Foseco Ferrous Foundryman''''s Handbook Episode 7 doc

3 Modified ladle nozzle is raised so that its top is flush with KALTEK lining 4 Ladle with nozzle well-block as 3 but KALTEK is butted to well-block rather than nozzle Permanent lining T

140 Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook

withdrawn so the steel is generally cleaner than from a lip pour ladle Thedisadvantage is that the narrow ‘spout’ may occasionally permit the liquidsteel to freeze if the heat is tapped cold or pouring is prolonged

Figure 11.6b Section through a teapot ladle (From Jackson, W.J and Hubbard, M.W., Steelmaking for Steelfounders, 1979, SCRATA Courtesy CDC.)

With both lip pour and teapot ladles, it is only necessary to invert theladle to remove all slag and metal before refilling or reheating

Bottom pour ladles

The ladle is fitted with a pouring nozzle in its base, closed by a refractorystopper rod (Fig 11.6c) The metal is drawn from the bottom and is thereforeslag-free and non-metallics such as deoxidation products are able to floatout of the melt The metal stream flows vertically downwards from theladle so that there is no movement of the stream during pouring The

Slag

Molten metal handling 141

disadvantage is that the velocity and rate of flow change during pouring asthe ferrostatic head changes

Figure 11.6c Section through a bottom pour ladle (From Jackson, W.J and Hubbard, M.W., Steelmaking for Steelfounders, 1979, SCRATA Courtesy CDC.)

Pouring nozzle

Unless a reusable system is fitted, the nozzle and stopper rod assemblymust be changed after each use, thereby increasing the turn-round time,costs and the number of ladles required to handle a given output of metal.The stopper rod may also distort or erode making it impossible to shut offthe stream completely It is not practical to handle less than 100 kg of steeldue to the chilling effect of the stopper rod assembly The flow from abottom pour ladle depends on the size of the nozzle and the height of metal

in the ladle so the flow rate and velocity of the metal stream reduces as theladle empties The nozzle/stopper rod is an excellent on-off valve but is not

an effective flow control valve Attempts to use it to control flow result inbreakup of the metal stream with consequent risk of reoxidation of the steel.However it is possible to calculate the discharge rate and metal velocity foreach ladle and nozzle and its variation throughout the pour so that ladlescan be suited to the mould sizes that are being cast (see Chapter 18)

142 Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook

Ladle linings

The ideal lining is highly refractory, non-reactive with metal or slag and oflow thermal conductivity and heat capacity Fireclay is the traditionallyused material either in the form of pre-fired bricks or as a plastic ramminggrade Brick linings must be installed by skilled personnel to ensure tightjoints Monolithic refractories are easier to install and eliminate the weakspots associated with bricks

Although fireclay is the lowest cost refractory, it is possible to raise thelevel of as-cast quality considerably by using better lining materials Highalumina monolithic linings are popular because of their better refractorinessand their longer life

Whether bricks, rammed monolithic refractories or castables are used,there is a long preparation and drying time needed New ladle linings must

be dried before use to remove moisture After preliminary air drying, gasheaters are used to heat the lining to 600–800°C Final firing of the liningoccurs during its first use

Steel rapidly loses temperature when held in ladles A 5-tonne bottompouring ladle lined with fireclay will lose 20°C in 5 minutes, while the sameladle lined with high alumina refractory will lose as much as 50°C in 5minutes

The KALTEK ladle lining system

The KALTEK range of products are disposable, insulating, refractory ladlelinings for steel, iron and non-ferrous applications The low thermal massand insulating properties of KALTEK linings eliminate the need for pre-heat in virtually all ladle sizes and with most alloys KALTEK inner liningscan be quickly stripped and replaced when necessary

KALTEK one-piece ladle linings are used for lip pouring in a wide range

of ladle sizes A FOSCAST castable alumina dam board can be integratedwith the KALTEK liner to create a teapot ladle Larger ladles, up to 15tonnes, are lined with KALTEK in the form of board segments and bottomboards designed to suit individual ladles KALTEK boards and linings aresupplied in silica based refractory and also alumino-silicate for severeapplications and high magnesia for special alloys

The ladle to be lined with a pre-formed one piece lining must be freefrom holes The KALTEK one-piece lining is fitted inside the shell with aminimum of 15 mm backfill of coarse, dry silica sand or BAKFIL, a coarsegraded aggregate (AFS 35) The top exposed ring between lining and shellshould be capped with a suitable mixture such as silicate bonded core sandand adequately vented with holes every 10–12 cm formed using 6 mm wire(Fig 11.1)

Larger ladles to be lined with KALTEK boards must first be stripped andthen furnished with a permanent base lining of alumino silicate bricks or

Molten metal handling 143

castable refractory to act as a safety lining The permanent lining must bedried and fired carefully Vent holes in the ladles must be cleaned or newholes bored where necessary of 6–8 mm diameter at 20 cm centres.The KALTEK segments and base boards are then carefully fitted insidethe permanent lining, the joints between them being filled with KALSEALrefractory cement The gap between the refractory and backing brick safetylining should be filled with BAKFIL or coarse, dry silica sand (Fig 11.2).Refractory nozzle assemblies can be fitted into bottom pouring KALTEKlined ladles using special KALPACK ramming material (Fig 11.7) The nozzlemust be pre-heated to dry the KALPACK product before use

(3) Modified ladle

nozzle is raised so

that its top is flush

with KALTEK lining

(4) Ladle with nozzle well-block as (3) but KALTEK

is butted to well-block rather than nozzle

Permanent

lining

The four methods available for a bottom pour ladle are shown here:

(1) Normal ladle

nozzle is flush with

permanent lining

(2) Normal ladle nozzle raised using packing pieces

Figure 11.7 Methods of installing nozzles in bottom pour ladles.

