapters in different sequences

䊉 Excellent quantity, quality, and range of assignment material

The first thirteen chapters provide the essence of a one-term (quarter or semester) course

There is ample text and assignment material in the book’s twenty-three chapters for a

two-term course This book can be used immediately after the student has had an

intro-ductory course in financial accounting Alternatively, this book can build on an

introduc-tory course in managerial accounting

Deciding on the sequence of chapters in a textbook is a challenge Since every

instruc-tor has a unique way of organizing his or her course, we utilize a modular, flexible

organ-ization that permits a course to be custom tailored This organorgan-ization facilitates diverse

approaches to teaching and learning.

As an example of the book’s flexibility, consider our treatment of process costing Process

costing is described in Chapters 17 and 18 Instructors interested in filling out a student’s

per-spective of costing systems can move directly from job-order costing described in Chapter 4 to

Chapter 17 without interruption in the flow of material Other instructors may want their

stu-dents to delve into activity-based costing and budgeting and more decision-oriented topics

early in the course These instructors may prefer to postpone discussion of process costing

New to This Edition

Greater Emphasis on Strategy

This edition deepens the book’s emphasis on strategy development and execution Several

chapters build on the strategy theme introduced in Chapter 1 Chapter 13 has a greater

discussion of strategy maps as a useful tool to implement the balanced scorecard and a

Preface

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simplified presentation of how income statements of companies can be analyzed from thestrategic perspective of product differentiation or cost leadership We also discuss strategyconsiderations in the design of activity-based costing systems in Chapter 5, the prepara-tion of budgets in Chapter 6, and decision making in Chapters 11 and 12.

Deeper Consideration of Global Issues

Business is increasingly becoming more global Even small and medium-sized companiesacross the manufacturing, merchandising, and service sectors are being forced to dealwith the effects of globalization Global considerations permeate many chapters Forexample, Chapter 11 discusses the benefits and the challenges that arise when outsourcingproducts or services outside the United States Chapter 22 examines the importance oftransfer pricing in minimizing the tax burden faced by multinational companies Severalnew examples of management accounting applications in companies are drawn frominternational settings

Increased Focus on the Service Sector

In keeping with the shifts in the U.S and world economy this edition makes greater use

of service sector examples For example, Chapter 2 discusses the concepts around themeasurement of costs in a software development rather than a manufacturing setting.Chapter 6 provides several examples of the use of budgets and targets in service compa-nies Several concepts in action boxes focus on the service sector such as activity-basedcosting at Charles Schwab (Chapter 5) and managing wireless data bottlenecks(Chapter 19)

New Cutting Edge Topics

The pace of change in organizations continues to be rapid The fourteenth edition of Cost Accounting reflects changes occurring in the role of cost accounting in organizations.

䊉 We have introduced foreign currency and forward contract issues in the context ofoutsourcing decisions

䊉 We have added ideas based on Six Sigma to the discussion of quality

䊉 We have rewritten the chapter on strategy and the balanced scorecard and simplifiedthe presentation to connect strategy development, strategy maps, balanced scorecard,and analysis of operating income

䊉 We discuss current trends towards Beyond Budgeting and the use of rolling forecasts

䊉 We develop the link between traditional forms of cost allocation and the nascentmovement in Europe towards Resource Consumption Accounting

䊉 We focus more sharply on how companies are simplifying their costing systems withthe presentation of value streams and lean accounting

Opening Vignettes

Each chapter opens with a vignette on a real company situation The vignettes engage thereader in a business situation, or dilemma, illustrating why and how the concepts in thechapter are relevant in business For example, Chapter 1 describes how Apple uses costaccounting information to make decisions relating to how they price the most popularsongs on iTunes Chapter 3 explains how the band U2 paid for their extensive new stage bylowering ticket prices Chapter 7 describes how even the NBA was forced to cut costs afterover half of the league’s franchises declared losses Chapter 11 shows how JetBlue usesTwitter and e-mail to help their customers make better pricing decisions Chapter 12 dis-cusses how Tata Motors designed a car for the Indian masses, priced at only $2,500.Chapter 14 shows how Best Buy boosts profits by analyzing its customers and their buyinghabits Chapter 18 describes how Boeing incurred great losses as it reworked its much-anticipated Dreamliner airplane

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PREFACE 䊉 XVIIConcepts in Action Boxes

Found in every chapter, these boxes cover real-world cost accounting issues across a

vari-ety of industries including automobile racing, defense contracting, entertainment,

manu-facturing, and retailing New examples include

䊉 How Zipcar Helps Reduce Business Transportation Costs p 33

䊉 Job Costing at Cowboys Stadium p 108

䊉 The “Death Spiral” and the End of Landline Telephone Service p 319

䊉 Transfer Pricing Dispute Temporarily Stops the Flow of Fiji Water p 793

Streamlined Presentation

We continue to try to simplify and streamline our presentation of various topics to make

it as easy as possible for a student to learn the concepts, tools, and frameworks introduced

in different chapters Examples of more streamlined presentations can be found in

䊉 Chapter 3 on the discussion of target net income

䊉 Chapter 5 on the core issues in activity-based costing (ABC)

䊉 Chapter 8, which uses a single comprehensive example to illustrate the use of variance

analysis in ABC systems

䊉 Chapter 13, which has a much simpler presentation of the strategic analysis of

operat-ing income

䊉 Chapter 15, which uses a simpler, unified framework to discuss various cost-allocation

methods

䊉 Chapters 17 and 18, where the material on standard costing has been moved to the

appendix, allowing for smoother transitions through the sections in the body of

the chapter

Selected Chapter-by-Chapter Content Changes

Thank you for your continued support of Cost Accounting In every new edition, we

strive to update this text thoroughly To ease your transition from the thirteenth edition,

here are selected highlights of chapter changes for the fourteenth edition.

Chapter 1 has been rewritten to focus on strategy, decision-making, and learning

emphasizing the managerial issues that animate modern management accounting It now

emphasizes decision making instead of problem solving, performance evaluation instead

of scorekeeping and learning instead of attention directing

Chapter 2 has been rewritten to emphasize the service sector For example, instead of

a manufacturing company context, the chapter uses the software development setting at a

company like Apple Inc to discuss cost measurement It also develops ideas related to risk

when discussing fixed versus variable costs

Chapter 3 has been rewritten to simplify the presentation of target net income by

describing how target net income can be converted to target operating income This

allows students to use the equations already developed for target operating income when

discussing target net income We deleted the section on multiple cost drivers, because it is

closely related to the multi-product example discussed in the chapter The managerial and

decision-making aspects of the chapter have also been strengthened

Chapter 4 has been reorganized to first discuss normal costing and then actual

cost-ing because normal costcost-ing is much more prevalent in practice As a result of this change

the exhibits in the early part of the chapter tie in more closely to the detailed exhibits of

normal job-costing systems in manufacturing later in the chapter The presentation

of actual costing has been retained to help students understand the benefits and challenges

of actual costing systems To focus on job costing, we moved the discussion of

responsibil-ity centers and departments to Chapter 6

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Chapter 5 has been reorganized to clearly distinguish design choices, implementationchallenges, and managerial applications of ABC systems The presentation of the ideashas been simplified and streamlined to focus on the core issues

Chapter 6 now includes ideas from relevant applied research on the usefulness ofbudgets and the circumstances in which they add the greatest value, as well as the chal-lenges in administering them It incorporates new material on the Beyond Budgetingmovement, and in particular the trend towards the use of rolling forecasts

