Red Hat Linux 7.2 Bible, Unlimited ed phần 2 ppt

Using the Shell in Red Hat Linux When you type a command in a shell, you can also include other characters that change or add to how thecommand works.. Locating commands If you know wher

I just showed a few commands designed to familiarize you quickly with your Linux system There are

hundreds of other commands that you can try that are contained in directories such as /bin and /usr/bin Thereare also administrative commands in /sbin or /usr/sbin directories Many of these commands are described inthe remainder of this chapter

Understanding the Red Hat Linux Shell

Before icons and windows took over computer screens, you typed commands to run most computers OnUNIX systems, from which Red Hat Linux was derived, the program used to interpret and manage commandswas referred to as the shell

The shell provides a way to run programs, work with the file system, compile computer code, and manage thecomputer Although the shell is less intuitive than common GUIs, most Linux experts consider the shell to bemuch more powerful than GUIs Because shells have been around for so long, many advanced features havebeen built into them Many old−school Linux administrators and programmers primarily use a GUI in theirwork as a means of opening lots of shells

The Red Hat Linux shell illustrated in this chapter is called the bash shell, which stands for Bourne AgainSHell The name is derived from the fact that bash is compatible with the first UNIX shell: the Bourne shell(represented by the sh command) Other popular shells include the C Shell (csh), which is popular amongBSD UNIX users, and the Korn Shell (ksh), which is popular among UNIX System V users Linux also has atcsh shell (a C shell look−alike) and an ash shell (another Bourne shell look−alike)

Although most Red Hat Linux users have a preference for one shell or another, when you know how to useone shell, you can quickly learn any of the others by occasionally referring to the shell’s man page (for

example, type man bash) In Red Hat Linux, the bash shell is roughly compatible with the sh shell

Caution When you run the sh shell in Linux, a link to the bash shell is actually invoked, instead of the sh

shell To have bash behave like an sh shell when the sh shell is run, bash uses the /etc/profile and

~/.profile files to configure the shell Likewise, when csh is run, the tcsh shell is invoked instead

Using the Shell in Red Hat Linux

When you type a command in a shell, you can also include other characters that change or add to how thecommand works In addition to the command itself, these are some of the other items that you can type on ashell command line:

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Options — Most commands have one or more options you can add to change their behavior Options

typically consist of a single letter, preceded by a dash You can also usually combine several optionsafter a single dash For example, the command ls −la lists the contents of the current directory The −lasks for a detailed (long) list of information, and the −a asks that files beginning with a dot (.) also belisted When a single option consists of a word or abbreviation, it is usually preceded by a double dash(−−) For example, to use the help option on many commands, you would enter −−help on the

command line

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Arguments — Many commands also accept arguments after any options are entered An argument is

an extra piece of information, such as a filename, that can be used by the command For example, cat/etc/passwd prints out the contents of the /etc/passwd file In this case, /etc/passwd is the argument

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Environment variables — The shell itself stores information that may be useful to the user’s shell

session in what are called environment variables Examples of environment variables include

$SHELL (which identifies the shell you are using), $PS1 (which defines your shell prompt), and

$MAIL (which identifies the location of your mailbox)

Tip You can check your environment variables at any time Type declare to list the current environment

variables Or you can type echo $VALUE, where VALUE is replaced by the name of a particular

environment variable you want to list

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Metacharacters — These are characters that have special meaning to the shell Metacharacters can

be used to direct the output of a command to a file (>), pipe the output to another command (|), or run

a command in the background (&), to name a few Metacharacters are discussed later in this chapter

To save you some typing, there are shell features that store commands you want to reuse, recall previouscommands, and edit commands You can create aliases that allow you to type a short command to run a longerone The shell stores previously entered commands in a history list, which you can display and from whichyou can recall commands This is discussed further in the remainder of this section

Unless you specifically change to another shell, the bash shell is the one you use with Red Hat Linux Thebash shell contains most of the powerful features available in other shells Although the description in this

chapter steps you through many bash shell features, you can learn more about the bash shell by typing man bash For other ways to learn about using the shell, refer to the sidebar “Getting Help with Using the Shell.”

Getting Help with Using the Shell

When you first start using the shell, it can be intimidating All you see is a prompt How do you know whichcommands are available, which options they use, or how to use more advanced features? Fortunately, lots ofhelp is available Here are some places you can look to supplement what you learn in this chapter:

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Check the PATH — Type echo $PATH The result is a listing of the directories containing

commands that are immediately accessible to you Listing the contents of those directories displaysmost of the standard Linux commands

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Use the help command — Some commands are built into the shell, so they do not appear in a

directory The help command lists those commands and shows you the options available with each ofthem (Because the list is long, type help | more to page through the list.) For help with a particular

built−in command, type help command, replacing command with the name that interests you.

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Use the man command — If you know a command name and want to find out more about it, type

man command Replace command with the command name in which you are interested A description

of the command and its options appears on the screen

Locating commands

If you know where a command is located in your Linux file system, one way to run it is to type the full path tothat command For example, you get the date command from the bin directory by typing:

$ /bin/date

Of course, this can be inconvenient, especially if the command resides in a directory with a long name Thebetter way is to have commands stored in well−known directories, and then add those directories to yourshell’s PATH environment variable The path consists of a list of directories that are checked sequentially forthe commands you enter To see your current path, type the following:

"Understanding file permissions" section), you can immediately begin using the command by simplytyping the command name at your shell prompt

If you are the root user, directories containing administrative commands are in your path These directoriesinclude /sbin and /usr/sbin

The path directory order is important Directories are checked from left to right So, in this example, if therewas a command called foo located in both the /bin and /usr/bin directories, the one in /bin would be executed

To have the other foo command run, you would have to either type the full path to the command or changeyour PATH variable (See the section on configuration files later in this chapter for information on changingyour PATH or adding directories to it.)

Not all the commands that you run are located in directories in your PATH Some commands are built into theshell Other commands can be overridden by creating aliases that define any commands and options that youwant the command to run There are also ways of defining a function that consists of a stored series of

commands Here is the order in which the shell checks for the commands you type:

1

Aliases — Names set by the alias command that represent a particular command and a set of options.

2

Shell reserved word — Words that are reserved by the shell for special use Most of these are words

that you would use in programming−type functions, such as do, while, case, and else.

File system command — This is a command that is stored in and executed from the computer’s file

system (These are the commands that are indicated by the value of the PATH variable.)

Note To see a list of bash built−in commands (and options), type the help command For more information

on a particular built−in, use the info command, followed by the name of the built−in command

To find out where a particular command is taken from, you can use the type command For example, to findout where the bash shell command is located, type the following:

$ type bash

Rerunning commands

It’s annoying, after typing a long or complex command line, to learn that you mistyped something

Fortunately, some shell features let you recall previous command lines, edit those lines, or complete a

partially typed command line

The shell history is a list of the commands that you have entered before Using the history command, you can

view your previous commands Then, using various shell features, you can recall individual command linesfrom that list and change them however you please

The rest of this section describes how to do command−line editing, how to complete parts of command lines,and how to recall and work with the history list

To try out a bit of command−line editing, type the following command:

$ ls /usr/bin | sort −f | more

This command lists the contents of the /usr/bin directory, sorts the contents in alphabetical order (regardless ofupper− and lowercase), and pipes the output to more (so you can page through the results) Now, suppose youwant to change /usr/bin to /bin These are steps you can use to change the command:

1

Press Ctrl+a This moves the cursor to the beginning of the command line

2

Press Ctrl+f (or the right arrow (ààra) key) Repeat this command a few times to position the cursorunder the first slash (/).