KALTEK ladle linings are used under cold start conditions, pre-heating

is unnecessary and would destroy the binder components of the boards.The thermal capacity of a KALTEK lined ladle is lower than conventionalrefractories and the thermal insulation twice as good so that while there issome initial chill when steel is tapped into the cold ladle, the superiorinsulation properties soon compensate so that lower tapping temperaturesare possible (Fig 11.8)

Initially, the concept of the KALTEK cold ladle lining system for steelfoundries was based on single use of the disposable lining, but now in mostcases, multiple life is possible Pot ladles can be used many times as long asthey are not allowed to cool between fillings In many cases, bottom pourladles can be used more than once as long as multi-life stopper rods such asthe Roto-rod isostatically pressed one-piece alumina-graphite rod are used.With KALTEK there is:

Various configurations in bottom pour ladles

144 Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook

Heat loss comparison

5 ton bottom pour ladle (steel tapped from AOD vessel)

Tapped at 1693 °C Tapped at 1650 °C

Faster ladle turnaround

Easier ladle maintenance

Better temperature control

Better working environment

Lower inclusion levels

Pouring temperature for steels

The temperature at which steel castings are poured is at least 50°C abovethe liquidus temperature Further superheat is needed to allow for cooling

Table 11.1 Variation of liquidus temperature with carbon content for Fe-C alloys

Molten metal handling 145

Table 11.2 Depression of liquidus temperature caused by the presence of 0.01% of alloying elements

Example: a steel containing

0.06C, 1.0Si, 1.2Mn, 0.03P, 0.02S, 18Cr, 2.0Mo, 10.5Ni would have a liquidus temperature of

1532 – (8.0 + 6.0 + 0.90 + 0.50 + 27 + 4 + 42) = 1532 – 88.4 = 1444°C

The pouring temperature should be at least 1444 + 50 = 1494 ° say 1500°C

in the ladle during casting, which can be as high as 10°C per minute in highalumina lined ladles though much lower for KALTEK lined ladles

The liquidus temperature of a steel can be estimated from Tables 11.1 and11.2

Properties of silica sand for foundry use

Chemical purity

refractory the sand Loss on ignition 0.5% max Represents organic impurities

Acid demand value 6 ml max High acid demand adversely

Size distribution

The size distribution of the sand affects the quality of the castings Coarsegrained sands allow metal penetration into moulds and cores giving poorsurface finish to the castings Fine grained sands yield better surface finishbut need higher binder content and the low permeability may cause gasdefects in castings Most foundry sands fall within the following size range:

Grain fineness number 50–60 AFS Yields good surface finish at Average grain size 220–250 microns low binder levels

Fines content, below 2% max Allows low binder level to be

20 microns

Size spread 95% on 4 or 5 screens Gives good packing and

resistance to expansion defects Specific surface area 120–140 cm2/g Allows low binder levels





Sands and green sand 147

Grain shape

Grain shape is defined in terms of angularity and sphericity Sand grainsvary from well rounded to rounded, sub-rounded, sub-angular, angularand very angular Within each angularity band, grains may have high, medium

or low sphericity The angularity of sand is estimated by visual examinationwith a low power microscope and comparing with published charts(Fig 12.1)

Figure 12.1 Classification of grain shapes.

High sphericity

Medium sphericity

Low sphericity

Very angular Angular Sub-angular Sub-rounded Rounded Well rounded

The best foundry sands have grains which are rounded with medium tohigh sphericity giving good flowability and permeability with high strength

at low binder additions More angular and lower sphericity sands requirehigher binder additions, have lower packing density and poorer flowability.Acid demand

The chemical composition of the sand affects the acid demand value whichhas an important effect on the catalyst requirements of cold-setting acid-catalysed binders Sands containing alkaline minerals and particularlysignificant amounts of sea-shell, will absorb acid catalyst Sands with aciddemand values greater than about 6 ml require high acid catalyst levels,sands with acid demand greater than 10–15 ml are not suitable for acidcatalysed binder systems

Typical silica foundry sand properties

Chelford 60 Sand (a sand commonly used in the UK as a base for green sand

and for resin bonded moulds and cores)

148 Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook

Grain shape: rounded, medium sphericity

Bulk density, loose: 1490 kg/m3 (93 lb/ft3)

