Introduction to Algorithms Second Edition Instructor’s Manual 2nd phần 8 potx

Lecture Notes for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets 21-3• Need to update the representative pointer for every node on x’s list.. Great heuristics • Union by rank: make the ro

21-2 Lecture Notes for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets

Analysis:

• Since MAKE-SETcounts toward total # of operations, m ≥ n.

• Can have at most n − 1 UNIONoperations, since after n− 1 UNIONs, only 1set remains

• Assume that the Þrst n operations are MAKE-SET(helpful for analysis, usuallynot really necessary)

Application: dynamic connected components.

For a graph G = (V, E), vertices u, v are in same connected component if and

only if there’s a path between them

• Connected components partition vertices into equivalence classes

CONNECTED-COMPONENTS(V, E)

for each vertexv ∈ V

do MAKE-SET(v)

for each edge(u, v) ∈ E

do if FIND-SET(u) = FIND-SET(v)

then UNION(u, v)

SAME-COMPONENT(u, v)

if FIND-SET(u) = FIND-SET(v)

then returnTRUE

else returnFALSE

Note: If actually implementing connected components,

• each vertex needs a handle to its object in the disjoint-set data structure,

• each object in the disjoint-set data structure needs a handle to its vertex

Linked list representation

• Each set is a singly linked list

• Each list node has Þelds for

• the set member

• pointer to the representative

• next

• List has head (pointer to representative) and tail.

MAKE-SET: create a singleton list

FIND-SET: return pointer to representative

UNION: a couple of ways to do it

1 UNION(x, y): append x’s list onto end of y’s list Use y’s tail pointer to Þnd

the end

Lecture Notes for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets 21-3

• Need to update the representative pointer for every node on x’s list.

• If appending a large list onto a small list, it can take a while

Operation # objects updated

Amortized time per operation= (n).

2 Weighted-union heuristic: Always append the smaller list to the larger list.

A single union can still take(n) time, e.g., if both sets have n/2 members.

Theorem

With weighted union, a sequence of m operations on n elements takes

O (m + n lg n) time.

Sketch of proof Each MAKE-SETand FIND-SETstill takes O (1) How many

times can each object’s representative pointer be updated? It must be in thesmaller set each time

times updated size of resulting set

• 1 tree per set Root is representative

• Each node points only to its parent

21-4 Lecture Notes for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets

c

b

f d g

f c

b

d g

UNION(e,g)

• MAKE-SET: make a single-node tree

• UNION: make one root a child of the other

• FIND-SET: follow pointers to the root

Not so good—could get a linear chain of nodes

Great heuristics

• Union by rank: make the root of the smaller tree (fewer nodes) a child of the

root of the larger tree

• Don’t actually use size.

• Use rank, which is an upper bound on height of node.

• Make the root with the smaller rank into a child of the root with the largerrank

• Path compression: Find path= nodes visited during FIND-SETon the trip tothe root Make all nodes on the Þnd path direct children of root

a b

Lecture Notes for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets 21-5

FIND-SETmakes a pass up to Þnd the root, and a pass down as recursion unwinds

to update each node on Þnd path to point directly to root

Solutions for Chapter 21:

Data Structures for Disjoint Sets

Solution to Exercise 21.2-3

We want to show that we can assign O (1) charges to MAKE-SETand FIND-SET

and an O (lg n) charge to UNION such that the charges for a sequence of these

operations are enough to cover the cost of the sequence—O (m +n lg n), according

to the theorem When talking about the charge for each kind of operation, it ishelpful to also be able to talk about the number of each kind of operation

Consider the usual sequence of m MAKE-SET, UNION, and FIND-SEToperations,

n of which are MAKE-SET operations, and let l < n be the number of UNION

operations (Recall the discussion in Section 21.1 about there being at most n− 1

UNIONoperations.) Then there are n MAKE-SEToperations, l UNIONoperations,

and m − n − l FIND-SEToperations

The theorem didn’t separately name the number l of UNIONs; rather, it bounded

the number by n If you go through the proof of the theorem with l UNIONs, you

get the time bound O (m −l +l lg l) = O(m +l lg l) for the sequence of operations.

