Information contained herein does not necessarily reflect the policy or views of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry SETAC.. The book is the product of efforts initiated
Trang 1Coordinating Editor of SETAC Books
Joseph W Gorsuch Gorsuch Environmental Management Services, Inc.
Webster, New York, USA
Based on the SETAC North America Workshop onMercury Monitoring and Assessment
14 -17 September 2003Pensacola, Florida, USA
Edited byReed Harris • David P Krabbenhoft Robert Mason • Michael W Murray Robin Reash • Tamara Saltman
Indicators of Change
Ecosystem
Mercury Contamination
CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York 8892_C000.fm Page iii Monday, January 29, 2007 11:33 AM
Trang 2Published in collaboration with the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC)
1010 North 12th Avenue, Pensacola, Florida 32501 Telephone: (850) 469-1500 ; Fax: (850) 469-9778; Email: setac@setac.org Web site: www.setac.org
ISBN-10: 1-880611-86-4 (SETAC Press) ISBN-13: 978-1-58488-661-7 (SETAC Press)
© 2007 by the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) SETAC Press is an imprint of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry.
No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-8892-9 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-8892-7 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use Information contained herein does not necessarily reflect the policy or views of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Mention of commercial or noncommercial products and services does not imply endorsement or affiliation by the author or SETAC.
The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the U.S government or sponsoring organizations and an official endorsement should not be inferred.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any informa- tion storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ecosystem responses to mercury contamination : indicators of change / edited by Reed Harris … [et al.].
p cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p ).
ISBN 0-8493-8892-9 (alk paper)
1 Mercury Environmental aspects 2 Environmental indicators 3 Environmental monitoring I
Trang 3SETAC Publications
Books published by the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry(SETAC) provide in-depth reviews and critical appraisals on scientific subjectsrelevant to understanding the impacts of chemicals and technology on the envi-ronment The books explore topics reviewed and recommended by thePublications Advisory Council and approved by the SETAC North America,Latin America, or Asia/Pacific Board of Directors; the SETAC Europe Council;
or the SETAC World Council for their importance, timeliness, and contribution
to multidisciplinary approaches to solving environmental problems The sity and breadth of subjects covered in the series reflect the wide range of disci-plines encompassed by environmental toxicology, environmental chemistry, andhazard and risk assessment, and life-cycle assessment SETAC books attempt topresent the reader with authoritative coverage of the literature, as well as para-digms, methodologies, and controversies; research needs; and new develop-ments specific to the featured topics The books are generally peer reviewed forSETAC by acknowledged experts
diver-SETAC publications, which include Technical Issue Papers (TIPs), workshop
summaries, newsletter (SETAC Globe), and journals (Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry and Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management), are
useful to environmental scientists in research, research management, chemicalmanufacturing and regulation, risk assessment, and education, as well as to stu-dents considering or preparing for careers in these areas The publications pro-vide information for keeping abreast of recent developments in familiar subjectareas and for rapid introduction to principles and approaches in new subjectareas
SETAC recognizes and thanks the past coordinating editors of SETAC books:Andrew Green, International Zinc Association
Durham, North Carolina, USAC.G Ingersoll, Columbia Environmental Research Center
US Geological Survey, Columbia, Missouri, USAT.W La Point, Institute of Applied Sciences
University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USAB.T Walton, US Environmental Protection AgencyResearch Triangle Park, North Carolina, USAC.H Ward, Department of Environmental Sciences and EngineeringRice University, Houston, Texas, USA
