improve-On an international scale, air quality issues being addressed include the concernfor indoor air quality in developing nations, the push for clean fuels worldwide, andthe search f
Trang 2Boca Raton London New York
7099_C000.fm Page iii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 3CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Griffin, Roger D.
Principles of air quality management / Roger D Griffin 2nd ed.
p cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-7099-X (alk paper)
1 Air quality management I Title
Trang 4Still dedicated to those who seek the Truth in all things,
and to Him Who is
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Trang 5Preface to the Second Edition
In the years since the first edition, we have seen new trends that this author did notthink possible when he began his environmental career in 1969 Today there are farfewer “smog alerts,” far fewer acute-health impacts, a far greater acceptance of cleanfuels and clean technologies, new engine systems, and a far greater understanding
of the sources of air emissions — both natural and man-made (Air quality ments are detailed in Chapter 10.)
improve-On an international scale, air quality issues being addressed include the concernfor indoor air quality in developing nations, the push for clean fuels worldwide, andthe search for newer, less polluting technologies for industry and control systems
It is worth noting that the stratospheric ozone layer over Antarctica — once predicted
as taking decades to improve — is increasing
If the estimated methane reserves of 400 million tcf (trillion cubic feet) ered in gas hydrates offshore can be accessed, the entire energy paradigm will shiftdramatically to clean fuels
discov-While our goal is the same as in our first edition — “giving the reader a firmgrasp of the principles that make up the broad field of air quality, its pollution andits management” — we are also celebrating the successes we have seen over thepast 40 years of a concerted effort directed toward clean air I would like to paytribute to the thousands who have spent myriad hours studying the atmosphere,devising technologies for clean fuels, clean engines and new control systems, inves-tigating health effects, reviewing historical information on climate, monitoring theair, preparing new management strategies, evaluating rules and regulations, andguiding the energies and industries of a modern society in new directions To you
we say thank you
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Trang 6Preface to the First Edition
In order to understand and manage our air quality resources, it is necessary to gain
a fundamental understanding of the principles that govern our ability to do so.From a local perspective, it may be considered desirable to install huge fans inorder to “blow the smog away,” but from a technological and scientific perspective
it is not feasible Likewise, from a regional or continental perspective, it is notacceptable to merely transfer air contaminants from one location to another one bydilution or “blowing it away.”
It is therefore the purpose of this book to give the reader a firm grasp of theprinciples that make up the broad field of air quality, its pollution, and its manage-ment Starting from the basic definitions of air and types of air pollution, we willfollow some of its history through the present century From that perspective, wewill look at the terms used: air quality, emissions, standards and classifications ofpollutants, and the production of secondary air pollution or photochemical smog
We next look at the health effects of the criteria air pollutants and those that areconsidered toxic or hazardous, and the effects of those contaminants on the humanbody Air pollutant damages to materials and vegetation are also reviewed Thestandards of acceptable air quality from the perspective of health impacts (chronicthrough emergency episode concentrations) and the techniques for measuring airquality are also reviewed
We approach the sources of air contaminants from an anthropogenic as well asgeogenic and biogenic perspective Between sources and receptors we look at howcontaminants are dispersed into the atmosphere from a local, regional, and globalperspective From these studies come an evaluation of the different models used tocalculate dispersion and the models used to predict ambient air quality