3

Press Ctrl+d Type this command four times to delete /usr

4

Press Enter This executes the command line

As you edit a command line, at any point you can type regular characters to add those characters to thecommand line The characters appear at the location of your cursor You can use right (ààra) and left (ßßla)arrows to move the cursor from one end to the other on the command line You can also press the up (ááua)and down (ââda) arrow keys to step through previous commands in the history list to select a command linefor editing (See the following discussion on command recall for details on how to recall commands from thehistory list.)

There are many keystrokes you can use to edit your command lines Table 3−1 lists the keystrokes that youcan use to move around the command line

Table 3−1: Keystrokes for Navigating Command Lines

Ctrl+b Character backward Go backward one character

Ctrl+a Beginning of line Go to the beginning of the current line

Ctrl+l Clear screen Clear screen and leave line at the top of the screen.Table 3−2 lists the keystrokes for editing command lines

Table 3−2: Keystrokes for Editing Command Lines

Backspace or Rubout Delete previous Delete the previous character

previous characters

previous characters

capital

Ctrl+v Insert special character Add a special character For example,

to add a Tab character, pressCtrl+v+Tab

Table 3−3 lists the keystrokes for cutting and pasting text on a command line

Table 3−3: Keystrokes for Cutting and Pasting Text in Command Lines

Ctrl+u Cut beginning of line Cut text to the beginning of the line

Ctrl+w Cut previous word Cut the word located behind the cursor

Alt+y Paste earlier text Rotate back to previously cut text and paste it

Command line completion

To save you a few keystrokes, the bash shell offers several different ways of completing partially typedvalues To attempt to complete a value, type the first few characters, and then press Tab Here are some of thevalues you can type partially:

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Environment variable — If the text begins with a dollar sign ($), the shell completes the text with an

environment variable from the current shell

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User name — If the text begins with a tilde (~), the shell completes the text with a user name.

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Command, alias, or function — If the text begins with regular characters, the shell tries to complete

the text with a command, alias, or function name

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Hostname — If the text begins with an at (@) sign, the shell completes the text with a hostname

taken from the /etc/hosts file

Tip To add host names from an additional file, you can set the HOSTFILE variable to the name of that file.The file must be in the same format as /etc/hosts

Here are a few examples of command completion (When you see <Tab>, it means to press the Tab key onyour keyboard.) Type the following:

$ echo $OS<Tab>

$ cd ~ro<Tab>

$ fing<Tab>

$ mailx root@loc<Tab>

The first example causes $OS to be expanded to the $OSTYPE variable In the next example, ~ro is expanded

to the root user’s home directory (~root/) Next, fing is expanded to the finger command Finally, the address

of root@loc is expanded to the computer named localhost (the local computer)

Of course, there will be times when there are several possible completions for the string of characters youhave entered In that case, you can check the possible ways text can be expanded by pressing Esc+? at thepoint where you want to do completion Here is an example of the result you would get if you checked forpossible completions on $P

$ echo $P<Esc+?>

$PATH $PPID $PS1 $PS2 $PS4 $PWD

$ echo $P

In this case, there are six possible environment variables that begin with $P After the possibilities are

displayed, the original command line is returned, ready for you to complete it as you choose

If the text you are trying to complete is not preceded by a $, ~, or @, you can still try to complete the text with

a variable, user name, or hostname Press the following to complete your text:

C+x+! — List possible command name completions

Command line recall

After you type a command line, that entire command line is saved in your shell’s history list The list is stored

in a history file, from which any command can be recalled to run again After it is recalled, you can modifythe command line, as described earlier

To view the contents of your history list, use the history command You can either type the command withoutoptions or follow it with a number to list that number of the most recent commands Here’s an example:

Run Command Number (!n) — Replace the n with the number of the command line, and the

command line indicated is run

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Run Previous Command (!!) — Runs the previous command line.

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Run Command Containing String (!?string?) — Runs the most recent command that contains a

particular string of characters.

Instead of just running a history command line immediately, you can recall a particular line and edit it Youcan use these keys to do that:

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Step (Arrow Keys) — Press the up (ááua) and down (ââda) arrow keys to step through each command

line in your history list to arrive at the one you want

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Reverse Incremental Search (Ctrl+r) — After you press these keys, you are asked to enter a search

string to do a reverse search As you type the string, a matching command line appears that you canrun or edit

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Forward Incremental Search (Ctrl+s) — After you press these keys, you are asked to enter a search

string to do a forward search As you type the string, a matching command line appears that you canrun or edit

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Reverse Search (Alt+p) — After you press these keys, you are asked to enter a string to do a reverse

search Type a string and press Enter to see the most recent command line that includes that string

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Forward Search (Alt+n) — After you press these keys, you are asked to enter a string to do a

forward search Type a string, and press Enter to see the most recent command line that includes thatstring

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Beginning of History List (Alt+<) — Brings you to the first entry of the history list.

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Beginning of History List (Alt+>) — Brings you to the last entry of the history list.

Another way to work with your history list is to use the fc command Type fc followed by a history linenumber, and that command line is opened in a text editor Make the changes that you want When you exit theeditor, the command runs You could also give a range of line numbers (for example, fc 100 105) All thecommands open in your text editor, and then run one after the other when you exit the editor

The history list is stored in the bash_history file in your home directory Up to 1000 history commands arestored for you by default

Connecting and expanding commands

A truly powerful feature of the shell is the capability to redirect the input and output of commands to and fromother commands and files To allow commands to be strung together, the shell uses metacharacters As noted

earlier, a metacharacter is a typed character that has special meaning to the shell for connecting commands orrequesting expansion.

Piping commands

The pipe (|) metacharacter connects the output from one command to the input of another command This letsyou have one command work on some data, then have the next command deal with the results Here is anexample of a command line that includes pipes:

$ cat /etc/password | sort | more

This command prints the contents of the /etc/password file and pipes the output to the sort command The sortcommand takes the user names that begin each line of the /etc/password file, sorts them alphabetically, andpipes the output to the more command The more command displays the output one page at a time, so that youcan go through the output a line or a page at a time

Pipes are an excellent illustration of how UNIX, the predecessor of Linux, was created as an operating systemmade up of building blocks A standard practice in UNIX was to connect utilities in different ways to getdifferent jobs done For example, before the days of integrated, graphical word processors, users would createplain−text files that included macros to indicate formatting Then, to see how the document really appeared,they would use a command such as the following:

$ nroff −man grep.1 | lpr

In this example, the nroff command is used to format the file grep.1 (which is the grep manual page) using themanual macro (−man) The output is piped to the lpr command to print the output Because the file beingprinted is in plain text, you could have substituted any number of options to work with the text before printing

it You could sort the contents, change or delete some of the content, or bring in text from other documents.The key is that, instead of all those features being in one program, you get results from piping and redirectinginput and output between multiple commands

$ date ; troff −me verylargedocument | lpr ; date

In this example, I was formatting a huge document and wanted to know how long it would take The firstcommand (date) showed the date and time before the formatting started The troff command formatted thedocument and then piped the output to the printer When the formatting was done, the date and time wasprinted again (so I know how long the troff command took to complete)

Background commands

Some commands can take a while to complete Sometimes you may not want to tie up your shell waiting for acommand to finish In those cases, you can have the commands run in the background by using the ampersand(&)

Text formatting commands (such as nroff and troff, which were described earlier) are examples of commandsthat you may want to run in the background if you are formatting a large document You also may want tocreate your own shell scripts that run in the background to check continuously for certain events to occur,such as the hard disk filling up or particular users logging in

Here is an example of a command being run in the background:

$ troff −me verylargedocument &

There are other ways of managing background and foreground processes These different methods are

described in detail in the “Managing Background Processes” section

Expanding commands

With command substitution, you can have the output of a command interpreted by the shell instead of by thecommand itself In this way, you can have the standard output of a command become an argument for anothercommand The two forms of command substitution are $(command) or ‘command’

The command in this case can include options, metacharacters, and arguments Here is an example of usingcommand substitution:

$ vi $(find / −print | grep xyzzy)

In this command line, the command substitution is done before the vi command is run First, the find

command starts at the root directory (/) and prints out all files and directories in the entire file system Thisoutput is piped to the grep command, which filters out all files except for those that include the string xyzzy.Finally, the vi command opens all filenames for editing (one at a time) that include xyzzy

This particular example may be useful if you knew that you wanted to edit a file for which you knew the namebut not the location As long as the string was fairly uncommon, you could find and open every instance of aparticular filename existing in the file system

Expanding arithmetic expressions

There may be times when you want to pass arithmetic results to a command There are two forms you can use

to expand an arithmetic expression and pass it to the shell: $[expression] or $((expression)) Here is an

example:

$ echo "I am $[2002 − 1957] years old."