That is, the actual time taken by the sequence of operations is at most c (m + l lg l),

for some constant c.

Thus, we want to assign operation charges such that

(MAKE-SETcharge) · n

+(FIND-SETcharge) · (m − n − l)

+(UNIONcharge) · l

≥ c(m + l lg l) ,

so that the amortized costs give an upper bound on the actual costs

The following assignments work, where cis some constant≥ c:

Solutions for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets 21-7

Solution to Exercise 21.2-5

Let’s call the two lists A and B, and suppose that the representative of the new list will be the representative of A Rather than appending B to the end of A, instead splice B into A right after the Þrst element of A We have to traverse B to update representative pointers anyway, so we can just make the last element of B point to the second element of A.

Solution to Exercise 21.3-3

You need to Þnd a sequence of m operations on n elements that takes (m lg n)

time Start with n MAKE-SETs to create singleton sets{x1} , {x2} , , {x n} Next

perform the n− 1 UNIONoperations shown below to create a single set whose tree

21-8 Solutions for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets

FIND-SET operations, runs in O (m) time The key observation is that once a

node x appears on a Þnd path, x will be either a root or a child of a root at all times

thereafter

We use the accounting method to obtain the O (m) time bound We charge a

MAKE-SET operation two dollars One dollar pays for the MAKE-SET, and one

dollar remains on the node x that is created The latter pays for the Þrst time that x

appears on a Þnd path and is turned into a child of a root

We charge one dollar for a LINKoperation This dollar pays for the actual linking

of one node to another

We charge one dollar for a FIND-SET This dollar pays for visiting the root andits child, and for the path compression of these two nodes, during the FIND-SET.All other nodes on the Þnd path use their stored dollar to pay for their visitationand path compression As mentioned, after the FIND-SET, all nodes on the Þndpath become children of a root (except for the root itself), and so whenever theyare visited during a subsequent FIND-SET, the FIND-SEToperation itself will payfor them

Since we charge each operation either one or two dollars, a sequence of m tions is charged at most 2m dollars, and so the total time is O (m).

opera-Observe that nothing in the above argument requires union by rank Therefore, we

get an O (m) time bound regardless of whether we use union by rank.

Solution to Exercise 21.4-4

Clearly, each MAKE-SETand LINKoperation takes O (1) time Because the rank

of a node is an upper bound on its height, each Þnd path has length O (lg n), which

in turn implies that each FIND-SET takes O (lg n) time Thus, any sequence of

m MAKE-SET, LINK, and FIND-SET operations on n elements takes O (m lg n)

time It is easy to prove an analogue of Lemma 21.7 to show that if we convert a

sequence of mMAKE-SET, UNION, and FIND-SEToperations into a sequence of

m MAKE-SET, LINK, and FIND-SEToperations that take O (m lg n) time, then the

sequence of m MAKE-SET, UNION, and FIND-SET operations takes O (mlg n )

time

Solution to Exercise 21.4-5

Professor Dante is mistaken Take the following scenario Let n = 16, and make

16 separate singleton sets using MAKE-SET Then do 8 UNIONoperations to linkthe sets into 8 pairs, where each pair has a root with rank 0 and a child with rank 1.Now do 4 UNIONs to link pairs of these trees, so that there are 4 trees, each with aroot of rank 2, children of the root of ranks 1 and 0, and a node of rank 0 that is thechild of the rank-1 node Now link pairs of these trees together, so that there aretwo resulting trees, each with a root of rank 3 and each containing a path from aleaf to the root with ranks 0, 1, and 3 Finally, link these two trees together, so that

Solutions for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets 21-9

there is a path from a leaf to the root with ranks 0, 1, 3, and 4 Let x and y be the nodes on this path with ranks 1 and 3, respectively Since A1(1) = 3, level(x) = 1,

and since A0(3) = 4, level(y) = 0 Yet y follows x on the Þnd path.

Solution to Exercise 21.4-6

First,α(22047− 1) = min {k : A k (1) ≥ 2047} = 3, and 22047− 1  1080

Second, we need that 0 ≤ level(x) ≤ α(n) for all nonroots x with rank[x] ≥ 1.