8892_C000.fm Page v Monday, January 29, 2007 11:33 AM
Trang 4Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
About the Editors xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Reed Harris, David Krabbenhoft, Robert Mason, Michael W Murray, Robin Reash, and Tamara Saltman 1.1 Mercury Emissions and Deposition 3
1.2 Mercury Concentration Trends in Fish 4
1.3 Book Objectives 7
1.3.1 Establishing Baseline Conditions and Temporal Trends 8
1.3.2 Establishing Cause-Effect Relationships 9
1.3.3 Sampling Strategy 9
1.3.4 Monitoring Data and Modeling 9
References 10
Chapter 2 Airsheds and Watersheds 13
Charles T Driscoll, Michael Abbott, Russell Bullock, John Jansen, Dennis Leonard, Steven Lindberg, John Munthe, Nicola Pirrone, and Mark Nilles Abstract 13
2.1 Introduction 14
2.1.1 Objective 17
2.1.2 Limitations 18
2.1.2.1 Emissions of Mercury 18
2.1.2.2 Detection of Trends 18
2.1.3 Attribution of Causality 20
2.1.4 Overall Criteria for Selecting Monitoring Sites, Global and Regional Influence 20
2.2 Airsheds 22
2.2.1 Introduction 22
2.2.2 The Chemistry of Atmospheric Mercury 25
2.2.2.1 Dry Deposition to Terrestrial and Aquatic Receptors 25
2.2.2.2 Wet Scavenging by Precipitation Events 25
2.2.2.3 Atmospheric Residence Time 26
2.2.3 Measurements and Analytical Methods 26
2.2.4 Modeling and the Need for Co-location/Intensive Sites 27
2.2.5 Existing Atmospheric Mercury Monitoring Networks 27
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Trang 52.2.6 Air Quality Mercury Intensive Sites 32
2.2.7 Total Ecosystem Deposition 33
2.2.7.1 Snow Surveys 35
2.3 Watersheds 35
2.3.1 Introduction 35
2.3.2 Intensive Watershed Monitoring 38
2.3.3 Soil Surveys 41
2.3.3.1 Forest Floor Surveys 41
2.3.3.2 Surface Water Surveys 41
References 41
Chapter 3 Monitoring and Evaluating Trends in Sediment and Water Indicators 47
David Krabbenhoft, Daniel Engstrom, Cynthia Gilmour, Reed Harris, James Hurley, and Robert Mason Abstract 47
3.1 Introduction 48
3.1.1 Objectives 50
3.2 Sediment and Water Indicators 50
3.2.1 Criteria for Selecting Sediment and Water Indicators 50
3.3 Recommended Indicators 52
3.3.1 Sediment-Based Indicators 55
3.3.1.1 Total Hg Concentration in Sediment 55
3.3.1.2 MeHg Concentration in Sediment 57
3.3.1.3 Percent MeHg in Sediment 63
3.3.1.4 Instantaneous Methylation Rate 64
3.3.1.5 Sediment Hg Accumulation Rates in Dated Cores 65
3.3.2 Water-Based Indicators 69
3.3.2.1 Total Hg in Water 70
3.3.2.2 MeHg in Water 75
3.4 Monitoring Strategy 78
3.5 Ancillary Data 80
3.6 Anticipated Response Times 81
Acknowledgments 82
References 82
Chapter 4 Monitoring and Evaluating Trends in Methylmercury Accumulation in Aquatic Biota 87
James G Wiener, R.A Bodaly, Steven S Brown, Marc Lucotte, Michael C Newman, Donald B Porcella, Robin J Reash, and Edward B Swain Abstract 87
4.1 Introduction 88
4.2 Objectives 89
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Trang 64.3 Aquatic Biological Indicators 90
4.3.1 Criteria to Select Indicators 90
4.3.2 Candidate Aquatic Biological Indicators 91
4.3.2.1 Fish 92
4.3.2.2 Benthic Invertebrates 95
4.3.2.3 Zooplankton 97
4.3.2.4 Phytoplankton 98
4.3.2.5 Periphyton 99
4.3.3 Recommended Aquatic Biological Indicators 100
4.4 Monitoring and Trend Analysis 104
4.5 Ancillary Data 107
4.6 Interpretation of Trend-Monitoring Data 108
4.6.1 Sources of Variation and Potential Confounding Factors 108
4.6.2 Steps to Constrain Confounding Factors and Enhance Interpretation 110
Acknowledgments 113
References 113
Chapter 5 Wildlife Indicators 123
Marti F Wolfe, Thomas Atkeson, William Bowerman, Joanna Burger, David C Evers, Michael W Murray, and Edward Zillioux Abstract 123
5.1 Introduction 124
5.1.1 Objectives 124
5.2 Issues of Concern 127
5.2.1 Geographical and Habitat Differences 127
5.2.2 Methodological Issues 130
5.3 Host Factors 131
5.3.1 Bioavailability 132
5.3.2 Toxicokinetics and Toxicodynamics 132
5.4 Types of Bioindicators 133
5.4.1 Indicators of Exposure 133
5.4.2 Indicators of Effect 133
5.5 Candidate Bioindicator Species 134
5.5.1 Mammals 134
5.5.1.1 Mink (Mustela vison) 134
5.5.1.2 River Otter (Lontra canadensis) 134
5.5.1.3 Raccoon (Procyon lotor) 135
5.5.1.4 Bats 135
5.5.1.5 Marine Mammals 136
5.5.2 Birds 137
5.5.2.1 Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) 137
5.5.2.2 Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) 137