I am 45 years old.

In this example, the shell interprets the arithmetic expression first (2002 – 1957), and then passes that

information to the echo command The echo command displays the text, with the results of the arithmetic (45)inserted

Expanding variables

Environment variables that store information within the shell can be expanded using the dollar sign ($)

metacharacter When you expand an environment variable on a command line, the value of the variable isprinted instead of the variable name itself, as follows:

$ ls −l $BASH_ENV

−rw−r—r−− 1 chris sales 124 Jan 10 01:50 /home/chris/.bashrc

In this example, you wanted to see the location of your bash environment file, and then check its size andwhen it was last changed The BASH_ENV environment variable contains the name of your bash

environment file Using $BASH_ENV as an argument to ls −l causes a long listing of that file to be printed.(The $BASH_ENV variable isn’t automatically set for the root user, though it should be for all others.) Formore information on shell environment variables, see the following section

Using shell environment variables

Every active shell stores pieces of information that it needs to use in what are called environment variables

An environment variable can store things such as locations of configuration files, mailboxes, and path

directories They can also store values for your shell prompts, the size of your history list, and type of

operating system

To see the environment variables currently assigned to your shell, type the declare command (It will probablyfill more than one screen, so type declare | more.) You can refer to the value of any of those variables bypreceding it with a dollar sign ($) and placing it anywhere on a command line For example:

$ echo $USER

chris

This command prints the value of the USER variable, which happens to be the user name (chris) You cansubstitute any other value for USER to print its value instead

Common shell environment variables

When you start a shell (by logging in or opening a Terminal window), there is a bunch of environment

variables already set The following are some of the variables that are either set when you use a bash shell inLinux or that can be set by you to use with different features

HOSTTYPE — A value that describes the computer architecture on which the Linux system isrunning For Intel−compatible PCs, the value is i386.

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PS1 — Sets the value of your shell prompt There are many items that you can read into your prompt(date, time, user name, hostname, and so on) Sometimes a command requires additional prompts,which you can set with the variables PS2, PS3, and so on (Setting your prompt is described later inthis chapter.)

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TMOUT — Can be set to a number representing the number of seconds the shell can be idle withoutreceiving input After the number of seconds is reached, the shell exits This is a security feature thatcan help make it less likely for unattended shells to be accessed by unauthorized people (This must

be set in the login shell for it to actually cause the shell to log out the user.)

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UID — The user ID number assigned to your user name The user ID number is permanently stored inthe /etc/password file

Set your own environment variables

Environment variables can provide a handy way of storing bits of information that you use often from theshell You are free to create any variables that you want (although I would avoid those that are already in use)

so that you can read in the values of those variables as you use the shell (See the bash man page for a listing

of shell environment variable names that are already in use.)

To set an environment variable temporarily, you can simply type a variable name and assign it to a value.Here is an example:

a variable to xyz as to XYZ (they are not the same, but either will work)

The problem with setting environment variables in this way is that as soon as you exit the shell in which youset the variable, the setting is lost To set variables more permanently, you should add variable settings to yourbash configuration files, which is described later in the section on adding environment variables

If you want to have other text right up against the output from an environment variable, you can surround thevariable in braces This protects the variable name from being misunderstood For example, if you wanted toadd a command name to the AB variable shown earlier, you could do the following:

$ echo ${AB}/adventure

/usr/dog/contagious/ringbearer/grind/adventure

Remember that you need to export the variable for it to be picked up by other commands You need to add theexport line to a shell configuration file for it to take effect the next time you login The export command isfairly flexible Instead of running the export command after you set the variable, you could do it all in onestep, as follows:

$ export XYZ=/home/xyz/bin

You can override the value of any environment variable at any time This can be temporary by typing the newvalue in the shell Or you can add the changed variable command line to your $HOME/.bashrc file Oneuseful variable to update is the PATH variable Here is an example:

$ export PATH=$PATH:/home/xyz/bin

In this example, I temporarily added the /home/xyz/bin directory to the PATH This is useful if, during a shell

session, you find yourself wanting to run a bunch of commands from a directory that is not normally in yourPATH This temporary addition saves you from typing the full or relative path each time you want to run acommand.

If you decide that you no longer want a variable to be set, you can use the unset command to erase its value.For example, you could type unset XYZ, which would cause XYZ to have no value set (Remember to

remove the export from the $HOME/.bashrc file — if you added it there — or it will return the next time youopen a new shell.)

Managing background and foreground processes

If you are using Linux over a network or from a dumb terminal (a monitor that allows only text input with no

GUI support), your shell may be all that you have You may be used to a windowing environment where youhave a lot of programs active at the same time so that you can switch among them as needed This shell thingcan seem pretty limited

Though the bash shell doesn’t offer you a GUI for running many programs, it does offer a way to move activeprograms between the background and foreground In this way, you can have a lot of stuff running, whileselectively being able to choose the one you want to deal with at the moment

There are several ways to place an active program in the background One mentioned earlier is to add anampersand (&) to the end of a command line Another way is to use the at command to run one or morecommands in a way in which they are not connected to the shell

To stop a running command and put it in the background, press Ctrl+z After the command is stopped, youcan either bring it to the foreground to run (the fg command) or start it running in the background (the bgcommand)

Starting background processes

If you have programs that you want to run while you continue to work in the shell, you can place the programs

in the background To place a program in the background at the time you run the program, type an ampersand(&) at the end of the command line For example:

$ find /usr −print > /tmp/allusrfiles &

This command finds all files on your Red Hat Linux system (starting from the /usr directory), prints those filenames, and puts those names in the file /tmp/allusrfiles The ampersand (&) runs that command line in thebackground To check which commands you have running in the background, use the jobs command, asfollows:

$ jobs

[1] Stopped (tty output) vi /tmp/myfile

[2] Running find /usr −print > /tmp/allusrfiles &

[3] Running nroff −man /usr/man2/* >/tmp/man2 &

[4]− Running nroff −man /usr/man3/* >/tmp/man3 &

[5]+ Stopped nroff −man /usr/man4/* >/tmp/man4

The first job shows a text−editing command (vi) that was placed in the background and stopped by pressingCtrl+z while I was editing Job two shows the find command I just ran Jobs three and four show nroff

commands currently running in the background Job five had been running in the shell (foreground) until Idecided too many processes were running and pressed Ctrl+z to stop job five until a few processes had

completed

The plus sign (+) next to number 5 shows that this is the job that was most recently placed in the background.The minus sign (−) next to number 4 shows that it was placed in the background just before the most recentbackground job Because job 1 requires terminal input, it cannot run in the background As a result, it appears

as Stopped until it is brought to the foreground again

Tip To see the process ID for the background job, add an −l option to the jobs command If you type ps, you

can use the process ID to figure out which command is associated with a particular background command