Federal laws and regulations as well as regional perspectives are summarizedand evaluated Control technologies that are available for both stationary sourcesand mobile sources are reviewed From these, we are able to evaluate the possiblemanagement options for limiting emissions and optimizing air pollutant strategies.Global air quality concerns, relative global emissions, and the alternative viewsare evaluated from the perspective of management options that may be available tosociety at large Of particular concern are those that may influence long-term airquality and health Finally, we will be looking at indoor air quality and the futuretrends in air quality management approaches, with their limitations
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Trang 7The Author
Roger D Griffin has more than 35 years of technical and management expertise
as a result of working on numerous environmental problems He has in-depthexperience in the design, evaluation, and testing of existing and planned combustion,air pollution, waste-to-energy, and hazardous waste sources and control technologies,combined with several years of advanced study of pollutant formation and dispersionfrom point and area sources
He has served as an expert witness in cases involving air toxics, contaminatedproperties, and remediation His master’s thesis was a field validation of the Gaussianplume dispersion model; the antecedent of EPA’s ISC and AERMOD dispersionmodels He has conducted remedial investigations at Superfund sites
Mr Griffin has worked with local government agencies throughout his career,including the County of Orange (California), and the South Coast Air QualityManagement District and its predecessor agencies He has held positions with theEcology Auto companies (director of Environmental Compliance), Converse Con-sultants (president and managing officer), CH2M-Hill, US Ecology, and KVB Engi-neering He has served in various capacities in his career: analyzing air samples fortrace pollutants; and as a field inspector, source testing specialist, permit processingengineer, project manager, and principal-in-charge
His projects have included working on secondary aluminum foundries; ing dispersion modeling and health risk assessments for permits to operate combinedcycle power systems; providing expert witness testimony for cases involving haz-ardous air pollutant emissions from a railroad tank car derailment and spill; per-forming extensive NOx testing and control programs on standard and alternativefuels; and providing on-site reviews and evaluations of operating European andUnited States incineration facilities, determining hazardous and toxic emission lev-els, emissions test methods, and best control technologies for toxic air contaminants
perform-Mr Griffin has worked on biomass fuel systems (rice hull burner and cow manurecombustion systems); performed alternative control technologies and process changeevaluations for effectiveness and costs to control odors
His other activities have included preparing hearing board cases, testifying as
an expert witness, supervising special studies, preparing emission inventories, andevaluating technological and economic impacts of New Source Review regulation
In addition, he has worked for industrial clients in the food preparation, metallurgical,chemical, petroleum, and power generation industries
In his earlier years, Mr Griffin supervised a source test team, was responsiblefor ambient air monitoring instrument calibrations, and advised on methods of airsampling analysis
He taught for 10 years at UCLA and UC–Irvine in their Environmental neering Extension program, teaching air quality and hazardous materials
Engi-7099_C000.fm Page xi Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 8management He has a master’s degree in engineering, a bachelor’s degree in istry, and is a registered chemical engineer in California.
chem-CONTRIBUTOR
Benjamin K Griffin practices law as an associate for Bois & Macdonald, anenvironmental law firm in Irvine, California In his practice, he has worked with theSouth Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD), the California Depart-ment of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), regional water quality control boards,the Los Angeles County Health and Hazardous Materials Division, and the County