5.5.2.3 Common Loon (Gavia immer) 138
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Trang 75.5.2.4 Common Merganser (Mergus merganser) 138
5.5.2.5 Seabirds 139
5.5.2.6 Insectivorous Birds 141
5.5.3 Reptiles and Amphibians 142
5.5.3.1 Reptiles 142
5.5.3.2 Amphibians 143
5.5.4 Other Potential Indicators 146
5.5.4.1 Albatrosses 146
5.5.4.2 Hawks 146
5.5.5 Identification of Indicators through Development of Water Quality Criteria for Wildlife 146
5.6 Tissue and Other Samples 147
5.6.1 Hair 147
5.6.2 Feathers 148
5.6.3 Eggs 149
5.6.4 Organs 149
5.6.4.1 Blood 149
5.6.4.2 Brain 149
5.6.4.3 Liver 150
5.6.4.4 Muscle 150
5.6.4.5 Kidney 151
5.7 Physiological, Cellular, and Molecular Biomarkers 151
5.7.1 What Is in the Pipeline? Future and Promising Biomarkers 152
5.8 Elements of a Biomonitoring Framework 158
5.8.1 Monitoring Design Considerations 158
5.8.2 Trend Detection: The Florida Everglades Case Study 161
5.8.2.1 Retrospective Studies 162
5.8.2.2 Prospective Studies 162
5.8.3 Recommended Wildlife Indicators 163
Acknowledgments 165
References 166
Chapter 6 An Integrated Framework for Ecological Mercury Assessments 191
Tamara Saltman, Reed Harris, Michael W Murray, and Rob Reash 6.1 Introduction 191
6.2 Recurring Themes 192
6.2.1 Design of the Monitoring Network 193
6.2.1.1 Criteria for Selection of Indicators 195
6.2.2 Considerations for Sampling 196
6.2.2.1 Sampling Scale 199
6.2.2.2 Sampling Location 201
6.2.2.3 Sampling Frequency 202
6.2.2.4 Overall Duration of Sampling 202
6.2.3 Monitoring for Trends and Monitoring for Causality 203
6.2.4 Integration of Monitoring with Modeling Capabilities 203
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Trang 86.3 Complexities/Confounding Factors 205 6.4 Recommendations 205 References 206
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Trang 9This book proposes a framework for a national-scale program to monitor changes
in mercury concentrations in the environment following the reduction of atmosphericmercury emissions The book is the product of efforts initiated at a workshop held
in Pensacola, Florida, in September 2003, involving more than 30 experts in thefields of atmospheric mercury transport and deposition, mercury cycling in terrestrialand aquatic ecosystems, and mercury bioaccumulation in aquatic food webs andwildlife Participants represented government agencies, industry groups, universities,and nonprofit organizations
In many parts of North America, mercury concentrations in fish are high enough
to cause concern for people and wildlife that eat fish As a result, fish consumptionadvisories are common, and several states and the U.S federal government havepassed rules to reduce mercury emissions in the United States A carefully designedmonitoring program is needed to establish trends in mercury concentrations in theenvironment and to identify the influence of changes in mercury emissions on thesetrends The charges assigned to the workshop participants included 1) the develop-ment of a set of indicators to determine whether mercury concentrations in air, land,water, and biota are changing systematically with time; 2) guidance regarding amonitoring strategy to assess these trends; and 3) guidance regarding additionalmonitoring needed to determine whether observed changes in mercury concentra-tions are related to reductions in mercury emissions The resulting frameworkdescribed in this book reflects the consensus of the workshop participants thatmonitoring trends in mercury concentrations at a national scale is difficult butachievable, and monitoring should be started sooner rather than later
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Trang 10The authors and editors of this book wish to acknowledge the U.S EnvironmentalProtection Agency and the Electric Power Research Institute, who sponsored aSociety of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) workshop in Sep-tember 2003 in Pensacola, Florida More than 30 international experts gathered todiscuss and propose a framework for a national mercury monitoring program toevaluate the effectiveness of mercury emissions controls on mercury concentrations
in the environment This book and a companion journal publication (Mason et al.2005) are the products of the workshop and subsequent efforts
We also wish to thank the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry(SETAC), as well as Greg Schiefer, in particular, who did an excellent job inproviding the venue and organizational expertise for this project