Using foreground and background commands

Continuing with the example shown, you can bring any of the commands on the jobs list into the foreground.For example, if you are ready to edit myfile again, you can type:

$ fg %1

As a result, the vi command opens again, with all the text as it was when you stopped the vi job

Caution Before you put a text processor, word processor, or similar program in the background, make sure

you save your file It's easy to forget you have a program in the background and you will lose yourdata if you log out or the computer reboots later on

To refer to a background job (to cancel it or bring it to the foreground), you can use a percent sign (%)

followed by the job number You can also use the following to refer to a background job:

%−− — Refers to the previous job stopped before the one most recently stopped

If a command is stopped, you can start it running again in the background using the bg command For

example, take job number 5 from the jobs list in the previous example:

[5]+ Stopped nroff −man man4/* >/tmp/man4

Type the following:

$ bg %5

After that, the job runs in the background Its jobs entry appears as follows:

[5] Running nroff −man man4/* >/tmp/man4 &

Tip After a background command is done, an Exit message will be displayed the next time you press Enter(before a new shell prompt is displayed) If you want to have the exit message appear the moment thecommand completes, you must set the notify variable To do this, type export notify=yes

Configuring your shell

You can tune your shell to help you work more efficiently Your prompt can provide pertinent informationeach time you press Enter You can set aliases to save your keystrokes and permanently set environmentvariables to suit your needs To make each change occur when you start a shell, you can add this information

to your shell configuration files

Several configuration files support how your shell behaves Some of these files are executed for every userand every shell Others are specific to the particular user that creates the configuration file Here are the filesthat are of interest to anyone using the bash shell in Linux:

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/etc/profile — This file sets up user environment information for every user It is executed when youfirst log in and the shell starts This file provides default values for your path, your prompt, themaximum file size that you can create, and the default permissions for the files that you create It alsosets environment variables for such things as the location of your mailbox and the size of your historyfiles

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/etc/bashrc — This file is executed for every user that runs the bash shell It is read each time a bashshell is opened It sets the default prompt and may add one or more aliases Values in this file can beoverridden by information in each user’s ~/.bashrc file

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~/.bash_profile — This file is used by each user to enter information that is specific to their own use

of the shell It is executed only once, when the user logs in By default it sets a few environmentvariables and executes the user’s bashrc file

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~/.bashrc — This file contains the bash information that is specific to your bash shells It is read whenyou log in and also each time you open a new bash shell This is the best location to add environmentvariables and aliases so that your shell picks them up

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~/.bash_logout — This file executes each time you log out (exit the last bash shell) By default, itsimply clears your screen

To change the /etc/profile or /etc/bashrc files, you must be the root user Any user can change the information

in the $HOME/.bash_profile, $HOME/.bashrc, and $HOME/.bash_logout files in their own home directories.The following sections provide ideas about things to add to your shell configuration files In most cases, youadd these values to the bashrc file in your home directory However, if you are an administrator for a system,you may want to set some of these values as defaults for all of your Linux system’s users

Setting your prompt

Your prompt consists of a set of characters that appear each time the shell is ready to accept a command.Exactly what that prompt contains is determined by the value in the PS1 environment variable If your shellrequires additional input, it uses the values of PS2, PS3, and PS4

When your Red Hat Linux system is installed, your prompt is set to include the following information: youruser name, your hostname, and the base name of your current working directory That information is

surrounded by brackets and followed by a dollar sign (for regular users) or a pound sign (for the root user).Here is an example of that prompt:

[chris@myhost bin]$

If you were to change directories, the bin name would change to the name of the new current working

directory Likewise, if you were to log in as a different user or to a different host, that information wouldchange

You can use several special characters (indicated by adding a backslash to a variety of letters) to includedifferent information in your prompt These can include your terminal number, the date, and the time, as well

as other pieces of information Here are some examples:

\u — Prints your current user name.

•

\w — Displays the full path to the current working directory

Tip If you are setting your prompt temporarily by typing at the shell, you should put the value of PS1 inquotes For example, you could type export PS1="[\t \w]\$ " to see a prompt that looks like this: [20:26:32/var/spool]$

To make a change to your prompt permanent, add the value of PS1 to your bashrc file in your home directory(assuming that you are using the bash shell) There is probably already a PS1 value in that file that you canmodify

Adding environment variables

You may consider adding a few environment variables to your bashrc file These can help make working withthe shell more efficient and effective:

•

PATH — As described earlier, the PATH variable sets the directories that are searched for the

commands that you type If you often use directories of commands that are not in your PATH, youcan permanently add them To do this, add a new PATH variable to your bashrc file For example, toadd a new directory called /getstuff/bin to your path, add the following line:

PATH=$PATH:/getstuff/bin ; export PATH

This example first reads all the current path directories into the new PATH ($PATH), adds the /getstuff/bindirectory, and then exports the new PATH

Caution Some people add the current directory to their PATH by adding a directory identified simply as a dot

(.), as follows:

PATH=.:$PATH ; export PATH

This lets you always run commands in your current directory (which people may be used to if theyhave used DOS) However, the security risk with this procedure is that you could be in a directorythat contains a command that you don’t intend to run from that directory For example, a hackercould put an ls command in a directory that, instead of listing the content of your directory, doessomething devious

•

WHATEVER — You can create your own environment variables to provide shortcuts in your work.Choose any name that is not being used and assign a useful value to it For example, if you do a lot ofwork with files in the /work/time/files/info/memos directory, you could set the following variable:M=/work/time/files/info/memos ; export M

You could make that your current directory by typing cd $M You could run a program from that directorycalled hotdog by typing $M/hotdog You could edit a file from there called bun by typing vi $M/bun

Adding aliases

Setting aliases can save you even more typing than setting environment variables With aliases, you can have

a string of characters execute an entire command line You can add and list aliases with the alias command.Here are some examples:

alias p=’pwd ; ls −CF’

alias rm=’rm −i’

In the first example, the letter p is assigned to run the command pwd, and then to run ls −CF to print thecurrent working directory and list its contents in column form The second runs the rm command with the −ioption each time you simply type rm (This is an alias that is often set automatically for the root user, so thatinstead of just removing files, you are prompted for each individual file removal This prevents you from

removing all the files in a directory by mistakenly typing something such as rm *.)

While you are in the shell, you can check which aliases are set by typing the alias command If you want toremove an alias, you can type unalias (Remember that if the alias is set in a configuration file, it will be setagain when you open another shell.)

Working with the Red Hat Linux File System

The Red Hat Linux file system is the structure in which all the information on your computer is stored Filesare organized within a hierarchy of directories Each directory can contain files, as well as other directories

If you were to map out the files and directories in Red Hat Linux, it would look like an upside down tree Atthe top is the root directory, which is represented by a single slash (/) Below that is a set of common

directories in the Linux system, such as /bin, /dev, /home, /lib, and /tmp, to name a few Each of thosedirectories, as well as directories added to the root, can contain subdirectories

Figure 3−2 illustrates how the Linux file system is organized as a hierarchy To illustrate how directories areconnected, Figure 3−2 shows a /home directory that contains subdirectories for three users: chris, mary, andtom Within the chris directory are three subdirectories: briefs, memos, and personal To refer to a file calledinventory in the chris memos directory, you could type the full path of /home/chris/memos/inventory If yourcurrent directory were /home/chris/memos, you could refer to the file as simply inventory

Figure 3−2: The Red Hat Linux file system is organized as a hierarchy of directories

Some of the Red Hat Linux directories that may be of interest to you include the following:

access these devices directly through the device files.)