With this deÞnition ofα(n), we have A α(n) (rank[x]) ≥ A α(n) (1) ≥ lg(n + 1) >

lg n ≥ rank(p[x]) The rest of the proof goes through with α(n) replacing α(n).

Solution to Problem 21-1

a For the input sequence

4, 8, E, 3, E, 9, 2, 6, E, E, E, 1, 7, E, 5 ,

the values in the extracted array would be 4 , 3, 2, 6, 8, 1.

The following table shows the situation after the ith iteration of the for loop

when we use OFF-LINE-MINIMUM on the same input (For this input, n = 9

and m—the number of extractions—is 6).

b We want to show that the array extracted returned by OFF-LINE-MINIMUMis

correct, meaning that for i = 1, 2, , m, extracted[ j] is the key returned by the j th EXTRACT-MINcall

We start with n INSERT operations and m EXTRACT-MIN operations Thesmallest of all the elements will be extracted in the Þrst EXTRACT-MIN after

its insertion So we Þnd j such that the minimum element is in K j, and put the

minimum element in extracted[ j ], which corresponds to the EXTRACT-MIN

after the minimum element insertion

Now we reduce to a similar problem with n− 1 INSERToperations and m− 1

EXTRACT-MIN operations in the following way: the INSERT operations are

21-10 Solutions for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets

the same but without the insertion of the smallest that was extracted, and the

EXTRACT-MIN operations are the same but without the extraction that tracted the smallest element

ex-Conceptually, we unite Ij and Ij+1, removing the extraction between them andalso removing the insertion of the minimum element from Ij∪ Ij+1 Uniting Ijand Ij+1is accomplished by line 6 We need to determine which set is K l, rather

than just using K j+1 unconditionally, because K j+1 may have been destroyedwhen it was united into a higher-indexed set by a previous execution of line 6.Because we process extractions in increasing order of the minimum value

found, the remaining iterations of the for loop correspond to solving the

re-duced problem

There are two other points worth making First, if the smallest remaining ement had been inserted after the last EXTRACT-MIN (i.e., j = m + 1), then

el-no changes occur, because this element is el-not extracted Second, there may be

smaller elements within the K j sets than the the one we are currently lookingfor These elements do not affect the result, because they correspond to ele-ments that were already extracted, and their effect on the algorithm’s execution

is over

c To implement this algorithm, we place each element in a disjoint-set forest.

Each root has a pointer to its K i set, and each K i set has a pointer to the root of

the tree representing it All the valid sets K i are in a linked list

Before OFF-LINE-MINIMUM, there is initialization that builds the initial sets K i

according to the Ii sequences

• Line 2 (“determine j such that i ∈ K j ”) turns into j ← FIND-SET(i).

• Line 5 (“let l be the smallest value greater than j for which set K l exists”)

turns into K l ← next[K j]

• Line 6 (“K l ← K j ∪ K l , destroying K j ”) turns into l ← LINK( j, l) and

remove K j from the linked list

To analyze the running time, we note that there are n elements and that we have

the following disjoint-set operations:

• n MAKE-SEToperations

• at most n− 1 UNIONoperations before starting

• n FIND-SEToperations

• at most n LINKoperations

Thus the number m of overall operations is O (n) The total running time is O(m α(n)) = O(n α(n)).

[The “tight bound” wording that this question uses does not refer to an totically tight” bound Instead, the question is merely asking for a bound that isnot too “loose.”]

“asymp-Solutions for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets 21-11

Solution to Problem 21-2

a Denote the number of nodes by n, and let n = (m + 1)/3, so that m = 3n − 1 First, perform the n operations MAKE-TREE(v1), MAKE-TREE(v2),

, MAKE-TREE(v n ) Then perform the sequence of n − 1 GRAFToperations

GRAFT(v1, v2), GRAFT(v2, v3), , GRAFT(v n−1, v n ); this sequence produces

a single disjoint-set tree that is a linear chain of n nodes with v n at the rootand v1 as the only leaf Then perform FIND-DEPTH(v1) repeatedly, n times.