Each of the contributions in this book has been peer-reviewed The opinionsexpressed in this book are those of the participants and may not reflect those of any
of their agencies, the funding agencies, or SETAC
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Trang 11About the Editors
Reed Harris is a principal engineer with TetraTech Inc and has more than 25 years of experience
in the environmental engineering field Since
1988, he has focused on studying the behavior ofmercury in the environment He has developed andapplied simulation models of mercury cycling andbioaccumulation in lakes, reservoirs, and the Flor-ida Everglades Reed is currently managing awhole ecosystem mercury addition experimentknown as the Mercury Experiment to AssessAtmospheric Loadings in Canada and the UnitedStates (METAALICUS) in Ontario, Canada, that
is examining the relationship between atmosphericmercury deposition and fish mercury concentrations
David Krabbenhoft, PhD, is a research
scientist with the U.S Geological Survey
He has general research interests in the
geochemistry and hydrogeology of
aquatic ecosystems Krabbenhoft began
working on environmental mercury
cycling, transformations, and fluxes in
aquatic ecosystems with the Mercury in
Temperate Lakes project in 1988; since
then, the topic has consumed his
profes-sional life In 1994, he established the
USGS Mercury Research Laboratory,
which includes a team of multidisciplinary
mercury investigators The laboratory is
a state-of-the-art analytical facility strictly
dedicated to the analysis of mercury, with low-level speciation In 1995, he initiatedthe multi-agency Aquatic Cycling of Mercury in the Everglades (ACME) project.More recently, Dave has been a Primary Investigator on the internationally conductedMETAALICUS project, which is a novel effort to examine the ecosystem-levelresponse to loading an entire watershed with mercury The Wisconsin Mercury ResearchTeam is currently active on projects from Alaska to Florida, and from California toNew England Since 1990, he has authored or co-authored more than 50 papers onmercury in the environment In 2006, Krabbenhoft served as the co-host for the 8thInternational Conference on Mercury as a Global Pollutant in Madison, Wisconsin
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Trang 12Robert P Mason, PhD, is a professor
in the Department of Marine Sciences atthe University of Connecticut Prior tothis recent appointment (from Septem-ber 2005), he was at the ChesapeakeBiological Laboratory, part of the Uni-versity of Maryland’s Center of Environ-mental Science, for 11 years Prior tothis, he received his PhD from the Uni-versity of Connecticut in 1991, and com-pleted a postdoctoral program at theRalph Parsons Laboratory at MIT He has been working on various aspects ofmercury biogeochemical cycling and bioaccumulation for the past 15 years and haspublished more than 70 papers, including numerous book chapters, on mercury inthe ocean, atmosphere, and in terrestrial ecosystems He has graduated 11 MS andPhD students during his career His work has been widely cited and has been used
to develop global mercury models and as the basis for setting local, regional, andnational mercury regulations
Michael W Murray, PhD, has been staff
sci-entist with the Great Lakes office of the National
Wildlife Federation since 1997 His work has
included scientific and policy research on a
number of diverse issues involving toxic
chem-icals and water quality, including mercury
sources, fate and transport, ecological and
human health effects, and control options;
assessments of water quality criteria and total
maximum daily load plans; and assessment of
fish consumption advisory development and
communication protocols Murray received MS
and PhD degrees in water chemistry from the
University of Wisconsin–Madison, where his
research addressed several aspects of the
envi-ronmental chemistry of polychlorinated
biphe-nyls He has authored or co-authored 6 peer-reviewed publications as well as ous reports, and has served on a number of conference planning and technicalcommittees, including the SETAC North America Technical Committee He is also
numer-an adjunct lecturer in Environmental Health Sciences at the University of Michignumer-an’sSchool of Public Health
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