Red Hat Linux File System versus MS File Systems

Although similar in many ways, the Linux file system has some striking differences from the file systemsused in MSưDOS and Windows operating systems Here are a few:

•

In MSưDOS and Windows file systems, drive letters represent different storage devices (for example,A: is a floppy drive and C: is a hard disk) In Linux, all storage devices are fit into the file systemhierarchy So, the fact that all of /usr may be on a separate hard disk or that /mnt/rem1 is a file systemfrom another computer is invisible to the user

•

Slashes, rather than backslashes, are used to separate directory names in Linux So, C:\home\chris in

an MS system is /home/chris in a Linux system

•

Filenames almost always have suffixes in DOS (such as txt for text files or doc for wordưprocessingfiles) Though at times you can use that convention in Linux, threeưcharacter suffixes have norequired meaning in Linux They can be useful for identifying a file type

•

Every file and directory in a Linux system has permissions and ownership associated with it Securityvaries among Microsoft systems Because DOS and MS Windows began as singleưuser systems, fileownership was not built into those systems when they were designed Later releases added featuressuch as file and folder attributes to address this problem

Creating files and directories

As a Red Hat Linux user, most of the files you save and work with will probably be in your home directory.Here are some of the commands you use in the file creation process:

ls — List the contents of a directory

The following procedure steps you through creating directories within your home directory, moving amongyour directories, and setting appropriate file permissions:

1

First, go to your home directory To do this, simply type cd

(For other ways of referring to your home directory, see the sidebar on identifying directories.)

drwxr−xr−x 2 chris sales 1024 Jan 24 12:17 test

Notice that this listing says that test is a directory (d), the owner is chris, the group is sales, and thefile was most recently modified on Jan 24 at 12:17 p.m Suppose that you want to prevent everyoneelse who uses this computer from using or viewing the files in this directory The permissions for thedirectory are rwxr−xr−x I explain what these permissions mean later in this section

5

For now, type the following:

~ — The tilde (~) represents your home directory on the command line.

You can also use the tilde to identify someone else’s home directory For example, ~chris would be expanded

to the chris home directory (probably /home/chris)

Other special ways of identifying directories in the shell include the following:

Using metacharacters and operators

To make more efficient use of your shell, the bash shell lets you use certain special characters, referred to asmetacharacters and operators Metacharacters can help you match one or more files without typing each fileout completely Operators let you direct information from one command or file to another command or file

Using file−matching metacharacters

To save you some keystrokes and to be able to refer easily to a group of files, the bash shell lets you usemetacharacters Anytime you need to refer to a file or directory, such as to list it, open it, or remove it, youcan use metacharacters to match the files you want Here are some useful metacharacters for matchingfilenames:

•

*— This matches any number of characters

•

? — This matches any one character.

•

[ ] — This matches any one of the characters between the brackets, which can include a

dash−separated range of letters or numbers

To try out some of these file−matching metacharacters, go to an empty directory (such as the test directorydescribed in the previous section) and create some files Here’s an example of how to create some empty files:

$ touch apple banana grape grapefruit watermelon

The next few commands show you how to use shell metacharacters to match file names so they can be used asarguments to the ls command Using metacharacters shown below, you can match the file names you justcreated with the touch command Type the following commands and see if you get the same responses:

Here are a few examples of pattern matching with the question mark (?):

apple grape watermelon

In the first example, any file beginning with a, b, or w is matched In the second, any file that begins with a, g,

or w and also ends with either n or e is matched

Using file−redirection metacharacters

Commands receive data from standard input and send it to standard output Using pipes (described earlier),you can direct standard output from one command to the standard input of another With files, you can useless than (<) and greater than (>) signs to direct data to and from files Here are the file redirection characters:

•

< — Direct the contents of a file to the command.

$ mail root < ~/.bashrc

$ nroff −man /usr/share/man/man1/chmod.1* > /tmp/chmod

$ echo "I finished the project on $(date)" > ~/projects

In the first example, the contents of the bashrc file in the home directory are sent in a mail message to thecomputer’s root user The second command line formats the chmod man page (using the nroff command) andsends the output to the file /tmp/chmod (erasing the previous /tmp/chmod file, if it existed) The final

command results in the following text being added to the user’s project file:

I finished the project on Sun Nov 25 13:46:49 PST 2001

Understanding file permissions

After you’ve worked with Linux for a while, you are almost sure to get a Permission Denied message.

Permissions associated with files and directories in Linux were designed to keep users from accessing otherusers’ private files and to protect important system files

The nine bits assigned to each file for permissions define the access that you and others have to your file

Permission bits appear as rwxrwxrwx The first three bits apply to the owner’s permission, the next three apply

to the owner’s group, and the last three apply to all others The r stands for read, the w stands for write, and the x stands for execute permissions If a dash appears instead of the letter, it means that permission is turned

off for that associated read, write, or execute

You can see the permission for any file or directory by typing the ls −ld command The named file or

directory appears as those shown in the example below:

$ ls −ld ch3 test

−rw−rw−r−− 1 chris sales 4983 Jan 18 22:13 ch3

drwxr−xr−x 2 chris sales 1024 Jan 24 13:47 test

The first line shows a file (ch3) that has read and write on for the owner and the group All other users haveread permission, which means they can view the file but cannot change its contents or remove it The secondline shows a directory (indicated by the letter d before the permission bits) The owner has read, write, andexecute permission, while the group and other users have only read and execute permissions As a result, onlythe owner can add, change, or delete files in that directory Any other user, however, can only read the

contents, change to that directory, and list the contents of the directory

If you own a file, you can change the permission on it as you please You can do this with the chmod

command For each of the three sets of permission on a file (read, write, and execute), the r is assigned to thenumber 4, w to 2, and x to 1 So to make permissions wide open for yourself as owner, you would set the firstnumber to 7 (4 plus 2 plus 1) The same would be true for group and other permission Any combination ofpermissions can result from 0 (no permission) through 7 (full permission)

Here are some examples of how to change permission on a file and what the resulting permission would be:

chmod 777 files → rwxrwxrwx

$ umask

022

Subtract the number you see in each of the three sets from seven and you will see the value of each of thefields The umask of 022 results in permission for a directory of 755 (rwxr−xr−x) That same umask results in

a file permission of 644 (rw−r−−r−−) (Execute permissions are off by default for regular files.)

Tip Here’s a great tip for changing the permission for lots of files at once Using the −R options of chmod, youcould change the permission for all of the files and directories within a directory structure at once Forexample, if you wanted to open permissions completely to all files and directories in the /tmp/test

directory, you could type the following:

$ chmod −R 777 /tmp/test

This command line runs chmod recursively (−R) for the /tmp/test directory, as well as any files or

directories that exist below that point in the file system (for example, /tmp/test/hat,

/tmp/test/hat/baseballcaps, and so on) All would be set to 777 (full read/write/execute permissions).Caution The −R option of chmod works best if you are opening permissions completely or adding execute

permission (as well as the appropriate read/write permission) The reason is that if you turn offexecute permission recursively, you close off your ability to change to any directory in that structure.For example, chmod −R 644 /tmp/test turns off execute permission for the /tmp/test directory, thenfails to change any files or directories below that point

Moving, copying, and deleting files

Commands for moving, copying, and deleting files are fairly straightforward To change the location of a file,use the mv command To copy a file from one location to another, use the cp command To remove a file, usethe rm command Here are some examples:

command (rm) deletes the abc file, whereas the second removes all the files in the current directory

Note For the root user, the mv, cp, and rm commands are aliased to each be run with the −i option Thiscauses a prompt to appear asking you to confirm each move, copy, and removal, one file at a time This

is done to prevent the root user from messing up a large group of files by mistake

Using the vi Text Editor

It’s almost impossible to use Red Hat Linux for any period of time and not need to use a text editor If you areusing a GUI, you can run xedit, which has a fairly intuitive interface for editing text Most Red Hat Linuxshell users will use either the vi or emacs commands to edit plain−text files The advantage of using vi or

emacs, instead of a graphical editor, is that you can use it from a Terminal window, a character terminal, or acharacter−based connection over a network (using telnet or ssh, for example) No GUI is required.