The total number of operations is n + (n − 1) + n = 3n − 1 = m.

Each MAKE-TREEand GRAFToperation takes O (1) time Each FIND-DEPTH

operation has to follow an n-node Þnd path, and so each of the n FIND-DEPTH

operations takes (n) time The total time is n · (n) + (2n − 1) · O(1) =

(n2) = (m2).

b MAKE-TREEis like MAKE-SET, except that it also sets the d value to 0:

MAKE-TREE(v) p[v] ← v rank[ v] ← 0 d[v] ← 0

It is correct to set d[ v] to 0, because the depth of the node in the single-node

disjoint-set tree is 0, and the sum of the depths on the Þnd path for v consists

if and only if p[ v] = p[p[v]]) in the disjoint-set forest, we don’t have to

re-curse; instead, we just return p[ v] Second, when we do recurse, we save the

pointer p[ v] into a new variable y Third, when we recurse, we update d[v] by

adding into it the d values of all nodes on the Þnd path that are no longer proper

21-12 Solutions for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets

ancestors ofv after path compression; these nodes are precisely the proper

an-cestors ofv other than the root Thus, as long as v does not start out the FIND

-ROOTcall as either the root or a child of the root, we add d[y] into d[ v] Note

that d[y] has been updated prior to updating d[ v], if y is also neither the root

nor a child of the root

FIND-DEPTH Þrst calls FIND-ROOT to perform path compression and updatepseudodistances Afterward, the Þnd path fromv consists of either just v (if v

is a root) or justv and p[v] (if v is not a root, in which case it is a child of the

root after path compression) In the former case, the depth ofv is just d[v], and

in the latter case, the depth is d[ v] + d[p[v]].

d Our procedure for GRAFTis a combination of UNIONand LINK:

pression and update pseudodistances on the Þnd paths from r and v We then

call FIND-DEPTH(v), saving the depth of v in the variable z (Since we have

just compressedv’s Þnd path, this call of FIND-DEPTHtakes O (1) time.) Next,

we emulate the action of LINK, by making the root (r orv) of smaller rank a

child of the root of larger rank; in case of a tie, we make ra child ofv

If v has the smaller rank, then all nodes in r’s tree will have their depths

in-creased by the depth ofv plus 1 (because r is to become a child of v) Altering

the psuedodistance of the root of a disjoint-set tree changes the computed depth

of all nodes in that tree, and so adding z + 1 to d[r] accomplishes this update

for all nodes in r’s disjoint-set tree Since v will become a child of r in thedisjoint-set forest, we have just increased the computed depth of all nodes inthe disjoint-set tree rooted at v by d[r] These computed depths should not

have changed, however Thus, we subtract off d[r] from d[ v], so that the sum

d[v]+ d[r] after makingva child of requals d[ v] before makingva child

of r

On the other hand, if r has the smaller rank, or if the ranks are equal, then r

becomes a child ofv in the disjoint-set forest In this case,v remains a root

in the disjoint-set forest afterward, and we can leave d[ v] alone We have to

update d[r], however, so that after making r a child ofv, the depth of each

node in r’s disjoint-set tree is increased by z + 1 We add z + 1 to d[r], but we

Solutions for Chapter 21: Data Structures for Disjoint Sets 21-13

also subtract out d[ v], since we have just made ra child ofv Finally, if the

ranks of randvare equal, we increment the rank ofv, as is done in the LINK

procedure

e The asymptotic running times of MAKE-TREE, FIND-DEPTH, and GRAFTareequivalent to those of MAKE-SET, FIND-SET, and UNION, respectively Thus,

a sequence of m operations, n of which are MAKE-TREE operations, takes

(m α(n)) time in the worst case.

Lecture Notes for Chapter 22:

Elementary Graph Algorithms

Graph representation

Given graph G = (V, E).

• May be either directed or undirected

• Two common ways to represent for algorithms:

1 Adjacency lists

2 Adjacency matrix

When expressing the running time of an algorithm, it’s often in terms of both|V |

and|E| In asymptotic notation—and only in asymptotic notation—we’ll drop the cardinality Example: O (V + E).

[The introduction to Part VI talks more about this.]