Chapters 7 and 8 present a streamlined discussion of direct-cost and overhead ances, respectively The separate sections on ABC and variance analysis in Chapters 7 and 8 have now been combined into a single integrated example at the end of Chapter 8 Anew appendix to Chapter 7 now addresses more detailed revenue variances using the exist-ing Webb Company example The use of potentially confusing terms such as 2-varianceanalysis and 1-variance analysis has been eliminated

vari-We have rewritten Chapter 9 as a single integrated chapter with the same runningexample rather than as two distinct sub-parts on inventory costing and capacity analysis.The material on the tax and financial reporting implications of various capacity conceptshas also been fully revised

Chapter 10 has been revised to provide a more linear progression through the ideas ofcost estimation and the choice of cost drivers, culminating in the use of quantitativeanalysis (regression analysis, in particular) for managerial decision-making

Chapter 11 now includes more discussion of global issues such as foreign currencyconsiderations in international outsourcing decisions There is also greater emphasis onstrategy and decision-making

Chapter 12 has been reorganized to more sharply delineate short-run from long-run ing and pricing and to bring together the various considerations other than costs that affectpricing decisions This reorganization has helped streamline several sections in the chapter Chapter 13 has been substantially rewritten Strategy maps are presented as a way tolink strategic objectives and as a useful first step in developing balanced scorecard meas-ures The section on strategic analysis of operating income has been significantly simpli-fied by focusing on only one indirect cost and eliminating most of the technical details.Finally, the section on engineered and discretionary costs has been considerably shortened

cost-to focus on only the key ideas

Chapter 14 now discusses the use of “whale curves” to depict the outcome of tomer profitability analysis The last part of the chapter has been rationalized to focus onthe decomposition of sales volume variances into quantity and mix variances; and the cal-culation of sales mix variances has also been simplified

cus-Chapter 15 has been completely revised and uses a simple, unified conceptual work to discuss various cost allocation methods (single-rate versus dual-rate, actual costsversus budgeted costs, etc.)

frame-Chapter 16 now provides a more in-depth discussion of the rationale underlying joint

cost allocation as well as the reasons why some firms do not allocate costs (along with

real-world examples)

Chapters 17 and 18 have been reorganized, with the material on standard costing moved

to the appendix in both chapters This reorganization has made the chapters easier to navigateand fully consistent (since all sections in the body of the chapter now use actual costing) Thematerial on multiple inspection points from the appendix to Chapter 18 has been moved intothe body of the chapter, but using a variant of the existing example involving Anzio Corp.Chapter 19 introduces the idea of Six Sigma quality It also integrates design quality,conformance quality, and financial and nonfinancial measures of quality The discussion

of queues, delays, and costs of time has been significantly streamlined

Chapter 20’s discussion of EOQ has been substantially revised and the ideas oflean accounting further developed The section on backflush costing has been com-pletely rewritten

Chapter 21 has been revised to incorporate the payback period method with counting, and also now includes survey evidence on the use of various capital budgetingmethods The discussion of goal congruence and performance measurement has been sim-plified and combined, making the latter half of the chapter easier to follow

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dis-PREFACE 䊉 XIX

Chapter 22 has been fully rewritten with a new section on the use of hybrid pricing

methods The chapter also now includes a fuller description (and a variety of examples) of

the use of transfer pricing for tax minimization, and incorporates such developments as

the recent tax changes proposed by the Obama administration

Chapter 23 includes a more thorough description of Residual Income and EVA, as

well as a more streamlined discussion of the various choices of accounting-based

perform-ance measures

Resources

In addition to this textbook and MyAccountingLab, the following resources are available

for students:

䊉 Student Study Guide—self study aid full of review features

䊉 Student Solutions Manual—solutions and assistance for even numbered problems

䊉 Excel Manual—workbook designed for Excel practice

We are indebted to many people for their ideas and assistance Our primary thanks go to

the many academics and practitioners who have advanced our knowledge of cost

accounting The package of teaching materials we present is the work of skillful and

val-ued team members developing some excellent end-of-chapter assignment material

Tommy Goodwin, Ian Gow (Northwestern), Richard Saouma (UCLA) and Shalin Shah

(Berkeley) provided outstanding research assistance on technical issues and current

developments We would also like to thank the dedicated and hard working supplement

author team and GEX Publishing Services The book is much better because of the

efforts of these colleagues

In shaping this edition, we would like to thank a group of colleagues who worked

closely with us and the editorial team This group provided detailed feedback and

partic-ipated in focus groups that guided the direction of this edition:

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We would also like to extend our thanks to those professors who provided detailedwritten reviews or comments on drafts These professors include the following:

Robyn Alcock

Central Queensland University

David S Baglia

Grove City College

Charles Bailey

University of Central Florida

Larry N Killough

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Keith Kramer

Southern Oregon University

Jay Law

Central Washington University

Leslie Kren

University of Wisconsin-Madison

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PREFACE 䊉 XXI

We also would like to thank our colleagues who helped us greatly by accuracy checking

the text and supplements including Molly Brown, Barbara Durham, and Anna Jensen

We thank the people at Prentice Hall for their hard work and dedication, including

Donna Battista, Stephanie Wall, Christina Rumbaugh, Brian Reilly, Cindy Zonneveld,

Lynne Breitfeller, Natacha Moore, and Kate Thomas and Kelly Morrison at GEX

Publishing Services We must extend special thanks to Deepa Chungi, the development

editor on this edition, who took charge of this project and directed it across the finish

line This book would not have been possible without her dedication and skill

Alexandra Gural, Jacqueline Archer, and others expertly managed the production

aspects of all the manuscript preparation with superb skill and tremendous dedication

We are deeply appreciative of their good spirits, loyalty, and ability to stay calm in the

most hectic of times The constant support of Bianca Baggio and Caroline Roop is

greatly appreciated

Appreciation also goes to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, the

Institute of Management Accountants, the Society of Management Accountants of

Canada, the Certified General Accountants Association of Canada, the Financial

Executive Institute of America, and many other publishers and companies for their

gener-ous permission to quote from their publications Problems from the Uniform CPA

exami-nations are designated (CPA); problems from the Certified Management Accountant

examination are designated (CMA); problems from the Canadian examinations

adminis-tered by the Society of Management Accountants are designated (SMA); and problems

from the Certified General Accountants Association are designated (CGA) Many of these

problems are adapted to highlight particular points

We are grateful to the professors who contributed assignment material for this

edi-tion Their names are indicated in parentheses at the start of their specific problems

Comments from users are welcome

CHARLEST HORNGREN

SRIKANTM DATAR

MADHAVV RAJAN

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To Our Families

The Horngren Family (CH) Swati, Radhika, Gayatri, Sidharth (SD) Gayathri, Sanjana, Anupama (MVR)

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All businesses are concerned about revenues and costs

Whether their products are automobiles, fast food, or the latest designer fashions, managers must understand how revenues and costs behave or risk losing control Managers use cost accounting information to make decisions related to strategy formulation, research and development, budgeting, production planning, and pricing, among others Sometimes these decisions involve tradeoffs The following article shows how companies like Apple make those tradeoffs to increase their profits.

iTunes Variable Pricing: Downloads Are Down, but Profits Are Up 1

Can selling less of something be more profitable than selling more of it? In 2009, Apple changed the pricing structure for songs sold through iTunes from a flat fee of $0.99 to a three-tier price point system of

$0.69, $0.99, and $1.29 The top 200 songs in any given week make

up more than one-sixth of digital music sales Apple now charges the higher price of $1.29 for these hit songs by artists like Taylor Swift and the Black Eyed Peas.