GF specific surface area: 140 cm2/g

Sieve grading of Chelford 60 sand

Safe handling of silica sand

Fine silica sand (below 5 microns) can give rise to respiratory troubles.Modern foundry sands are washed to remove the dangerous size fractionsand do not present a hazard as delivered It must be recognised, however,that certain foundry operations such as shot blasting, grinding of sand coveredcastings or sand reclamation can degrade the sand grains, producing a finequartz dust having particle size in the harmful range below 5 microns.Operators must be protected by the use of adequate ventilation and thewearing of suitable face masks

Sands and green sand 149

Segregation of sand

Segregation, causing variation of grain size, can occur during sand transport

or storage and can give rise to problems in the foundry The greatest likelihood

of segregation is within storage hoppers, but the use of correctly designedhoppers will alleviate the problem

1 Hoppers should have minimum cross-sectional area compared to height

2 The included angle of the discharge cone should be steep, 60–75°

3 The discharge aperture should be as large as possible

Measurement of sand properties

Acid demand value

Acid demand is the number of ml of 0.1 M HCl required to neutralise thealkali content of 50 g of sand

Weigh 50 g of dry sand into a 250 ml beaker

Add 50 ml of distilled water

Add 50 ml of standard 0.1 M hydrochloric acid by pipette

Stir for 5 minutes

Allow to stand for 1 hour

Table 12.1 Typical UK and German foundry sands

Note: Haltern 32, 33 and Frechen 32 are commonly used, high quality German sands.

German sieve gradings are based on ISO sieves.

The German sands have rounder grains and are distributed on fewer sieves than UK sands, they require significantly less binder to achieve the required core strength.

150 Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook

Titrate with a standard solution of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide to pH values

Thermal characteristics of silica sand

Silica sand has a number of disadvantages as a moulding or coremakingmaterial

It has a high thermal expansion rate (Fig 12.2) which can cause expansiondefects in castings, such as finning or veining and scabbing

It has a relatively low refractoriness (Table 12.2) which can cause sandburn-on, particularly with steel or heavy section iron castings

It is chemically reactive to certain alloys; for example, ferrous alloyscontaining manganese The oxides of Mn and Fe react with silica to formlow melting point silicates, leading to serious sand burn-on defects

Figure 12.2 Thermal expansion characteristics of zircon, chromite and olivine sands compared with silica sand (Courtesy CDC.)

Sands and green sand 151

Non-silica sands (Table 12.3)

Table 12.3 Properties of non-silica sands (compared with silica)

Zircon, ZrSiO4

Zircon sand has a high specific gravity (4.6) and high thermal conductivitywhich together cause castings to cool faster than silica sand The chillingeffect of zircon sand can be used to produce favourable thermal gradientsthat promote directional solidification giving sounder castings The thermalexpansion coefficient of zircon is very low (Fig 12.2) so that expansiondefects can be eliminated Zircon has higher refractoriness than silica,moreover it does not react with iron oxide, so sand burn-on defects can beavoided Zircon sand generally has a fine grading, with AFS number between

140 and 65 (average grain size 115–230 microns), the most frequently usedgrade is around AFS 100

Zircon is probably the most widely used of the non-silica sands It is usedwith chemical binders for high quality steel castings and for critical ironcastings such as hydraulic spool valves which contain complex cores, almosttotally enclosed by metal, making core removal after casting difficult Zirconhas low acid demand value and can be used with all chemical binder systems.The Cosworth casting process uses the low thermal expansion of zirconsand cores and moulds to cast dimensionally accurate castings The highcost of zircon sand makes reclamation necessary and thermal reclamation

of resin bonded moulds and cores is frequently practised

Table 12.2 Sintering points of silica sand

152 Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook

Zircon sands contain low levels of naturally occurring radioactive materials,such as uranium and thorium Any employer who undertakes work withzircon mineral products is required, by law, to restrict exposure of workers

to such naturally occurring contaminants so far as reasonably practical Theprimary requirement is to prevent the inhalation of zircon dust Suitableprecautions are set out in the UK in HSE Guidance Note EH55: Dust –general principles of protection Guidance on the possible hazards associatedwith the use, handling, processing, storage, transport or waste disposal ofsuch naturally occurring radioactive materials and the control measuresthat are recommended to minimise exposure should be obtained from thesupplier

Chromite, FeCr2O4

The high specific gravity (4.5) and high thermal conductivity of chromiteprovide a pronounced chilling effect Thermal expansion is low so expansiondefects are unlikely to occur Chromite sand has a glossy black appearance,

it has greater resistance to metal penetration than zircon in spite of itsgenerally coarser grading (typically AFS 70) It has somewhat higher aciddemand than other sands which entails greater additions of acid catalystwhen furane resin is used Apart from this the sand is compatible with allthe usual binder systems Chromite is generally used for steel casting toprovide chilling It is difficult to reclaim chromite sand since, if it becomescontaminated with silica, its refractoriness is seriously reduced

Green sand

The earliest method of bonding sand grains to form a sand mould was touse clay and water as a binder The moulds could be used in the ‘green’ orundried state (hence the term green sand moulding) or they could be baked

in a low temperature oven to dry and strengthen them to allow heavycastings to be made Nowadays, dried, clay bonded sand is little used,