of San Diego Department of Environmental Health He works on matters regardingCERCLA, RCRA, USTCF, and NPL listed sites He also has worked on claimsinvolving construction delay and inverse condemnation
He earned his J.D degree from Pepperdine University School of Law While inlaw school, Mr Griffin distinguished himself as a member of the Law School HonorBoard, serving as prosecutor During his second year of law school he was selected
as a Blackstone Fellow
Mr Griffin earned his B.A degree from The Citadel, with department honors,
in political science, international politics, and military affairs
Mr Griffin is a member of the State Bar of California, the U.S District Court,Central District of California, the American Bar Association, and the EnvironmentalLaw Section of the Orange County Bar Association
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Trang 9The following individuals are acknowledged for their contributions to this book and
to a greater understanding of the field of air quality management:
Dr Kathryn Kelly of Delta Toxicology, Inc
Michael Oard, Retired Meteorologist
Dr James Pitts of the University of California, Riverside
Dr Scott Samuelson of the University of California, Irvine
Dr Larry Vardiman of the Institute of Creation Research
A special acknowledgment is given to my wife, Dr Avice Marie Griffin, withoutwhose encouragement this book would not have been possible
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Trang 10Chapter 1 The Atmosphere and Its Contaminants 1
History of Air Pollution 1
Medieval Experiences 1
Industrialization 2
The Early 20th Century 2
The Great London Smog Disaster — December 1952 3
Late 20th and Early 21st Centuries 4
Terms and Definitions 4
Ambient Air 4
Criteria and Noncriteria Air Pollutants 5
Emissions 6
The Epidemiologic Model 7
Components of the Atmosphere 7
Physical Characteristics 8
Standard Conditions 9
Dew Point and Humidity 9
States of Air Pollutants 10
Pollutant Gas Features 10
Particulate Features 10
Contaminant Classifications 13
Primary Contaminants 13
Natural Emissions 14
Anthropogenic Emissions 14
Secondary Contaminants 14
Photochemical Smog 14
Air Quality Management Aspects of Photochemical Reactions 18
Chapter 2 Effects of Air Pollution 21
Time Effects and Sensitivities 21
Acute versus Chronic 21
Sensitive Populations 22
Criteria versus Noncriteria Air Pollutants 22
Criteria Air Pollutant Effects 23
Ozone 23
Sulfur Dioxide 24
Particulate Matter 26
Nitrogen Dioxide 26
Carbon Monoxide 27
Lead 27 7099_C000.fm Page xv Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 11Basic Principles of Toxicology 28
Sources of Health Effects Information 28
Dose–Response 29
Routes of Exposure 30
Inhalation 30
Response to Airborne Chemicals 30
The Lungs 31
The Central Nervous System 33
The Liver 33
The Kidneys 33
The Blood 33
The Reproductive System 33
The Cardiovascular System 34
The Skeletal System 34
Other Factors to Consider 34
Classes of Health Effects 35
Latency 36
Carcinogens 36
Mutagens 36
Teratogens 36
Effects on the Ecosystem 37
Effects on Vegetation 37
Plant Structure 37
Leaf Structure 37
Plant Injury 38
Acid Precipitation Effects 38
Pollutant Interactions 39
Economic Losses Caused by Vegetation Effects 39
Effects on Materials 39
Textiles 40
Building Materials 40
Metal Corrosion 41
Surface Coatings 42
Documents and Manuscripts 42
Rubber 42
Effects on Animals 43
Economic Losses 43
Chapter 3 Air Quality Standards and Monitoring 45
Standards 45
Acceptable Levels 46
Ambient Air Standards and Exposures 48
National 48
International Air Pollution Levels 50 7099_C000.fm Page xvi Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 12The Pollution Standard Index 51
Episodic Standards 52
Noncriteria Air Contaminant Standards 53
Occupational Derived Standards 53
Risk Assessment 54
The Risk Assessment Process 54
Hazard Identification 54
Dose–Response Assessment 55
Exposure Assessment 56
Risk Characterization 57
Uncertainties 57
Uncertainties in Toxicity 57
Uncertainties in Modeled Exposures 58
Screening Level Approaches 58
Carcinogen Hazards 58
Acceptable Air Quality 61
Monitoring Ambient Air Quality 61
Measurement Techniques 63
Cumulative Samplers 64
Continuous Analyzers 66
Chapter 4 Sources and Measurement Methodologies 69
Global Sources 70
Geogenic 70
Biogenic 70
Anthropogenic 71
Global Emissions 72