Adjacency lists

Array Adj of |V | lists, one per vertex.

Vertex u’s list has all vertices v such that (u, v) ∈ E (Works for both directed and

undirected graphs.)

Example: For an undirected graph:

3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 2

4 5

Time: to list all vertices adjacent to u: (degree(u)).

Time: to determine if (u, v) ∈ E: O(degree(u)).

22-2 Lecture Notes for Chapter 22: Elementary Graph Algorithms

Example: For a directed graph:

3

1 2 3 4

2 4

4

Adj

3 4

Same asymptotic space and time

1 2 3 4 5 1

2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 1

2 3 4

Space: (V2).

Time: to list all vertices adjacent to u: (V ).

Time: to determine if (u, v) ∈ E: (1).

Can store weights instead of bits for weighted graph

We’ll use both representations in these lecture notes

Breadth-Þrst search

Input: Graph G = (V, E), either directed or undirected, and source vertex s ∈ V

Output: d[ v] = distance (smallest # of edges) from s to v, for all v ∈ V

In book, alsoπ[v] = u such that (u, v) is last edge on shortest path s ; v.

• u is v’s predecessor.

• set of edges{(π[v], v) : v = s} forms a tree.

Later, we’ll see a generalization of breadth-Þrst search, with edge weights Fornow, we’ll keep it simple

• Compute only d[ v], not π[v] [See book for π[v].]

• Omitting colors of vertices [Used in book to reason about the algorithm We’llskip them here.]

Lecture Notes for Chapter 22: Elementary Graph Algorithms 22-3

Idea: Send a wave out from s.

• First hits all vertices 1 edge from s.

• From there, hits all vertices 2 edges from s.

• Etc

Use FIFO queue Q to maintain wavefront.

• v ∈ Q if and only if wave has hit v but has not come out of v yet.

3

Can show that Q consists of vertices with d values.

i i i i i + 1 i + 1 i + 1

• Only 1 or 2 values

• If 2, differ by 1 and all smallest are Þrst

Since each vertex gets a Þnite d value at most once, values assigned to vertices are

monotonically increasing over time

Actual proof of correctness is a bit trickier See book

BFS may not reach all vertices

Time= O(V + E).

• O(V ) because every vertex enqueued at most once.

• O(E) because every vertex dequeued at most once and we examine (u, v) only

when u is dequeued Therefore, every edge examined at most once if directed,

at most twice if undirected

22-4 Lecture Notes for Chapter 22: Elementary Graph Algorithms

Depth-Þrst search

Input: G = (V, E), directed or undirected No source vertex given!

Output: 2 timestamps on each vertex:

• d[ v] = discovery time

• f [ v] = Þnishing time

These will be useful for other algorithms later on

Can also computeπ[v] [See book.]

Will methodically explore every edge.

• Start over from different vertices as necessary

As soon as we discover a vertex, explore from it

• Unlike BFS, which puts a vertex on a queue so that we explore from it later

As DFS progresses, every vertex has a color:

• WHITE= undiscovered

• GRAY= discovered, but not Þnished (not done exploring from it)

• BLACK= Þnished (have found everything reachable from it)

Discovery and Þnish times:

• Unique integers from 1 to 2|V |.

time ← time +1

f [u] ← time  Þnish u

Lecture Notes for Chapter 22: Elementary Graph Algorithms 22-5

Example: [Go through this example, adding in the d and f values as they’re

com-puted Show colors as they change Don’t put in the edge types yet.]

12 1

4 3

11 8

6 5

16 13

15 14

Time= (V + E).

• Similar to BFS analysis

• , not just O, since guaranteed to examine every vertex and edge.

DFS forms a depth-Þrst forest comprised of > 1 depth-Þrst trees Each tree is

made of edges(u, v) such that u is gray and v is white when (u, v) is explored.

Theorem (Parenthesis theorem)

[Proof omitted.]

For all u , v, exactly one of the following holds:

1 d[u] < f [u] < d[v] < f [v] or d[v] < f [v] < d[u] < f [u] and neither of u

andv is a descendant of the other.

2 d[u] < d[v] < f [v] < f [u] and v is a descendant of u.