After the first six months of the new pricing model in the iTunes store, downloads of the top 200 tracks were down by about 6%.While the number of downloads dropped, the higher prices generated more revenue than before the new pricing structure was in place Since Apple’s iTunes costs—wholesale song costs, network and transaction fees, and other operating costs—do not vary based on the price of each download, the profits from the 30% increase in price more than made up for the losses from the 6% decrease in volume.

To increase profits beyond those created by higher prices, Apple also began to manage iTunes’ costs Transaction costs (what Apple pays credit-card processors like Visa and MasterCard) have

decreased, and Apple has also reduced the number of people working

in the iTunes store.

1

Learning Objectives

1. Distinguish financial accounting

from management accounting

2. Understand how management

accountants affect strategic

decisions

3. Describe the set of business

functions in the value chain and

identify the dimensions of

per-formance that customers are

expecting of companies

4. Explain the five-step

decision-making process and its role in

management accounting

5. Describe three guidelines

manage-ment accountants follow in

sup-porting managers

6. Understand how management

accounting fits into an

organiza-tion’s structure

7. Understand what professional

ethics mean to management

http://blogs.barrons.com/techtraderdaily/2007/04/23/apple-turns-out-itunes-makes-money-pacific-crest-says-2

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The study of modern cost accounting yields insights into how

managers and accountants can contribute to successfully running

their businesses It also prepares them for leadership roles Many

large companies, such as Constellation Energy, Jones Soda, Nike,

and the Pittsburgh Steelers, have senior executives with

accounting backgrounds.

Financial Accounting, Management

Accounting, and Cost Accounting

As many of you have already seen in your financial accounting class,

accounting systems take economic events and transactions, such as sales and

materials purchases, and process the data into information helpful to

man-agers, sales representatives, production supervisors, and others Processing

any economic transaction means collecting, categorizing, summarizing, and

analyzing For example, costs are collected by category, such as materials,

labor, and shipping These costs are then summarized to determine total

costs by month, quarter, or year The results are analyzed to evaluate, say,

how costs have changed relative to revenues from one period to the next

Accounting systems provide the information found in the income statement,

the balance sheet, the statement of cash flow, and in performance reports, such as the

cost of serving customers or running an advertising campaign Managers use accounting

information to administer the activities, businesses, or functional areas they oversee and

to coordinate those activities, businesses, or functions within the framework of the

organization Understanding this information is essential for managers to do their jobs

Individual managers often require the information in an accounting system to be

presented or reported differently Consider, for example, sales order information A sales

manager may be interested in the total dollar amount of sales to determine the

commis-sions to be paid A distribution manager may be interested in the sales order quantities

by geographic region and by customer-requested delivery dates to ensure timely

deliver-ies A manufacturing manager may be interested in the quantities of various products

and their desired delivery dates, so that he or she can develop an effective production

schedule To simultaneously serve the needs of all three managers, companies create a

database—sometimes called a data warehouse or infobarn—consisting of small, detailed

bits of information that can be used for multiple purposes For instance, the sales order

database will contain detailed information about product, quantity ordered, selling

price, and delivery details (place and date) for each sales order The database stores

infor-mation in a way that allows different managers to access the inforinfor-mation they need

Many companies are building their own Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems,

single databases that collect data and feed it into applications that support the company’s

business activities, such as purchasing, production, distribution, and sales

Financial accounting and management accounting have different goals As many of

you know, financial accounting focuses on reporting to external parties such as

investors, government agencies, banks, and suppliers It measures and records business

transactions and provides financial statements that are based on generally accepted

accounting principles (GAAP) The most important way that financial accounting

information affects managers’ decisions and actions is through compensation, which is

often, in part, based on numbers in financial statements

Learning Objective 1

Distinguish financial accounting reporting on past performance to external users

from management accounting helping managers make decisions

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Management accounting measures, analyzes, and reports financial and nonfinancial

information that helps managers make decisions to fulfill the goals of an organization.Managers use management accounting information to develop, communicate, and imple-ment strategy They also use management accounting information to coordinate productdesign, production, and marketing decisions and to evaluate performance Managementaccounting information and reports do not have to follow set principles or rules The keyquestions are always (1) how will this information help managers do their jobs better, and(2) do the benefits of producing this information exceed the costs?

Exhibit 1-1 summarizes the major differences between management accounting andfinancial accounting Note, however, that reports such as balance sheets, income state-ments, and statements of cash flows are common to both management accounting andfinancial accounting

Cost accounting provides information for management accounting and financial

account-ing Cost accounting measures, analyzes, and reports financial and nonfinancial information

relating to the costs of acquiring or using resources in an organization For example, ing the cost of a product is a cost accounting function that answers financial accounting’sinventory-valuation needs and management accounting’s decision-making needs (such asdeciding how to price products and choosing which products to promote) Modern costaccounting takes the perspective that collecting cost information is a function of the manage-ment decisions being made Thus, the distinction between management accounting and costaccounting is not so clear-cut, and we often use these terms interchangeably in the book

calculat-We frequently hear business people use the term cost management Unfortunately,

that term has no uniform definition We use cost management to describe the approaches

and activities of managers to use resources to increase value to customers and to achieveorganizational goals Cost management decisions include decisions such as whether toenter new markets, implement new organizational processes, and change product designs.Information from accounting systems helps managers to manage costs, but the informa-tion and the accounting systems themselves are not cost management

Cost management has a broad focus and is not only about reduction in costs Costmanagement includes decisions to incur additional costs, for example to improve

Purpose of information Help managers make decisions Communicate organization’s financial

to fulfill an organization’s goals position to investors, banks, regulators,

and other outside parties Primary users Managers of the organization External users such as investors, banks,

regulators, and suppliers Focus and emphasis Future-oriented (budget for Past-oriented (reports on 2010

2011 prepared in 2010) performance prepared in 2011) Rules of measurement Internal measures and reports Financial statements must be prepared and reporting do not have to follow GAAP but in accordance with GAAP and be

are based on cost-benefit analysis certified by external, independent auditors Time span and type of Varies from hourly information Annual and quarterly financial reports, reports to 15 to 20 years, with financial primarily on the company as a whole

and nonfinancial reports on products, departments, territories, and strategies

Behavioral implications Designed to influence the behavior Primarily reports economic events

of managers and other employees but also influences behavior because

manager’s compensation is often based

on reported financial results

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VALUE CHAIN AND SUPPLY CHAIN ANALYSIS AND KEY SUCCESS FACTORS 䊉 5

customer satisfaction and quality and to develop new products, with the goal of

enhanc-ing revenues and profits

Strategic Decisions and the Management

Accountant

Strategy specifies how an organization matches its own capabilities with the opportunities in

the marketplace to accomplish its objectives In other words, strategy describes how an

organization will compete and the opportunities its managers should seek and pursue

Businesses follow one of two broad strategies Some companies, such as Southwest Airlines

and Vanguard (the mutual fund company) follow a cost leadership strategy They have been

profitable and have grown over the years on the basis of providing quality products or

serv-ices at low prserv-ices by judiciously managing their costs Other companies such as Apple Inc.,

the maker of iPods and iPhones, and Johnson & Johnson, the pharmaceutical giant, follow a

product differentiation strategy They generate their profits and growth on the basis of their

ability to offer differentiated or unique products or services that appeal to their customers

and are often priced higher than the less-popular products or services of their competitors