This section provides a brief tutorial of the vi text editor Any time in this book that I suggest you manuallyedit a configuration file, you can use vi to do that editing (from any shell prompt) The vi editor is difficult tolearn at first But when you know it, you will be able to edit and move files around quickly and efficiently.Your fingers never have to leave the keyboard to pick up a mouse or hit a function key

"/tmp/test" [New File]

The box at the top represents where your cursor is The bottom line keeps you informed about what is going

on with your editing (here you just opened a new file) In between, there are tildes (~) as filler because there is

no text in the file yet Now here’s the intimidating part: there are no hints, menus, or icons to tell you what to

do On top of that, you can’t just start typing If you do, the computer is likely to beep at you

The first things you need to know are the different operating modes The vi editor operates in either commandmode or input mode When you start vi, you are in command mode Before you can add or change text in thefile, you have to type a command to tell vi what you want to do A command consists of one or two letters and

an optional number To get into input mode, you need to type an input command To start out, type either ofthe following input commands:

•

a — Add After you type a, you can input text that starts to the right of the cursor

•

i — Insert After you type i, you can input text that starts to the left of the cursor

Type a few words and press Enter Repeat that a few times until you have a few lines of text When you aredone typing, press Esc You are now back in command mode Remember the Esc key! It always places youback into command mode Now that you have a file with some text in it, try moving around within that textwith the following keys or letters:

•

Arrow keys — Use the arrow keys to move up, down, left, or right in the file one character at a time.

To move left and right you can also use Backspace and the spacebar, respectively If you prefer tokeep your fingers on the keyboard, use h (left), l (right), j (down), or k (up) to move the cursor

•

w — Moves the cursor to the beginning of the next word.

•

b — Moves the cursor to the beginning of the previous word.

L — Moves the cursor to the lower−left corner of the screen (last line on the screen).

Now that you know how to input text and move around in text, the only other editing you need to know ishow to delete text Here are a few vi commands for deleting text:

d0 — Deletes from the previous character to the beginning of the current line.

If you feel pretty good about creating text and moving around the file, you may want to wrap things up.Several keystrokes for saving and quitting the file follow:

If you’ve really trashed the file by mistake, the :q! command is the best way to exit and abandon yourchanges The file reverts to the most recently changed version So, if you just did a :w, you are stuck with

the changes up to that point If you just want to undo a few bad edits, press u to back out of changes.

You have learned a handful of vi editing commands I describe many, many more commands in the followingsections However, before I do, here are a few tips to smooth out your first trials with vi:

•

Esc — Remember that Esc gets you back to command mode (I’ve watched people press every key on

the keyboard trying to get out of a file.) Esc followed by ZZ gets you out of command mode, savesthe file, and exits

•

u — Press u to undo the previous change you made Continue to press u to undo the change before

that, and the one before that

•

Ctrl−r — If you decide you didn’t want to undo the previous command, use Ctrl−r for Redo.

Essentially, this command undoes your undo

•

Caps Lock — Beware of hitting the Caps Lock by mistake Everything you type in vi has a different

meaning when the letters are capitalized You don’t get a warning that you are typing capitals —things just start acting weird

•

:! command — You can run a command while you are in vi using :! followed by a command name.

For example, type :!date to see the current date and time, type :!pwd to see what your current

directory is, or type :!jobs to see if you have any jobs running in the background When the commandcompletes, press Enter and you are back to editing the file You could even do that with a shell(:!bash) to run a few commands from the shell, then type exit to return to vi (I recommend doing asave before escaping to the shell, just in case you forget to go back to vi.)

•

−− INSERT −− — When you are in insert mode, the word INSERT appears at the bottom of the

screen Other messages also appear at the line at the bottom of the screen

•

Ctrl+g — If you forget what you are editing, pressing these keys prints the name of the file that you

are editing and the current line that you are on It also prints the total number of lines in the file, thepercentage of how far you are through the file, and the column number the cursor is on This justhelps you get your bearings

Moving around the file

Besides the few movement commands described earlier, there are other ways of moving around a vi file Totry these out, you may want to open a large file that you can’t do much damage to (How about copying/var/log/messages to /tmp?) Here are some possibilities:

Ctrl+d — Page ahead 1/2 page at a time.

Searching for text

To search for the next occurrence of text in the file, use either the slash (/) or the question mark (?) character.Within the search, you can also use metacharacters Here are some examples:

an example of some of those ex commands for searching for and changing text (I chose the words Local andRemote to search for, but you can use any appropriate words.)

:g/Local/s//Remote/gp — Substitutes every occurrence of the word Local with the word Remote in theentire file, then prints each line so that you can see the changes (piping it through more if output fillsmore than one page).

Using numbers with commands

You can precede most vi commands with numbers to have the command repeated that number of times This

is a handy way to deal with several lines, words, or characters at a time Here are some examples:

12j — Moves down 12 lines

Putting a number in front of most commands just repeats those commands At this point, you should be fairlyproficient at using the vi command

Summary

Working from a shell command−line interpreter within Red Hat Linux may not be as simple as using a GUI,but it offers many powerful and flexible features This chapter describes how to log in to Red Hat Linux andwork with shell commands Features for running commands include recalling commands from a history list,completing commands, and joining commands in various ways

This chapter describes how shell environment variables can be used to store and recall important pieces ofinformation It also teaches you to modify shell configuration files to tailor the shell to suit your needs

Finally, the chapter describes how to use the Red Hat Linux file system to create files and directories,

understand permissions, and work with files (moving, copying, and removing them)

Chapter 4: Working with the Desktop

Add a graphical user interface (GUI) to an otherwise unintuitive operating system, and it immediately

becomes something anyone can use Icons can represent programs and files Clicking a mouse button can start

applications In keeping with other UNIX−like systems, Linux uses the X Window System (also referred to as

X11 or just X) as the framework for its graphical desktop On top of this framework, Red Hat Linux lets youchoose either (or both) of two powerful desktop environments: GNOME and KDE

This chapter describes how to get your X environment working, start up the desktop, and use the GNOME andKDE desktop environments It also describes a variety of X features you can use to manipulate the desktop

Configuring Your Desktop

If you installed Red Hat Linux as a desktop system and everything went smoothly, you should have

configured your video card and chosen a desktop environment (GNOME or KDE) If so, you can skip ahead

to the Starting the X Desktop section If you were unable to configure your desktop or if you need to change it

(for example, you may have added a video card or changed your monitor), this section is here for your

reference

If Red Hat Linux has been successfully installed (along with the desired desktop environment) but the GUIwasn't configured properly, you will only see a simple text−based login prompt when you start Red HatLinux This login prompt may look something like this:

Red Hat Linux release 7.2

The Xconfigurator command can be used to set up the links and configuration files needed to run your

graphical X desktop environment It checks that the correct X server is installed and configures the

/etc/X11/XF86Config file The following is an example of an Xconfigurator session:

determine the vertical refresh rate and the horizontal sync rate to properly configure your

monitor Check the manual that comes with your monitor for that information.