3 d[ v] < d[u] < f [u] < f [v] and u is a descendant of v.

So d[u] < d[v] < f [u] < f [v] cannot happen.

Like parentheses:

• OK: ( ) [ ] ( [ ] ) [ ( ) ]

• Not OK: ( [ ) ] [ ( ] )

Corollary

v is a proper descendant of u if and only if d[u] < d[v] < f [v] < f [u].

Theorem (White-path theorem)

[Proof omitted.]

v is a descendant of u if and only if at time d[u], there is a path u ; v consisting

of only white vertices (Except for u, which was just colored gray.)

22-6 Lecture Notes for Chapter 22: Elementary Graph Algorithms

ClassiÞcation of edges

• Tree edge: in the depth-Þrst forest Found by exploring (u, v).

• Back edge: (u, v), where u is a descendant of v.

• Forward edge: (u, v), where v is a descendant of u, but not a tree edge.

• Cross edge: any other edge Can go between vertices in same depth-Þrst tree

or in different depth-Þrst trees

[Now label the example from above with edge types.]

In an undirected graph, there may be some ambiguity since (u, v) and (v, u) are

the same edge Classify by the Þrst type above that matches

Directed acyclic graph (dag)

A directed graph with no cycles

Good for modeling processes and structures that have a partial order:

• a > b and b > c ⇒ a > c.

• But may have a and b such that neither a > b nor b > c.

Can always make a total order (either a > b or b > a for all a = b) from a partial

order In fact, that’s what a topological sort will do

Example: dag of dependencies for putting on goalie equipment: [Leave on board,but show without discovery and Þnish times Will put them in later.]

skates

18/21

19/20

batting glove chest pad

sweater mask catch glove

7/14

8/13 9/12

Lecture Notes for Chapter 22: Elementary Graph Algorithms 22-7

Lemma

A directed graph G is acyclic if and only if a DFS of G yields no back edges.

Proof ⇒ : Show that back edge ⇒ cycle

Suppose there is a back edge(u, v) Then v is ancestor of u in depth-Þrst forest.

Therefore, there is a pathv ; u, so v ; u → v is a cycle.

⇐ : Show that cycle ⇒ back edge

Suppose G contains cycle c Let v be the Þrst vertex discovered in c, and let (u, v)

be the preceding edge in c At time d[ v], vertices of c form a white path v ; u

(sincev is the Þrst vertex discovered in c) By white-path theorem, u is descendant

ofv in depth-Þrst forest Therefore, (u, v) is a back edge. (lemma)

Topological sort of a dag: a linear ordering of vertices such that if (u, v) ∈ E,

then u appears somewhere before v (Not like sorting numbers.)

TOPOLOGICAL-SORT(V, E)

call DFS(V, E) to compute Þnishing times f [v] for all v ∈ V

output vertices in order of decreasing Þnish times

Don’t need to sort by Þnish times

• Can just output vertices as they’re Þnished and understand that we want the

reverse of this list.

• Or put them onto the front of a linked list as they’re Þnished When done, the

list contains vertices in topologically sorted order

Time: (V + E).

Do example.[Now write discovery and Þnish times in goalie equipment example.]

22-8 Lecture Notes for Chapter 22: Elementary Graph Algorithms

Correctness: Just need to show if (u, v) ∈ E, then f [v] < f [u].

When we explore(u, v), what are the colors of u and v?

• u is gray.

• Isv gray, too?

• No, because then v would be ancestor of u.

⇒ (u, v) is a back edge.

⇒ contradiction of previous lemma (dag has no back edges)

• Isv white?

• Then becomes descendant of u.

By parenthesis theorem, d[u] < d[v] < f [v] < f [u].

• Isv black?

• Thenv is already Þnished.

Since we’re exploring(u, v), we have not yet Þnished u.

Therefore, f [ v] < f [u].

Strongly connected components

Given directed graph G = (V, E).

A strongly connected component (SCC) of G is a maximal set of vertices C ⊆ V such that for all u , v ∈ C, both u ; v and v ; u.

Example: [Just show SCC’s at Þrst Do DFS a little later.]