Deciding between these strategies is a critical part of what managers do Management

accountants work closely with managers in formulating strategy by providing

informa-tion about the sources of competitive advantage—for example, the cost, productivity, or

efficiency advantage of their company relative to competitors or the premium prices a

company can charge relative to the costs of adding features that make its products or

serv-ices distinctive Strategic cost management describes cost management that specifically

focuses on strategic issues

Management accounting information helps managers formulate strategy by

answer-ing questions such as the followanswer-ing:

䊏 Who are our most important customers, and how can we be competitive and deliver

value to them? After Amazon.com’s success in selling books online, management

accountants at Barnes and Noble presented senior executives with the costs and

ben-efits of several alternative approaches for building its information technology

infra-structure and developing the capabilities to also sell books online A similar

cost-benefit analysis led Toyota to build flexible computer-integrated manufacturing

(CIM) plants that enable it to use the same equipment efficiently to produce a variety

of cars in response to changing customer tastes

䊏 What substitute products exist in the marketplace, and how do they differ from our

product in terms of price and quality? Hewlett-Packard, for example, designs and

prices new printers after comparing the functionality and quality of its printers to

other printers available in the marketplace

䊏 What is our most critical capability? Is it technology, production, or marketing? How

can we leverage it for new strategic initiatives? Kellogg Company, for example, uses

the reputation of its brand to introduce new types of cereal

䊏 Will adequate cash be available to fund the strategy, or will additional funds need to

be raised? Proctor & Gamble, for example, issued new debt and equity to fund its

strategic acquisition of Gillette, a maker of shaving products

The best-designed strategies and the best-developed capabilities are useless unless they are

effectively executed In the next section, we describe how management accountants help

managers take actions that create value for their customers

Value Chain and Supply Chain Analysis and Key

Success Factors

Customers demand much more than just a fair price; they expect quality products (goods

or services) delivered in a timely way These multiple factors drive how a customer

expe-riences a product and the value or usefulness a customer derives from the product How

then does a company go about creating this value?

Understand how management accountants affect strategic decisions they provide information about the sources of competitive advantage

Decision Point

How do management accountants support strategic decisions?

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Value-Chain Analysis

Value chain is the sequence of business functions in which customer usefulness is added

to products Exhibit 1-2 shows six primary business functions: research and ment, design, production, marketing, distribution, and customer service We illustratethese business functions using Sony Corporation’s television division

develop-1 Research and development (R&D)—Generating and experimenting with ideas related

to new products, services, or processes At Sony, this function includes research onalternative television signal transmission (analog, digital, and high-definition) and onthe clarity of different shapes and thicknesses of television screens

2 Design of products and processes—Detailed planning, engineering, and testing of

products and processes Design at Sony includes determining the number of nent parts in a television set and the effect of alternative product designs on qualityand manufacturing costs Some representations of the value chain collectively refer tothe first two steps as technology development.2

compo-3 Production—Procuring, transporting and storing (also called inbound logistics),

coordinating, and assembling (also called operations) resources to produce a product

or deliver a service Production of a Sony television set includes the procurement andassembly of the electronic parts, the cabinet, and the packaging used for shipping

4 Marketing (including sales)—Promoting and selling products or services to customers

or prospective customers Sony markets its televisions at trade shows, via ments in newspapers and magazines, on the Internet, and through its sales force

advertise-5 Distribution—Processing orders and shipping products or services to customers (also

called outbound logistics) Distribution for Sony includes shipping to retail outlets,catalog vendors, direct sales via the Internet, and other channels through which cus-tomers purchase televisions

6 Customer service—Providing after-sales service to customers Sony provides customer

service on its televisions in the form of customer-help telephone lines, support on theInternet, and warranty repair work

In addition to the six primary business functions, Exhibit 1-2 shows an administrativefunction, which includes functions such as accounting and finance, human resource man-agement, and information technology, that support the six primary business functions.When discussing the value chain in subsequent chapters of the book, we include theadministrative support function within the primary functions For example, included inthe marketing function is the function of analyzing, reporting, and accounting forresources spent in different marketing channels, while the production function includesthe human resource management function of training front-line workers

Each of these business functions is essential to companies satisfying their customers

and keeping them satisfied (and loyal) over time Companies use the term customer relationship management (CRM) to describe a strategy that integrates people and tech-

nology in all business functions to deepen relationships with customers, partners, anddistributors CRM initiatives use technology to coordinate all customer-facing activities

Learning

Objective 3

Describe the set of

business functions in

the value chain and

identify the dimensions

achieve cost and

efficiency, quality, time,

and innovation

2M Porter, Competitive Advantage (New York: Free Press, 1985).

Exhibit 1-2 Different Parts of the Value Chain

Research and Development

Design of Products and Processes

Service

Administration

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VALUE CHAIN AND SUPPLY CHAIN ANALYSIS AND KEY SUCCESS FACTORS 䊉 7

(such as marketing, sales calls, distribution, and post sales support) and the design and

production activities necessary to get products to customers

At different times and in different industries, one or more of these functions is more

critical than others For example, a company developing an innovative new product or

operating in the pharmaceutical industry, where innovation is the key to profitability, will

emphasize R&D and design of products and processes A company in the consumer goods

industry will focus on marketing, distribution, and customer service to build its brand

Exhibit 1-2 depicts the usual order in which different business-function activities

physically occur Do not, however, interpret Exhibit 1-2 as implying that managers should

proceed sequentially through the value chain when planning and managing their

activi-ties Companies gain (in terms of cost, quality, and the speed with which new products are

developed) if two or more of the individual business functions of the value chain work

concurrently as a team For example, inputs into design decisions by production,

market-ing, distribution, and customer service managers often lead to design choices that reduce

total costs of the company

Managers track the costs incurred in each value-chain category Their goal is to

reduce costs and to improve efficiency Management accounting information helps

man-agers make cost-benefit tradeoffs For example, is it cheaper to buy products from outside

vendors or to do manufacturing in-house? How does investing resources in design and

manufacturing reduce costs of marketing and customer service?

Supply-Chain Analysis

The parts of the value chain associated with producing and delivering a product or

service—production and distribution—is referred to as the supply chain Supply chain

describes the flow of goods, services, and information from the initial sources of

materi-als and services to the delivery of products to consumers, regardless of whether those

activities occur in the same organization or in other organizations Consider Coke and

Pepsi, for example; many companies play a role in bringing these products to consumers

Exhibit 1-3 presents an overview of the supply chain Cost management emphasizes

inte-grating and coordinating activities across all companies in the supply chain, to improve

performance and reduce costs Both the Coca-Cola Company and Pepsi Bottling Group

require their suppliers (such as plastic and aluminum companies and sugar refiners) to

frequently deliver small quantities of materials directly to the production floor to reduce

materials-handling costs Similarly, to reduce inventory levels in the supply chain,

Wal-Mart is asking its suppliers, such as Coca-Cola, to be responsible for and to manage

inventory at both the Coca-Cola warehouse and Wal-Mart

Key Success Factors

Customers want companies to use the value chain and supply chain to deliver ever

improving levels of performance regarding several (or even all) of the following:

䊏 Cost and efficiency—Companies face continuous pressure to reduce the cost of the

products they sell To calculate and manage the cost of products, managers must

first understand the tasks or activities (such as setting up machines or distributing

Distribution Company

Retail Company

Final Consumer

Suppliers of Non-Concentrate Materials/Services

Exhibit 1-3 Supply Chain for a Cola Bottling Company

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products) that cause costs to arise They must also monitor the marketplace todetermine prices that customers are willing to pay for products or services.Management accounting information helps managers calculate a target cost for aproduct by subtracting the operating income per unit of product that the companydesires to earn from the “target price.” To achieve the target cost, managers elimi-nate some activities (such as rework) and reduce the costs of performing activities inall value-chain functions—from initial R&D to customer service.

Increased global competition places ever-increasing pressure on companies tolower costs Many U.S companies have cut costs by outsourcing some of their busi-ness functions Nike, for example, has moved its manufacturing operations to Chinaand Mexico Microsoft and IBM are increasingly doing their software development inSpain, eastern Europe, and India

䊏 Quality—Customers expect high levels of quality Total quality management

(TQM) aims to improve operations throughout the value chain and to deliver ucts and services that exceed customer expectations Using TQM, companies designproducts or services to meet the needs and wants of customers and make theseproducts with zero (or very few) defects and waste, and minimal inventories.Managers use management accounting information to evaluate the costs and rev-enue benefits of TQM initiatives

prod-䊏 Time—Time has many dimensions New-product development time is the time it

takes for new products to be created and brought to market The increasing pace oftechnological innovation has led to shorter product life cycles and more rapid intro-duction of new products To make product and design decisions, managers need tounderstand the costs and benefits of a product over its life cycle

Customer-response time describes the speed at which an organization responds

to customer requests To increase customer satisfaction, organizations need toreduce delivery time and reliably meet promised delivery dates The primary cause ofdelays is bottlenecks that occur when the work to be performed on a machine, forexample, exceeds available capacity To deliver the product on time, managers need

to increase the capacity of the machine to produce more output Managementaccounting information helps managers quantify the costs and benefits of relievingbottleneck constraints

䊏 Innovation—A constant flow of innovative products or services is the basis for

ongo-ing company success Managers rely on management accountongo-ing information to uate alternative investment and R&D decisions

eval-Companies are increasingly applying the key success factors of cost and efficiency,quality, time, and innovation to promote sustainability—the development and imple-mentation of strategies to achieve long-term financial, social, and environmental per-formance For example, the Japanese copier company Ricoh’s sustainability effortsaggressively focus on energy conservation, resource conservation, product recycling,and pollution prevention By designing products that can be easily recycled, Ricohsimultaneously improves efficiency, cost, and quality Interest in sustainabilityappears to be intensifying Already, government regulations, in countries such asChina and India, are impelling companies to develop and report on their sustainabil-ity initiatives

Management accountants help managers track performance of competitors on the

key success factors Competitive information serves as a benchmark and alerts managers

to market changes Companies are always seeking to continuously improve their

opera-tions These improvements include on-time arrival for Southwest Airlines, customeraccess to online auctions at eBay, and cost reduction on housing products at Lowes.Sometimes, more-fundamental changes in operations, such as redesigning a manufactur-ing process to reduce costs, may be necessary However, successful strategy implementa-tion requires more than value-chain and supply-chain analysis and execution of keysuccess factors It is the decisions that managers make that help them to develop, inte-grate, and implement their strategies

Decision

Point

How do companies

add value, and what

are the dimensions

of performance that

customers are

expecting of

companies?

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DECISION MAKING, PLANNING, AND CONTROL: THE FIVE-STEP DECISION-MAKING PROCESS 䊉 9

Decision Making, Planning, and Control: The

Five-Step Decision-Making Process

We illustrate a five-step decision-making process using the example of the Daily News, a

newspaper in Boulder, Colorado Subsequent chapters of the book describe how

man-agers use this five-step decision-making process to make many different types of decisions

The Daily News differentiates itself from its competitors based on in-depth analyses of

news by its highly rated journalists, use of color to enhance attractiveness to readers and

advertisers, and a Web site that delivers up-to-the-minute news, interviews, and analyses It

has substantial capabilities to deliver on this strategy, such as an automated,

computer-integrated, state-of-the-art printing facility; a Web-based information technology

infra-structure; and a distribution network that is one of the best in the newspaper industry

To keep up with steadily increasing production costs, Naomi Crawford, the manager

of the Daily News, needs to increase revenues To decide what she should do, Naomi

works through the five-step decision-making process

1 Identify the problem and uncertainties Naomi has two main choices:

a Increase the selling price of the newspaper, or

b increase the rate per page charged to advertisers

The key uncertainty is the effect on demand of any increase in prices or rates A decrease

in demand could offset any increase in prices or rates and lead to lower overall revenues

2 Obtain information Gathering information before making a decision helps managers

gain a better understanding of the uncertainties Naomi asks her marketing manager to

talk to some representative readers to gauge their reaction to an increase in the

news-paper’s selling price She asks her advertising sales manager to talk to current and

potential advertisers to assess demand for advertising She also reviews the effect that

past price increases had on readership Ramon Sandoval, the management accountant

at the Daily News, presents information about the impact of past increases or decreases

in advertising rates on advertising revenues He also collects and analyzes information

on advertising rates charged by competing newspapers and other media outlets

3 Make predictions about the future On the basis of this information, Naomi makes

predictions about the future She concludes that increasing prices would upset readers

and decrease readership She has a different view about advertising rates She expects

a market-wide increase in advertising rates and believes that increasing rates will have

little effect on the number of advertising pages sold

Naomi recognizes that making predictions requires judgment She looks for

biases in her thinking Has she correctly judged reader sentiment or is the negative

publicity of a price increase overly influencing her decision making? How sure is she

that competitors will increase advertising rates? Is her thinking in this respect biased

by how competitors have responded in the past? Have circumstances changed? How

confident is she that her sales representatives can convince advertisers to pay higher

rates? Naomi retests her assumptions and reviews her thinking She feels comfortable

with her predictions and judgments

4 Make decisions by choosing among alternatives When making decisions, strategy is a

vital guidepost; many individuals in different parts of the organization at different

times make decisions Consistency with strategy binds individuals and timelines

together and provides a common purpose for disparate decisions Aligning decisions

with strategy enables an organization to implement its strategy and achieve its goals

Without this alignment, decisions will be uncoordinated, pull the organization in

dif-ferent directions, and produce inconsistent results

Consistent with the product differentiation strategy, Naomi decides to increase

advertising rates by 4% to $5,200 per page in March 2011 She is confident that the

Daily News’s distinctive style and Web presence will increase readership, creating

value for advertisers She communicates the new advertising rate schedule to the

sales department Ramon estimates advertising revenues of $4,160,000 ($5,200 per

page 800 pages predicted to be sold in March 2011)

Explain the five-step decision-making process identify the problem and uncertainties, obtain information, make predictions about the future, make decisions

by choosing among alternatives, implement the decision, evaluate performance, and learn and its role in management accounting planning and control of operations and activities

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Steps 1 through 4 are collectively referred to as planning Planning comprises selecting

organization goals and strategies, predicting results under various alternative ways ofachieving those goals, deciding how to attain the desired goals, and communicating thegoals and how to achieve them to the entire organization Management accountants serve

as business partners in these planning activities because of their understanding of whatcreates value and the key success factors