7

Select the number of colors and video resolutions for each number of colors A higher number ofcolors (8ưbit, 16ưbit, or 24ưbit) allow better quality graphics, but can slow performance Higherresolutions (800 @@ts 600, 1024 @@ts 768, or 1152 @@ts 864) allow more space for windows, buteverything is smaller You can select several resolutions for each set of colors Position the cursorover a selection and press the space bar to select it Highlight Ok and press Enter to continue Thewindow warns you that it is about to test X

8

Highlight Ok and press Enter If X is working properly, you should see a popưup window that asks ifyou can see it If you don’t see this window, it will timeout after a few seconds and return to yourXconfigurator You’ll need to try configuring the card again If you do see the popưup window, clickthe Yes button You are asked if you want to start X at bootưtime

9

Click Yes (to have X start when you boot your computer) or No (to start from a textưbased promptand start X later manually) A popưup window alerts you that the new configuration has been saved

10

Click OK and you are done

You should now be able to start your X environment The next section describes the XF86Config file

Note If your GUI is still not working, go to http://www.xfree86.org/ and click the Driver Status Documentlink for your version of XFree86 (probably version 4.1) Find the manufacturer of your video card (or atleast of the chip set in your video card) and select that link to find out if your card is supported or if aworkaround is needed

Understanding the XF86Config file

The XF86Config file (located in the /etc/X11 directory) contains definitions used by the X server to use yourvideo card, keyboard, mouse, and monitor In general, novice users should not edit this file directly, but rather,use Xconfigurator to change its contents For some video cards, however, there is a need for some manualconfiguration to get the card working properly

The following is a description of the basic information contained in the XF86Config file:

•

Files section — Sets the locations of the RGB (color) and fonts databases.

•

Server flags section — Allows you to disable abort and mode switching key sequences (usually you

will leave this section alone)

•

Keyboard section — Sets keyboard settings, including the layout of the keyboard and how certain

key sequences are mapped to the keyboard

•

Pointer section — Selects the pointer you are using (typically a mouse linked to /dev/mouse) Also

sets speed and button emulation, when appropriate

•

Monitor section — Sets the type of monitor, along with its horizontal sync rate, vertical refresh rate,

and settings needed to operate at different resolutions

•

Screen section — Binds together the graphics board and monitor information to be referenced later

by the ServerLayout section

•

Graphics device section — Identifies your video card and, optionally, video RAM and clock

information for the chipset

•

ServerLayout section — Sets server definitions for different X servers (if necessary).

For further information on the XF86Config file, see the XF86Config man pages (type man XF86Config).Getting more information

If you tried configuring X and you still have a server that crashes or has a garbled display, your video cardmay either be unsupported or may require special configuration Here are several locations you can check forfurther information:

•

XFree86.org (http://www.xfree86.org/) — The latest information about the X servers that come with

Red Hat Linux is available from the XFree86.org Web site XFree86 is the freeware version of X usedwith all major Linux distributions

•

Red Hat Support (www.redhat.com/support) — Search the Red Hat support database for the model

of your card There may already be reports of problems (and hopefully fixes) related to your card

•

X documentation — README files that are specific to different types of video cards are delivered

with XFree86 Look in the XFree86 doc directory (/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc) for a README filespecific to the type of video card (or more specifically, the video chip set) you are using

Starting the X Desktop

There are several different ways you can start your desktop in Red Hat Linux If Red Hat Linux starts up andyou see a graphical login screen, you can just log in and your desktop environment should appear If Red HatLinux starts up to a simple text−based login prompt, you can have the desktop environment start after you log

in (either manually or automatically) Each of these methods is described in this section

Cross−Reference Procedures in this chapter assume that you have already configured your monitor and

video driver If this is not the case, see either Chapter 2 (to configure at installation time)

or the Configuring Your Desktop section earlier in this chapter.

The X Window System GUI (or X GUI) can be started in several different ways, including:

•

At boot−time — After your video card and monitor are properly configured, you may want to have

the X GUI start automatically when Red Hat Linux is booted You can do this by setting your systeminitialization state to 5 After you log in, you will see the GNOME or KDE desktop environments

•

From the shell (or starting it yourself) — If you have logged in to a shell interface, you can start the

GUI at any time using the startx command When you quit from the GUI, you will be back at yourshell prompt

•

At login time — To start with a text−based login screen, but have the X GUI started after you log in,

you can add the startx command to one of your personal startup files (such as $HOME/.bash_profile)

Each of these methods results in the startup of the X GUI and either the GNOME or KDE desktop

environment Along with the GNOME desktop environment, the sawfish window manager (or possibly someother window manager) starts up in order to provide the look−and−feel of the desktop

Tip If your X screen ever gets garbled to the point where you don’t know how to exit, or if you want to go to

a command−line interface, you can do either by using control keys From the X GUI, press Ctrl+Alt+F2.You will see a text login After you log in, you can look for the X process (ps ax | less) and kill it (kill

pid, where pid is the X process) Or you can return to the GUI by pressing Ctrl+Alt+F7 These extra

screens, referred to as virtual terminals, can be accessed using any function keys from Ctrl+Alt+F2 to

Ctrl+Alt+F7

Starting the GUI at boot time

After Red Hat Linux boots up, a Red Hat logo and a GNOME (default) or KDE login window appears Youare ready to start using Red Hat Linux from an X Window GUI (probably GNOME and sawfish) Figure 4−1shows an example of the login window that is used with GNOME:

Figure 4−1: Log in to start your desktop environment

Type your login and password, as prompted, and your personal desktop is displayed

It is possible to change several important options when you log in using the graphical login screen In fact,you can even select a desktop environment other than the default Here are menu options you can select:

•

Session — From this menu item, you can select the desktop interface that is used with your login

session Besides GNOME, you can possibly choose Default, Failsafe, WindowMaker, or KDE as yourinterface (depending on which interfaces you have installed)

•

Language — You can choose from more than a dozen languages to use during your desktop session

(all languages are not completely supported)

•

System — Instead of logging in, you can choose Reboot or Halt from the System selection to restart

or halt Red Hat Linux

The graphical login screen is started by the xdm command (which stands for X Display Manager) The xdmprocess manages both logging in and starting the GUI for your console monitor, as well as graphical loginsfrom other computers and X terminals

Normally, you start xdm by setting the system’s default run state to 5 You can determine your system'sdefault run state by checking the /etc/inittab file for an entry that looks similar to the following:

id:5:initdefault:

If the initdefault state is 3, the system boots to a text−based login prompt At the bottom of that file, you willsee that the xdm command is run in system state 5 (Instead of xdm, a GNOME version of xdm called prefdm

or gem may run Either command results in the same functions as xdm.)

Cross−Reference See Chapter 12 for information on Linux run states and startup processes

When xdm starts up, it reads a series of configuration files that set up both the login screen and the desktopenvironment that appears The identity of many configuration files is contained in the xdm−config file

(usually in the /etc/X11/xdm directory) Here are some of the files identified in xdm−config that may interestyou:

•

Error Log (/var/log/xdm−error.log) — Contains error messages output from xdm You can check this

log if you have problems starting X

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Servers (/etc/X11/xdm/Xservers) — Identifies the X server used for your display If your computer

has extra displays or X terminals that access it, you can add X server entries here

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Login Setup (/etc/X11/xdm/Xsetup_0) — Identifies the client processes that are run on the console

display login screen These processes include the xsetroot command (to set the background color) andthe xsri command (to display the Red Hat logo)

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Session Setup (/etc/X11/xdm/Xsession) — Defines how to start up your window manager session.