Air Pollution Sinks 74
Biological Sinks 74
Mechanical Sinks 74
Photochemical Sinks 75
Anthropogenic Air Emissions 76
Combustion 76
Fuels for Combustion Reactions 77
Coal 77
Liquid Fuels 79
Natural Gas 80
Efficiency and Emissions 81
Enthalpy Considerations 81
Air and Fuel Considerations 82
Combustion Chemistry 82
Air-to-Fuel Ratio Considerations 83
Combustion Systems 84 7099_C000.fm Page xvii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 13Evaporative Emissions 85
Evaporative Classes 87
Fugitive Emissions 88
Waste-Related Emissions 89
Landfills 89
Treatment-Related Emissions 91
Criteria Air Pollutant Formation 91
Source Inventories of Criteria Pollutants 92
Transportation 93
Fuel Combustion 93
Industrial Processes 94
Miscellaneous 95
Comparisons by Category 95
Hazardous Air Emissions 96
Quantification of Emissions 97
Source Testing 97
Continuous Emissions Monitoring 97
Carbon Balance 98
Composition 98
Emission Factors 98
Fugitives 99
Accuracy and Applicability 99
Chapter 5 Meteorology, Dispersion, and Modeling 101
Earth’s Energy and Radiation 101
Temperature and Global Air Movements 103
Global Circulation Cells 104
Jet Streams 105
Surface Effects 105
Other Forces 107
Patterns of High and Low Pressure 107
Friction 111
Horizontal and Vertical Air Patterns 111
Atmospheric Stability 111
Vertical Mixing 113
Horizontal Air Movements 113
Regional Air Pollution Meteorology 115
Inversions 115
Types of Inversions 115
Southern California — The Classic Example 117
Sea and Land Breezes 117
Other Dispersive Characteristics of the Atmosphere 119
Valley Effects 119
Chimney Effect 121
Vegetation Effects 121 7099_C000.fm Page xviii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 14Mountain Effects 122
Urban Heat Island Effects 122
Local Air Pollutant Dispersion 123
Point Sources and Plume Dispersion 123
Plume Rise 124
Plume Shape 125
Line Sources 127
Area Sources 128
Dispersion Modeling 128
Point-Source Modeling 129
Model Averaging Time 131
Plume Model Modifications 131
Line-Source Models 133
Area Modeling 133
Catastrophic Releases 133
Visibility 134
Mathematical Models 134
Planning Based 134
Receptor Based 136
Statistical Based 136
Chapter 6 Stationary-Source Control Approaches 139
Source Reduction 139
Management and Operational Changes 140
Fugitive Emissions 141
Product Storage Control 142
Materials Changes 144
Process-Optimizing Actions 145
Combustion Modifications 146
Fuels and Fuel Modification 151
Efficiency 151
Secondary Utilization 151
Fuel Switching 152
Fuel Blending 152
Fuel Cleaning 153
Additives 154
Fuel Modifications 154
Fuel Refining 156
Planning and Design 156
Geographic Location 156
Lower-Emission Systems 157
Greater Efficiency 158
Repowering 158
Emissions Characterization 158
Collection of Air Contaminants 159 7099_C000.fm Page xix Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 15Air Pollution Control Approaches 162
Gas Control Technologies 162
Absorbers 163
Adsorbers 164
Condensers 165
Thermal Oxidation 166
Particulate Control Technologies 167
Mechanical Collectors 168
Fabric Filters 169
Wet Scrubbers 171
Electrostatic Precipitators 172
Combination Units 173
Combustion Gas Control Technologies 174
Carbon Monoxide and Combustible Carbon Gases 174
Sulfur Dioxide 174
Oxides of Nitrogen 174
Selective Catalytic Reduction 176
Selective Noncatalytic Reduction 176
Oxidative Systems 177
Technology Comparisons 177
Control System Hardware Considerations 178
Chapter 7 Mobile Sources and Control Approaches 179
Engines and Air Pollutant Emissions 179
Pollutant Formation in Spark-Ignited Engines 181
Bulk Gas Pollutant–Formation Region 181
Surface Pollutant–Formation Region 182
Four-Stroke Pollutant Mechanisms 183
Lesser Sources of Carbon Gas Pollutant Emissions 183
Fuel Composition and Exhaust Emissions 185
Diesel Ignition Emission Characteristics 185
Pollutant Patterns 188
Hydrocarbon Emissions from Trip Cycles 188
Engine Thermodynamic Cycles 189
Hybrid Internal Combustion Engines 192
ICE Emission-Control Options 193
Effects of Operating Conditions 193
Spark Timing 193
Compression Ratio 193
Engine Speed 194
Engine Power 194
Engine Temperatures 195
Engine Cleanliness 195
Design Influences on ICEs 196
Two-Stage Combustion 197 7099_C000.fm Page xx Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 16External Control Approaches 198
Fuel Recapture Systems 198
Catalyst Systems 198