The most important planning tool when implementing strategy is a budget A

budget is the quantitative expression of a proposed plan of action by management and

is an aid to coordinating what needs to be done to execute that plan For March 2011,budgeted advertising revenue equals $4,160,000 The full budget for March 2011includes budgeted circulation revenue and the production, distribution, and customer-service costs to achieve sales goals; the anticipated cash flows; and the potential financ-ing needs Because the process of preparing a budget crosses business functions, it forcescoordination and communication throughout the company, as well as with the com-pany’s suppliers and customers

5 Implement the decision, evaluate performance, and learn Managers at the Daily

News take actions to implement the March 2011 budget Management

account-ants collect information to follow through on how actual performance compares

to planned or budgeted performance (also referred to as scorekeeping)

Information on actual results is different from the pre-decision planning

informa-tion Naomi collected in Step 2, which enabled her to better understand ties, to make predictions, and to make a decision The comparison of actual

uncertain-performance to budgeted uncertain-performance is the control or post-decision role of

infor-mation Control comprises taking actions that implement the planning decisions,

deciding how to evaluate performance, and providing feedback and learning tohelp future decision making

Measuring actual performance informs managers how well they and their units are doing Linking rewards to performance helps motivate managers Theserewards are both intrinsic (recognition for a job well-done) and extrinsic (salary,bonuses, and promotions linked to performance) A budget serves as much as a con-trol tool as a planning tool Why? Because a budget is a benchmark against whichactual performance can be compared

sub-Consider performance evaluation at the Daily News During March 2011, the newspaper

sold advertising, issued invoices, and received payments These invoices and receipts were

recorded in the accounting system Exhibit 1-4 shows the Daily News’s performance

report of advertising revenues for March 2011 This report indicates that 760 pages ofadvertising (40 pages fewer than the budgeted 800 pages) were sold The average rate perpage was $5,080, compared with the budgeted $5,200 rate, yielding actual advertisingrevenues of $3,860,800 The actual advertising revenues were $299,200 less than thebudgeted $4,160,000 Observe how managers use both financial and nonfinancial infor-mation, such as pages of advertising, to evaluate performance

The performance report in Exhibit 1-4 spurs investigation and learning Learning is

examining past performance (the control function) and systematically exploring alternativeways to make better-informed decisions and plans in the future Learning can lead to changes

in goals, changes in strategies, changes in the ways decision alternatives are identified,

(1) (2) (3) (1) − (2) (4) (3) (2)

Advertising pages sold 760 pages 800 pages 40 pages Unfavorable 5.0% Unfavorable Average rate per page $5,080 $5,200 $120 Unfavorable 2.3% Unfavorable Advertising revenues $3,860,800 $4,160,000 $299,200 Unfavorable 7.2% Unfavorable

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KEY MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING GUIDELINES 䊉 11

changes in the range of information collected when making predictions, and sometimes

changes in managers

The performance report in Exhibit 1-4 would prompt the management accountant to

raise several questions directing the attention of managers to problems and opportunities

Is the strategy of differentiating the Daily News from other newspapers attracting more

readers? In implementing the new advertising rates, did the marketing and sales

depart-ment make sufficient efforts to convince advertisers that, even with the higher rate of

$5,200 per page, advertising in the Daily News was a good buy? Why was the actual

average rate per page $5,080 instead of the budgeted rate of $5,200? Did some sales

rep-resentatives offer discounted rates? Did economic conditions cause the decline in

advertis-ing revenues? Are revenues falladvertis-ing because editorial and production standards have

declined? Answers to these questions could prompt the newspaper’s publisher to take

sub-sequent actions, including, for example, adding more sales personnel or making changes

in editorial policy Good implementation requires the marketing, editorial, and

produc-tion departments to work together and coordinate their acproduc-tions

The management accountant could go further by identifying the specific advertisers

that cut back or stopped advertising after the rate increase went into effect Managers could

then decide when and how sales representatives should follow-up with these advertisers

The left side of Exhibit 1-5 provides an overview of the decision-making processes at

the Daily News The right side of the exhibit highlights how the management accounting

system aids in decision making

Key Management Accounting Guidelines

Three guidelines help management accountants provide the most value to their companies in

strategic and operational decision making: Employ a cost-benefit approach, give full

recogni-tion to behavioral and technical considerarecogni-tions, and use different costs for different purposes

Example of Management Decision Making

at Daily News

Management Accounting System Budgets

CONTROL

• Expected advertising pages sold, rate per page, and revenue

Accounting System

Financial representation

of plans

Recording transactions and classifying them in accounting records

• Source documents (invoices to advertisers indicating pages sold, rate per page, and payments received)

• Recording in general and subsidiary ledgers

Performance Reports

Reports comparing actual results

to budgets

• Comparing actual advertising pages sold, average rate per page, and revenue to budgeted amounts

Implement the Decision

• Implement a 4%

increase in

advertising rates

Evaluate Performance and Learn

• Identify the Problem and Uncertainties

How to increase revenues

• Obtain Information

• Make Predictons About the Future

• Make Decisions by Choosing Among

Alternatives

Increase advertising rates by 4%

How Accounting Aids Decision Making, Planning, and Control

at the Daily News

Exhibit 1-5

Decision Point

How do managers make decisions to implement strategy?

Describe three guidelines management accountants follow in supporting managers employing a cost- benefit approach, recognizing behavioral

as well as technical considerations, and calculating different costs for different purposes

Trang 35

Cost-Benefit ApproachManagers continually face resource-allocation decisions, such as whether to purchase

a new software package or hire a new employee They use a cost-benefit approach

when making these decisions: Resources should be spent if the expected benefits to thecompany exceed the expected costs Managers rely on management accounting infor-mation to quantify expected benefits and expected costs although all benefits and costsare not easy to quantify Nevertheless, the cost-benefit approach is a useful guide formaking resource-allocation decisions

Consider the installation of a company’s first budgeting system Previously, the pany used historical recordkeeping and little formal planning A major benefit ofinstalling a budgeting system is that it compels managers to plan ahead, compare actual tobudgeted information, learn, and take corrective action These actions lead to differentdecisions that improve performance relative to decisions that would have been madeusing the historical system, but the benefits are not easy to measure On the cost side,some costs, such as investments in software and training are easier to quantify Others,such as the time spent by managers on the budgeting process, are harder to quantify.Regardless, senior managers compare expected benefits and expected costs, exercise judg-ment, and reach a decision, in this case to install the budgeting system

com-Behavioral and Technical ConsiderationsThe cost-benefit approach is the criterion that assists managers in deciding whether, say, toinstall a proposed budgeting system instead of continuing to use an existing historical system

In making this decision senior managers consider two simultaneous missions: one technicaland one behavioral The technical considerations help managers make wise economic deci-sions by providing them with the desired information (for example, costs in various value-chain categories) in an appropriate format (such as actual results versus budgeted amounts)and at the preferred frequency Now consider the human (the behavioral) side of why budg-eting is used Budgets induce a different set of decisions within an organization because ofbetter collaboration, planning, and motivation The behavioral considerations encouragemanagers and other employees to strive for achieving the goals of the organization

Both managers and management accountants should always remember that agement is not confined exclusively to technical matters Management is primarily ahuman activity that should focus on how to help individuals do their jobs better—forexample, by helping them to understand which of their activities adds value and whichdoes not Moreover, when workers underperform, behavioral considerations suggestthat management systems and processes should cause managers to personally discusswith workers ways to improve performance rather than just sending them a report high-lighting their underperformance

man-Different Costs for man-Different PurposesThis book emphasizes that managers use alternative ways to compute costs in differentdecision-making situations, because there are different costs for different purposes Acost concept used for the external-reporting purpose of accounting may not be an appro-priate concept for internal, routine reporting to managers

Consider the advertising costs associated with Microsoft Corporation’s launch of amajor product with a useful life of several years For external reporting to shareholders,television advertising costs for this product are fully expensed in the income statement inthe year they are incurred GAAP requires this immediate expensing for external report-ing For internal purposes of evaluating management performance, however, the televi-sion advertising costs could be capitalized and then amortized or written off as expensesover several years Microsoft could capitalize these advertising costs if it believes doing soresults in a more accurate and fairer measure of the performance of the managers thatlaunched the new product

We now discuss the relationships and reporting responsibilities among managers andmanagement accountants within a company’s organization structure

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ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE AND THE MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTANT 䊉 13

Organization Structure and the Management

Accountant

We focus first on broad management functions and then look at how the management

accounting and finance functions support managers

Line and Staff Relationships

Organizations distinguish between line management and staff management Line

management, such as production, marketing, and distribution management, is

directly responsible for attaining the goals of the organization For example,

man-agers of manufacturing divisions may target particular levels of budgeted operating

income, certain levels of product quality and safety, and compliance with

environmen-tal laws Similarly, the pediatrics department in a hospienvironmen-tal is responsible for quality of

service, costs, and patient billings Staff management, such as management

account-ants and information technology and human-resources management, provides advice,

support, and assistance to line management A plant manager (a line function) may be

responsible for investing in new equipment A management accountant (a staff

func-tion) works as a business partner of the plant manager by preparing detailed

operating-cost comparisons of alternative pieces of equipment

Increasingly, organizations such as Honda and Dell are using teams to achieve their

objectives These teams include both line and staff management so that all inputs into a

decision are available simultaneously

The Chief Financial Officer and the Controller

The chief financial officer (CFO)—also called the finance director in many countries—is

the executive responsible for overseeing the financial operations of an organization The

responsibilities of the CFO vary among organizations, but they usually include the

fol-lowing areas:

䊏 Controllership—includes providing financial information for reports to managers

and shareholders, and overseeing the overall operations of the accounting system

䊏 Treasury—includes banking and short- and long-term financing, investments, and

cash management

䊏 Risk management—includes managing the financial risk of interest-rate and

exchange-rate changes and derivatives management

䊏 Taxation—includes income taxes, sales taxes, and international tax planning

䊏 Investor relations—includes communicating with, responding to, and interacting

with shareholders

䊏 Internal audit—includes reviewing and analyzing financial and other records to attest

to the integrity of the organization’s financial reports and to adherence to its policies

and procedures

The controller (also called the chief accounting officer) is the financial executive primarily

responsible for management accounting and financial accounting This book focuses on

the controller as the chief management accounting executive Modern controllers do not

do any controlling in terms of line authority except over their own departments Yet the

modern concept of controllership maintains that the controller exercises control in a

spe-cial sense By reporting and interpreting relevant data, the controller influences the

behav-ior of all employees and exerts a force that impels line managers toward making

better-informed decisions as they implement their strategies

Exhibit 1-6 is an organization chart of the CFO and the corporate controller at Nike,

the leading footwear and apparel company The CFO is a staff manager who reports to

and supports the chief executive officer (CEO) As in most organizations, the corporate

controller at Nike reports to the CFO Nike also has regional controllers who support

regional managers in the major geographic regions in which the company operates, such

Understand how management accounting fits into an organization’s structure for example, the responsibilities of the controller

Trang 37

as the United States, Asia Pacific, Latin America, and Europe Individual countries times have a country controller Organization charts such as the one in Exhibit 1-6 showformal reporting relationships In most organizations, there also are informal relation-ships that must be understood when managers attempt to implement their decisions.Examples of informal relationships are friendships among managers (friendships of a pro-fessional or personal kind) and the personal preferences of top management about themanagers they rely on in decision making.

some-Ponder what managers do to design and implement strategies and the organizationstructures within which they operate Then think about the management accountants’and controllers’ roles It should be clear that the successful management accountant must

have technical and analytical competence as well as behavioral and interpersonal skills.

The Concepts in Action box on page 15 describes some desirable values and behaviorsand why they are so critical to the partnership between management accountants andmanagers We will refer to these values and behaviors as we discuss different topics insubsequent chapters of this book

Professional Ethics

At no time has the focus on ethical conduct been sharper than it is today Corporatescandals at Enron, WorldCom, and Arthur Andersen have seriously eroded the public’sconfidence in corporations All employees in a company, whether in line management orstaff management, must comply with the organization’s—and more broadly, society’s—expectations of ethical standards

Institutional SupportAccountants have special obligations regarding ethics, given that they are responsible forthe integrity of the financial information provided to internal and external parties TheSarbanes–Oxley legislation in the United States, passed in 2002 in response to a series ofcorporate scandals, focuses on improving internal control, corporate governance, moni-toring of managers, and disclosure practices of public corporations These regulationscall for tough ethical standards on managers and accountants and provide a process foremployees to report violations of illegal and unethical acts

Chief Financial Officer (CFO)

Examples of Functions

Global Financial Planning/Budgeting Operations Administration

Profitability Reporting Inventory

Royalties General Ledger Accounts Payable and Receivable Subsidiary and Liaison Accounting

Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

Management

Relations

Strategic Planning

Board of Directors

Internal Audit

Nike: Reporting

Relationship for the

CFO and the Corporate

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Working in cross-functional teams and as a business partner of managers.

It is not enough that management accountants simply be technically petent in their area of study They also need to be able to work in teams, to learn about business issues, to understand the motivations of different individuals, to respect the views of their col-

com-leagues, and to show empathy and trust.

Promoting fact-based analysis and making tough-minded, critical judgments without being adversarial Management

accountants must raise tough questions for managers to consider, especially when preparing budgets They must do

so thoughtfully and with the intent of improving plans and decisions In the case of Washington Mutual’s bank ure, management accountants should have raised questions about whether the company’s risky mortgage lending

fail-would be profitable if housing prices declined.

Leading and motivating people to change and be innovative Implementing new ideas, however good they may be, is

seldom easy When the United States Department of Defense sought to consolidate more than 320 finance and

accounting systems into a centralized platform, the accounting services director and his team of management

accountants made sure that the vision for change was well understood throughout the agency Ultimately, each vidual’s performance was aligned with the transformative change and incentive pay was introduced to promote adop- tion and drive innovation within this new framework.

indi-Communicating clearly, openly, and candidly indi-Communicating information is a large part of a management

accoun-tant’s job A few years ago, Pitney Bowes Inc (PBI), a $4 billion global provider of integrated mail and document

management solutions, implemented a reporting initiative to give managers feedback in key areas The initiative ceeded because it was clearly designed and openly communicated by PBI’s team of management accountants.

suc-Having a strong sense of integrity Management accountants must never succumb to pressure from managers to

manipulate financial information They must always remember that their primary commitment is to the organization and its shareholders At WorldCom, under pressure from senior managers, members of the accounting staff concealed billions of dollars in expenses Because the accounting staff lacked the integrity and courage to stand up to and report corrupt senior managers, WorldCom landed in bankruptcy Some members of the accounting staff and the senior

executive team served prison terms for their actions.

Sources: Dash, Eric and Andrew Ross Sorkin 2008 Government seizes WaMu and sells some assets New York Times, September 25 http://www.nytimes.

com/2008/09/26/business/26wamu.html; Garling, Wendy 2007 Winning the Transformation Battle at the Defense Finance and Accounting Service.

Balanced Scorecard Report, May–June http://cb.hbsp.harvard.edu/cb/web/product_detail.seam?R=B0705C-PDF-ENG; Gollakota, Kamala and Vipin

Gupta 2009 WorldCom Inc.: What went wrong Richard Ivey School of Business Case No 905M43 London, ON: The University of Western Ontario.

http://cb.hbsp.harvard.edu/cb/web/product_detail.seam?R=905M43-PDF-ENG; Green, Mark, Jeannine Garrity, Andrea Gumbus, and Bridget Lyons 2002.

Pitney Bowes Calls for New Metrics Strategic Finance, May http://www.allbusiness.com/accounting-reporting/reports-statements-profit/189988-1.html

Concepts in Action

3 See Appendix C: Cost Accounting in Professional Examinations in MyAccountingLab and at www.pearsonhighered.com/horngren

for a list of professional management accounting organizations in the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and the

United Kingdom.

Professional accounting organizations, which represent management accountants in

many countries, promote high ethical standards.3 Each of these organizations provides

certification programs indicating that the holder has demonstrated the competency of

technical knowledge required by that organization in management accounting and

finan-cial management, respectively

In the United States, the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) has also issued

ethical guidelines Exhibit 1-7 presents the IMA’s guidance on issues relating to competence,

Trang 39

Practitioners of management accounting and financial management have an obligation to the public, their profession, the organizations they serve, and themselves to maintain the highest standards of ethical conduct In recognition of this obligation, the Institute of Management Accountants has promulgated the following standards of ethical professional practice Adherence to these standards, both domestically and internationally, is integral to achieving the Objectives of Management Account- ing Practitioners of management accounting and financial management shall not commit acts contrary

to these standards nor shall they condone the commission of such acts by others within their organizations.

IMA STATEMENT OF ETHICAL PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE

Practitioners of management accounting and financial management shall behave ethically A ment to ethical professional practice includes overarching principles that express our values and standards that guide our conduct.

commit-PRINCIPLES

IMA’s overarching ethical principles include: Honesty, Fairness, Objectivity, and Responsibility

Practitioners shall act in accordance with these principles and shall encourage others within their organizations to adhere to them.

STANDARDS

A practitioner’s failure to comply with the following standards may result in disciplinary action.

COMPETENCE

Each practitioner has a responsibility to:

1 Maintain an appropriate level of professional expertise by continually developing knowledge and skills.

2 Perform professional duties in accordance with relevant laws, regulations, and technical standards.

3 Provide decision support information and recommendations that are accurate, clear, concise, and timely.

4 Recognize and communicate professional limitations or other constraints that would preclude responsible judgment or successful performance of an activity.

CONFIDENTIALITY

1 Keep information confidential except when disclosure is authorized or legally required.

2 Inform all relevant parties regarding appropriate use of confidential information Monitor subordi- nates’ activities to ensure compliance.

3 Refrain from using confidential information for unethical or illegal advantage.

INTEGRITY

1 Mitigate actual conflicts of interest Regularly communicate with business associates to avoid apparent conflicts of interest Advise all parties of any potential conflicts.

2 Refrain from engaging in any conduct that would prejudice carrying out duties ethically.

3 Abstain from engaging in or supporting any activity that might discredit the profession.

CREDIBILITY

1 Communicate information fairly and objectively.

2 Disclose all relevant information that could reasonably be expected to influence an intended user’s understanding of the reports, analyses, or recommendations.

3 Disclose delays or deficiencies in information, timeliness, processing, or internal controls in formance with organization policy and/or applicable law.

con-Source: Statement on Management Accounting Number 1-C 2005 IMA Statement of Ethical Professional Practice.

Montvale, NJ: Institute of Management Accountants Reprinted with permission from the Institute of Management Accountants, Montvale, NJ, www.imanet.org.

Ethical Behavior for

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PROFESSIONAL ETHICS 䊉 17

confidentiality, integrity, and credibility To provide support to its members to act

ethi-cally at all times, the IMA runs an ethics hotline service Members can call professional

counselors at the IMA’s Ethics Counseling Service to discuss their ethical dilemmas The

counselors help identify the key ethical issues and possible alternative ways of resolving

them, and confidentiality is guaranteed The IMA is just one of many institutions that

help navigate management accountants through what could be turbulent ethical waters

Typical Ethical Challenges

Ethical issues can confront management accountants in many ways Here are two examples:

䊏 Case A: A division manager has concerns about the commercial potential of a

soft-ware product for which development costs are currently being capitalized as an

asset rather than being shown as an expense for internal reporting purposes The

manager’s bonus is based, in part, on division profits The manager argues that

showing development costs as an asset is justified because the new product will

gen-erate profits but presents little evidence to support his argument The last two

prod-ucts from this division have been unsuccessful The management accountant

disagrees but wants to avoid a difficult personal confrontation with the boss, the

division manager

䊏 Case B: A packaging supplier, bidding for a new contract, offers the management

accountant of the purchasing company an all-expenses-paid weekend to the Super

Bowl The supplier does not mention the new contract when extending the invitation

The accountant is not a personal friend of the supplier The accountant knows cost

issues are critical in approving the new contract and is concerned that the supplier

will ask for details about bids by competing packaging companies

In each case the management accountant is faced with an ethical dilemma Case A

involves competence, credibility, and integrity The management accountant should

request that the division manager provide credible evidence that the new product is

com-mercially viable If the manager does not provide such evidence, expensing development

costs in the current period is appropriate Case B involves confidentiality and integrity

Ethical issues are not always clear-cut The supplier in Case B may have no intention

of raising issues associated with the bid However, the appearance of a conflict of interest

in Case B is sufficient for many companies to prohibit employees from accepting “favors”

from suppliers Exhibit 1-8 presents the IMA’s guidance on “Resolution of Ethical

Conflict.” The accountant in Case B should discuss the invitation with his or her

immedi-ate supervisor If the visit is approved, the accountant should inform the supplier that the

In applying the Standards of Ethical Professional Practice, you may encounter problems identifying

unethical behavior or resolving an ethical conflict When faced with ethical issues, you should follow your

organization’s established policies on the resolution of such conflict If these policies do not resolve the

ethical conflict, you should consider the following courses of action:

1 Discuss the issue with your immediate supervisor except when it appears that the supervisor is

involved In that case, present the issue to the next level If you cannot achieve a satisfactory

resolution, submit the issue to the next management level If your immediate superior is the chief

executive officer or equivalent, the acceptable reviewing authority may be a group such as the audit

committee, executive committee, board of directors, board of trustees, or owners Contact with levels

above the immediate superior should be initiated only with your superior’s knowledge, assuming he or

she is not involved Communication of such problems to authorities or individuals not employed or

engaged by the organization is not considered appropriate, unless you believe there is a clear

violation of the law.

2 Clarify relevant ethical issues by initiating a confidential discussion with an IMA Ethics Counselor or

other impartial advisor to obtain a better understanding of possible courses of action.

3 Consult your own attorney as to legal obligations and rights concerning the ethical conflict.

Source: Statement on Management Accounting Number 1-C 2005 IMA Statement of Ethical Professional Practice Montvale,

NJ: Institute of Management Accountants Reprinted with permission from the Institute of Management Accountants,

Montvale, NJ, www.imanet.org.

Resolution of Ethical Conflict

Exhibit 1-8

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