Note Settings that you put into any of the above files, such as the Xsession file, are likely to be overridden bysettings that are specific to your desktop environment (GNOME or KDE) For example, I changed thebackground color of my desktop in the Xsession file to red (xsetroot −solid 'red') When X started, thescreen background flashed red; then GNOME took over and changed the background to blue

Starting the GUI yourself

If you log in to a nongraphical interface, you can start your X GUI at any time using the startx command Thestartx command is a shell script that reads your X configuration files, and starts the xinit command (whichstarts the X server) To run the startx command, simply type the following:

$ startx

Tip If startx fails with a message "Server is already active," it may be that a lock file was not removed thelast time X ran Assuming you are using display 0 (which is the default), type rm /tmp/.X0−lock

If you don’t create your own configuration files, startx will read several preset configuration files instead Just

as with xdm, by default you will see the GNOME desktop environment and the sawfish window manager, andpossibly some clients (such as the File Manager and a Help Browser)

To override the default behavior of startx, you need to create a $HOME/.xinitrc file Like the xsession filedescribed earlier, the xinitrc file can start up some client processes and run the window manager you choose.Here is an example of the contents of a $HOME/.xinitrc file:

to your xinitrc file to read in systemwide and personal X resources (.Xresources) and modifications to

keyboard mappings (.Xmodmap):

When you exit your window manager, the X server is halted You are then returned to your login shell

Starting the GUI at login time

If you want to be able to use the X GUI when other users on your system choose not to, set up your useraccount to start the GUI when you log in You do this by adding a startx command to one of your personalstartup files One place you can add the startx command is to your $HOME/.bash_profile file (assuming youare using the bash shell as your login shell)

exec startx

The default window manager will start immediately after you log in Then, when you exit the window

manager later, you are logged out and returned to the login prompt

Using the GNOME Desktop Environment

GNOME (pronounced guh−nome) provides the desktop environment that you get by default when you installRed Hat Linux This desktop environment provides the software that is between your X Window Systemframework and the look−and−feel provided by the window manager GNOME offers a stable and reliabledesktop environment, with a few cool features built in

GNOME is not a window manager, so it must be used with a window manager to provide such things aswindow borders and window controls Currently, sawfish is the default window manager with GNOME Youcan, however, use other window managers with GNOME, including:

to configure GNOME is described later in this section.)

This section describes the GNOME desktop environment and ways of using it If your Red Hat Linux system

is configured to use a GUI by default, you simply need to log in from the graphical login screen Otherwise,

type startx from a shell prompt after you log in In either case, you should see the GNOME desktop

environment similar to that shown in Figure 4−2

Figure 4−2: In the GNOME desktop environment, you can manage applications from the panel

The GNOME desktop that appears the first time it is started by a new user account includes the GNOMEpanel, desktop area, desktop icons, and file manager Descriptions of those elements follow

The panel contains most of the controls you need to use the desktop When it first starts, the panel containsbuttons for starting applications, a list of active applications, several applets, and a few controls This is whatyou should see:

•

Main menu button (footprint icon) — Click this button to see a list of menu items from which you

can select These menu items include selections for starting applications (such as the Run programwindow, Lock screen, and Log out selections) and submenus of selections

The Programs menu (under the main menu) includes the following submenus: Applications, Utilities,Games, Graphics, Internet, Multimedia, Settings, and System There is also a Help System selectionfrom this menu

•

Lock screen (lock icon) — Lets you lock the screen so it can be reopened using your password only.

•

Start Here (mushroom icon) — Opens a Start Here window, which is actually a file manager window

displaying icons for configuring GNOME

•

Terminal window (terminal icon) — Opens a Terminal window, which provides access to a Red Hat

Linux shell

•

Mozilla browser (red monster head logo) — Opens the Mozilla browser window This software is for

browsing the World Wide Web or for running related programs to use e−mail, to compose Webpages, or to view newsgroups (Mozilla has recently replaced Netscape Navigator as the defaultbrowser for Red Hat Linux, though Netscape is still available from the GNOME menu.)

•

Taskbar — Shows the tasks that are currently running on the desktop The window that is currently

active appears pressed in Click a task to toggle between opening and minimizing the window

•

Pager — This applet shows a tiny view of the multiple desktop areas of your GNOME environment.

By default, there are four desktops available You can change to a different desktop by clicking thearea in the pager Each minidesktop area shows small representations of the active windows withinthat desk

Click any active application to make it the current application A sticky application is one that sticks

to the same place on the screen, regardless of which desktop you move to People stick things such asclocks or e−mail notification windows

•

Clock — This applet shows the current date and time.

Other useful GNOME controls are located in the following places:

•

Desktop Area — This is the screen area on which you can use the windows, icons, and menus that

make up the GNOME desktop Right−click the desktop area to see a menu of options

•

File Manager — This window contains a graphical means of moving up and down your Red Hat

Linux file system, opening files, and running applications It supports expected features for creating,opening, copying, deleting, and moving files and folders However, it also has some special features,such as drag−and−drop, launching applications based on MIME type, and file finding The FileManager is called Nautilus Nautilus is now the default file manager for Red Hat Linux 7.2

•

Desktop icons — Icons on the desktop each represent a directory, application, or file that you can

work with You can double−click a desktop icon to open it, drag−and−drop it to move it to anotherlocation, or right−click it to see a menu of options related to the icon The icons added to your RedHat Linux GNOME desktop include one that opens a File Manager to your home directory, one thatopens the Start Here window, and a Trash icon for deleting files

The GNOME desktop is quite intuitive However, you may want to read some of the following descriptions ofGNOME if you are a novice user or if you want to learn some of the less obvious features of the GNOMEdesktop

Using the GNOME panel

The GNOME panel is intended to be the place from which you manage your desktop From this panel you canstart applications (from buttons or menus), see what programs are active, and monitor how your system isrunning There are also many ways to change the panel, such as by adding applications or monitors, or

changing the placement or behavior of the panel

Click the GNOME menu, then select the Panel menu From this menu, you can perform a variety of functions,including:

•

Add to panel — You can add an applet, menu, launcher, drawer, button (logout, lock, or run), a

swallowed application, or a status dock

•

Create panel — You can create additional panels for your desktops in different styles.

•

Remove this panel — You can delete the current panel.

Procedures for each of these functions are described in the following sections For information on changingproperties of the panel itself, see the section on changing GNOME preferences

Adding an applet

There are several small GNOME applications, called applets, that you can run directly on the GNOME panel.These applets can show information you may want to see on an ongoing basis or may just provide someamusement To see what applets are available and to add applets that you want to your panel, perform thefollowing steps:

Amusements — Includes a puzzle game (Fifteen), eyes that follow your mouse around, and a

few other amusements

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Monitors — Includes useful tools for monitoring CPU/Memory usage, CPU load, disk usage,

load average, memory load, network load, and swap load

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Multimedia — Includes applets for playing CDs or MP3 audio files or using an audio mixer.

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Network — Includes applets for checking for AOL instant messaging (GAIM), checking

incoming mail, displaying stock prices or headlines, showing modem incoming and outgoingtraffic, dialing a PPP connection, or opening a Web site (HTML page)

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Utility — Includes applets for monitoring battery levels, mounting floppy drives, managing

print queues, and performing other useful tasks

If you no longer want an applet to appear on the panel, right−click it, and then click Remove from panel Theicon representing the applet will disappear If you find that you have run out of room on your panel, you canadd a new panel to another part of the screen, as described in the next section

Adding another panel

You can have several panels on your GNOME desktop You can either add edge panels (that run along theentire bottom, top, or side of the screen) or a corner panel (that only expands as needed to show the applets itcontains) To add a panel, do the following:

Sliding panel — Creates a panel that stretches out only as far as required to display the

applets it contains When you hide/unhide the panel, it closes in the middle of the displayinstead of just at the edges

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