Diesel Particulate Controls 200
Fuel Change Effects 200
Diesel Fuels 204
Alternatives and the Future 205
Alternative Fuels 205
Alternative Mechanical Design and Efficiency Approaches 206
Alternative Power Systems 206
Chapter 8 Global Concerns 209
The Challenge 210
Data and Records 210
Intercontinental Pollutant Transport 211
The Data 212
Conclusions 213
Stratospheric Ozone 213
Radiation Primer 213
Stratospheric Ozone Formation 215
Early Observations 216
The Response 216
Other Sources and Variations 216
Lab Studies 217
Antarctic Studies 217
UV Data and Other Impacts 218
Alternatives 219
Acid Deposition 220
Water Plus Air 220
Water Plus Soils 220
Acid Rain Studies 221
The NAPAP Findings 222
Conclusions 224
Global Climate Change 224
Historical Perspective 225
Current Concerns 227
Measurements 231
Other Considerations 235
Feedbacks 235
Models 236
Recent Findings 237
Alternative Views 238
Increased Yields 239
Other Agricultural Effects 240 7099_C000.fm Page xxi Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 17Chapter 9 Air Quality Laws and Regulations 243
General Law Approaches 243
Public Nuisance 243
Private Nuisance 244
Recent Approaches 244
The Process of Regulation 245
Role of the Public in Rule Making 245
Environmental Justice 246
Levels of Authority 246
Federal Preemption 246
Federal Laws Affecting Air Quality Management 247
Pre-1990 Air Quality Acts and Effects 247
Implementation Plans 248
Monitoring and Limiting Emissions 248
Prevention of Significant Deterioration 248
Emergency Episodes 249
Hazardous Air Pollutants 250
Global Concerns 250
Federal Environmental Statutes 250
Toxic Substances Control Act 250
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 250
Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 251
The Clean Air Act 252
Title I — Attainment and Maintenance of the NAAQS 253
Ozone Nonattainment Requirements 254
Additional Ozone Strategies 256
Carbon Monoxide Nonattainment Provisions 258
PM10 Nonattainment Areas 259
PM2.5 Nonattainment Areas 260
Title II — Mobile Source Provisions 260
Light-Duty Vehicle Standards 260
Tailpipe Toxics 261
Emissions Control 261
Reformulated Gasoline Fuel Requirements 262
Phase II Reformulated Gasoline Performance Standards 262
California Low-Emission Vehicle II Regulations 263
Title III — Hazardous Air Pollutant Program 263
Toxic Release Inventory Program 264
HAP Sources 264
Area Sources: Urban Air Toxics Strategy 266
SIP Revisions 266
HAP Permits 266
Special Studies 266
Clean Air Mercury Rule 266 7099_C000.fm Page xxii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 18Prevention of Accidental Releases 267
Solid Waste Combustion 268
Title IV — Acid Deposition Program 268
SO2 Provisions — Clean Air Interstate Rule 2005 Effect 268
Market-Based Allowance Program 269
NOx Provisions — Budget Training Program 269
Other Provisions 270
Title V — Operating Permits 270
Permit Program Requirements 271
Fees 271
Other Provisions 272
Valid Permits 273
Title VI — Stratospheric Ozone Protection 273
Recapture and Recycling 274
Labeling 274
Title VII — Enforcement Provisions 274
Clean Air Crimes 274
Title VIII — Miscellaneous Provisions 275
Visibility and Source Receptor Concepts 275
Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission 275
International Treaties 276
Montreal Protocol 276
Kyoto Accords 276
The Influence of Nonregulatory Governmental Actions 277
Court Decisions 278
Chapter 10 Management, Trends, and Indoor Air Quality 279
Elements of Air Quality Management 280
Nonregulatory Air Quality Management Approaches 281
Trends 282
Trends in Emissions 282
Trends in the Extreme Ozone Area 283
Trends in Strategy 286
Fuels and Transportation 286
Small Sources 287
Governance 287
Hazardous Air Pollutants 288
Lifestyle Impacts 289
Stationary Sources 289
Natural Sources 290
The Outlook 290
Indoor Air Quality 291
Environmental Tobacco Smoke 294
Radon 295 7099_C000.fm Page xxiii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM
Trang 19Radon in Building Sources 297
Soil 297
Water 298
Building Materials 299
Measurement and Action Levels 299
House Characteristics and Radon Gas Entry 300
Mitigation 300
Other Indoor Air Contaminant Concerns 302
Public Buildings 304
Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries 305
List of Acronyms 307
Glossary 311
Bibliography 325 7099_C000.fm Page xxiv Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM